476

Chapter 15
The periodic
table

Inquiry questions
What is the periodic table?
How does the periodic table
arrange elements?
How do electrons affect the properties
PRE-TEST
of elements?

Chapter introduction
For hundreds of years, since the discovery
of elements, scientists have been trying to
classify them into groups based on how they
behave. The outcome of this is the periodic
table of elements. This chapter covers how
elements are arranged, the information that
can be determined from that arrangement and
the properties of particular groups of elements
in the periodic table. You will learn about Dmitri
Mendeleev, the scientist who established the
foundation for the modern-day periodic table.

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 477

Chapter map

The
periodic
divided table is the
into result of many
years of scientific
research and progress. 15.1

15.2

15.3
Groups
(vertical 15.4
columns)
Periods (horizontal
rows)

Electron
configuration
affects element
can also be properties.
divided into
blocks

Metals
Non-metals
Metalloids
Transition metals

Special groups of elements: Ionic bonding

• group 1 – alkali metals Covalent bonding
• group 2 – alkaline earth metals
• group 17 – halogens
• group 18 – noble gases

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478 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

15.1 Development of the periodic table

Learning goals
1 To describe the contribution of scientists to the arrangement of the elements
2 To outline how creativity and logical reasoning helped to develop the periodic table
3 To explain the significance of Mendeleev’s contribution to the periodic table

Throughout history the question of how best to organise chemical element

DOC
substance made
elements has intrigued scientists. In this section, we will summarise up of only one
type of atom
the attempts of six scientists and see the progress made over time in
WORKSHEET
VIDEO understanding the nature of elements.
Do we know
the properties
of all
elements?

Timeline of the periodic table

1789 1808

Antoine Lavoisier John Dalton

• In 1789, there were • Dalton was
thought to be 33 responsible for
elements (including developing early
light!). Lavoisier sorted atomic theory
these elements into and publishing
  gases, metals, non-metals and earths,   a table of relative atomic
constructing the first list of the known weights.
elements. • He allocated symbols to the 36
• His table of elements quickly became known elements. Figure 15.1 Dalton’s
outdated as new elements were element symbols
discovered.

1817

Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner

• Döbereiner noticed that known elements could
Alkali formers Salt formers
be arranged into groups of three by their
Li 7 Cl 35.5
similarities in appearance and reactions. He
Na 23 Br 80
called these groups triads (for example, lithium,
K 39 I 127
sodium, potassium). He found that when the
elements in a triad were placed in order of their ((39 + 7) ÷ 2 = 23 ) ((127 + 35.5) ÷ 2 = 81 )
atomic weight, the middle element had a mass
Figure 15.2 Two Döbereiner triads
which was the average of the other two.

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 Section 15.1  Development of the periodic table 479

1863

Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois

• De Chancourtois arranged known elements by increasing atomic weight.
• He wrapped his list around a cylinder which allowed sets of similar elements
to line up.
• De Chancourtois’ system showed repetition in the properties of elements at
certain, regular intervals.

1864

John Newlands
• Newlands listed the known
Li Be B C N O F NaMg Al Si P S Cl
elements in order of their
atomic weights into horizontal
rows, seven elements long.
• He stated that the eighth
Figure 15.3 Newland’s law of octaves. Every
element would have similar eighth element in the row has similar properties.
properties to the first element Track the lines and investigate what is similar
in the series. about each element.

1869

Dmitri Mendeleev
• By 1869, there were
56 known elements,
with a new element
being discovered
approximately once
every year.
• Mendeleev organised the elements
into a table with rows and columns,
grouping elements by properties and
in order of their atomic mass.
• Mendeleev left space in his table Figure 15.4 Mendeleev’s early attempt at arranging the known
for elements he thought would elements into a table
be discovered.

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480 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Quick check 15.1

1 Work out the relative atomic mass of element Y using Döbereiner’s method.

Element Relative atomic mass

X 24
Y
Z 58

2 How was Mendeleev’s attempt similar to those made by other scientists?

3 How did Mendeleev’s attempt differ from attempts made by other scientists?

Predicting future elements and made the predictions shown in Table 15.1 based on
the known properties of the elements above and below
Although Mendeleev’s approach was similar to that
it in the periodic table.
of other scientists, his arrangement did one thing that
the others had missed. Mendeleev realised that new
elements were consistently being discovered, and 14
concluded that he must allow for this when grouping Si
the elements together. He therefore left gaps in his table 28.09
Silicon
for elements that had yet to be discovered. You can
see in Figure 15.5 that he drew lines to show where he
thought a discovery would be made. His prediction of
new discoveries was remarkable; however, what makes
?
many people consider him as the father of modern
chemistry was that he also predicted the properties 50
of these unknown elements – years before they Sn
were discovered. 118.69
Tin

To explain how Mendeleev made his predictions we

will look at an example: he left a gap between silicon Figure 15.5 Mendeleev predicted that there would be an
(Si) and tin (Sn). He named this element eka-silicon element between silicon and tin.

Density of its Boiling point of its

Element Mass Density (g/cm3)
chloride (g/cm3) chloride (°C)
Eka-silicon 72 5.5 1.9 100
Table 15.1 Mendeleev’s predictions for the chemical properties of eka-silicon

How close was he? In 1886, the element germanium (Ge) was discovered which had the properties shown in Table 15.2.

Density of its Boiling point of its

Element Mass Density (g/cm3)
chloride (g/cm3) chloride (°C)
Germanium 73 5.3 1.88 86

Table 15.2 The chemical properties of germanium

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 Section 15.1  Development of the periodic table 481

Compare these properties of germanium with

Mendeleev’s predictions for eka-silicon. He was
incredibly close! Luckily, the discovery of germanium
occurred within Mendeleev’s lifetime and confirmed
his arrangement. Unbelievably, Mendeleev did not
receive a Nobel Prize for his efforts, but he does have
a chemical element named after him: element 101,
mendelevium (Md).
Figure 15.6 Mendelevium has the atomic number 101.

Explore! 15.1

Breaking his own rule

We have already discussed that Mendeleev arranged the
53 52
elements in order of their relative atomic mass, which meant
I Te
that elements with similar properties were placed in the same
126.90 127.60
groups. However, this did not work in all cases. Take the elements
tellurium (Te) and iodine (I) which, when arranged in order of Iodine Tellurium

mass, are in group 17 and group 16 respectively. You will need

Figure 15.7 Iodine and tellurium when arranged
to consult secondary sources to gather information to help you
by relative atomic mass
answer these questions.
1 On the modern-day periodic table, which groups do iodine and tellurium belong to?
2 Mendeleev broke his rule of ordering by relative atomic mass for iodine and tellurium. Why do you think this
was the case?
3 How is the periodic table arranged now to account for these exceptions?
4 Why didn’t Mendeleev order his periodic table in the way it is arranged now?

Figure 15.8 Pure iodine exists in both solid and gaseous forms

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482 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Practical 15.1

Predicting properties of elements

Aim:
To investigate the relationship between the position of an element in the periodic table and its density.

Useful formulas
mass (g)
Density (g/cm3) =
volume (cm3)
(actual value – predicted value)
Percentage difference = × 100
actual value
Materials
• sample elements
– carbon rod
– zinc
– tin
• 50 mL measuring cylinder
• graph paper
• balance
• ruler
• weigh boats (small container to hold sample elements)

Procedure

Part 1: Prepare the results table

1 Draw the table shown in the results section into your science journal.
2 Identify and label the independent variable and its independent variable groups in the table in terms of the
position of each element on the periodic table. You will need to refer to the periodic table (or alternatively,
an online version like ptable.com).
3 Identify and label the dependent variable in the table. (Hint: which property are you investigating?)

Part 2: Measure the mass of each sample element

1 Place a weigh boat onto the balance and zero the balance by pressing ‘tare’.
2 Place the first sample element on the empty weigh boat and record the mass in the table.
3 Remove the sample element.
4 Repeat steps 1–3 with the other sample elements.

Part 3: Measure the volume of each sample element

1 Half fill a 50 mL measuring cylinder with water and record the initial volume in cm3 (1 mL = 1 cm3).
2 Place the first sample element into the measuring cylinder gently and record the new volume in the table.
3 Remove the sample element by tipping the water out of the measuring cylinder.
4 Repeat steps 1–3 with the other sample elements.

Results

Calculate and graph the densities

1 Calculate the volume of each sample element in cm3 and record it in the results table.
2 Calculate the density of each sample element using the density formula above and record it in the results table.
3 Draw a scatter plot to analyse the relationship between the period number of each metal and its density.
continued…

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 Section 15.1  Development of the periodic table 483

…continued

4 Add a line of best fit to the graph, if possible. Note the type of line that fits best to reflect the relationship
between the two variables.

Independent
Dependent variable
variable
Position in Initial Final Actual
periodic volume in volume in Volume of Calculated density Percentage
Element
table Mass (g) measuring measuring element density (g/cm3) difference
sample
(group, cylinder cylinder (cm3) (g/cm3) (secondary (%)
period) (cm3) (cm3) data source)
Carbon
Zinc
Tin

Discussion
1 Describe the trend or pattern that is found when the line of best fit was applied to the graph. What type of
relationship was found?
2 Predict the density of germanium (row 4 of the periodic table) and lead (row 6) using your graph. Record in
your science journal.
3 Compare the actual densities for each element with its calculated densities.
4 Compare the actual densities for carbon, zinc and tin to the densities calculated mathematically by
calculating the percentage difference using the formula above.
5 Was the calculated density data reliable enough to base predictions on? Justify your response with data.
6 Research online to find the actual densities of germanium and lead (the ‘properties’ tab at ptable.com is a
good resource to use). Record the actual densities for each in your science journal.
7 Compare the actual densities for germanium and lead to the densities predicted mathematically by
calculating the percentage difference using the formula above.
8 Can reliable conclusions and predictions be drawn from the results? Justify your response with data.
9 Can you identify possible limitations of this method? Justify your answer using data if possible.
10 Suggest any changes that could be made to the method to improve the quality of the data in future
experiments. Justify your suggestions by explaining how each change will improve the data quality.

Conclusion
What can you conclude from this experiment about the position of an element on the periodic table and
its density?

Section 15.1 questions

Remembering
1 Name three scientists who attempted to organise elements.
2 Name the scientist who created the first version of the modern periodic table.
QUIZ
3 Recall the method most scientists used to arrange chemical elements.
4 Identify what modern-day arrangement of the elements Döbereiner’s triads were similar to.
5 Identify the group of elements that is missing from Mendeleev’s periodic table.

Understanding
6 Compare and contrast Newlands’ and Mendeleev’s arrangements.
7 Explain why de Chancourtois’ arrangement was superior to Döbereiner’s.

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484 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

8 Summarise how Mendeleev made his predictions surrounding the properties of elements which had yet to
be discovered.

Applying
9 Using Döbereiner’s law of triads, calculate the mass of the middle element.

Element Mass
A 12
B
C 34

Analysing
10 Analyse the reasons why Mendeleev’s periodic table was accepted.

Evaluating
11 Assess the reasons why there were multiple ways proposed throughout history to arrange chemical elements.
12 Deduce the properties of the middle element in the tables below.
a
Lithium Sodium Potassium
Mass 7 39
Melting 180 63
point (°C)

b
Silicon Germanium Tin
Mass 28 119
Melting 1414 232
point (°C)

c
Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Mass 35.5 127
Melting -101 114
point (°C)

13 Criticise the earlier arrangements of the chemical elements.

14 Determine why the modern periodic table has remained relatively unchanged since it was reordered by atomic
number instead of relative atomic mass.

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 Section 15.2  Structure of the periodic table 485

15.2 Structure of the periodic table

Learning goals
1 To describe the structure of the modern-day periodic table
2 To explain the organisation of the elements using their atomic number

The modern-day periodic table is a list of all the known of 1. Oganesson (Og), a synthetic element
DOC
elements in order of their atomic number. The atomic discovered by Russian scientists in 2002 and
number is the number of protons in an element. This officially named in 2016, is currently the last
WORKSHEET
makes hydrogen (H) the first element in the periodic element, with an atomic number of 118.
table as it has one proton and therefore an atomic number
Explore! 15.2

Naming the elements

Many elements on the periodic table WIDGET
Periodic table
have ‘weird’ symbols that do not
match their name. There are also
elements named after scientists.
For the following elements, research
why they have that name or symbol:
• sodium (Na)
• iron (Fe)
• curium (Cm)
group
• mendelevium (Md) the vertical
Figure 15.9 Oganesson is currently the last element on the columns in the
periodic table, with an atomic number of 118. • rutherfordium (Rf) periodic table

Groups of the periodic table

The periodic table is arranged into vertical columns called groups. There are 18 groups in total.
Groups 1 18

1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
Hydrogen Helium

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 Atomic number 79 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Au Symbol of element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

11 12 Relative atomic mass 197.0 13 14 15 16 17 18

Gold Name of element
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba 57–71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 Lanthanoids 178.5 181.0 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra 89–103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Actinoids
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 231.0 238.0
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

Figure 15.10 Groups are the vertical columns of the periodic table.
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486 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

1 Elements in the same group all have similar properties; for example, they react with the same chemicals in
H similar ways. This allows us to predict the properties of elements by looking at others in the same group.
1.008
Hydrogen

3 Quick check 15.2

Li
6.941
Lithium Barium (Ba) in group 2 reacts with oxygen (O) to form barium oxide, a metal oxide with the formula
11 BaO. Potassium (K) in group 1 reacts with oxygen (O) to form potassium oxide with the formula
Na K2O. An unknown element was reacted with oxygen. The product was a metal oxide with the
22.99
Sodium formula XO (X being the unknown element). In which group would you place the unknown element?
19 Explain why.
K
39.10
Potassium
Periods of the periodic table
37
Rb If groups are the vertical columns, then periods are the horizontal rows. There are period
85.47 the horizontal rows in
Rubidium seven periods in total. the periodic table
55 electron
Cs Make sure that you do not forget about hydrogen (H) and helium (He) – they are smallest subatomic
132.9 particle in an atom
Caesium the only elements that make up period 1. As you move across a period, the atomic arranged around the
nucleus in shells
87 number increases (that is, the number of protons increases), as does the number
Fr of electrons.
Francium

Figure 15.11 The group 1

metals all have similar
properties so behave in
similar ways.

Periods

1 2

1 H He
1.008 4.003
Hydrogen Helium

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 Atomic number 79 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Au Symbol of element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

11 12 Relative atomic mass 197.0 13 14 15 16 17 18

Gold Name of element
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba 57–71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6 132.9 137.3 Lanthanoids 178.5 181.0 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra 89–103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
7 Actinoids
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 231.0 238.0
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

Figure 15.12 Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table.

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 Section 15.2  Structure of the periodic table 487

This arrangement into groups and periods causes elements to have a specific position on the periodic table.
For example, carbon (C) is placed in group 14, period 2, and helium (He) is in group 18, period 1.

Quick check 15.3

1 Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

a Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table.
b Lithium is in period 1.
2 State the position (group and period) of the following elements in the periodic table.
a Copper (Cu) c Neon (Ne)
b Calcium (Ca) d Aluminium (Al)

Metals, non-metals and metalloids the exception is mercury (Hg), transition metals
the block of metals
The elements can be classified into three groups: metals, which is a liquid at room containing the elements
in groups 3 to 12 and
non-metals or metalloids (which share some properties temperature. in periods 4 to 7 in the
periodic table
of both metals and non-metals).
Transition metals
Metals The transition metals are a large block of metals
Metals make up the majority of the elements in the containing the elements from groups 3 to 12
periodic table. In fact, 91 of the 118 known elements are in periods 4 to 7. They are generally hard and
metals, and they sit on the left-hand side of the periodic dense. Iron, silver, copper and gold are important
table. Almost all the metals in the periodic table are solids; transition metals.

Advances in science 15.1

Killer asteroid killing cancer?

How can a metal found in the asteroid that may have killed the dinosaurs
help in our fight against cancer? Transition metals have been used in
medical treatments for decades now. The transition metal platinum has
been used for many years in the chemotherapy drug cisplatin. This has led
to scientists researching the potential applications of other transition metals
such as iridium for use in the medical industry.
Iridium is the world’s second densest metal. It is rarely found on
Earth, but has been brought to us from space via asteroids, including the Figure 15.13 Platinum is used in the
anti-cancer drug cisplatin, Pt(NH3)2Cl2.
giant asteroid whose impact is thought to have led to the extinction of
the dinosaurs.

Destroying cancer cells using iridium

Iridium can be used to kill cancer cells by filling them with a deadly version of oxygen. Oxygen in the form of
O2 is harmless and, of course, beneficial to cells. But when O2 is converted into a single oxygen atom (O), it is
poisonous and can actually kill cells. This can be done to treat cancer without harming healthy cells. The process
works by giving patients a drug which contains the iridium. In 2017, trials on a model tumour found that the
iridium drug had infused into every layer of the tumour. A visible laser shone on to the skin where the cancer is
located activates the drug, causing it to produce the harmful form of oxygen which can kill cancer cells. This is a
very promising breakthrough for cancer patients.

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488 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Quick check 15.4

1 The block of elements in the middle of the periodic table, containing groups 3 to 12 is called the
____________.
2 Identify which of the following is a transition metal.
sodium (Na), tungsten (W), europium (Eu), aluminium (Al)

Non-metals
Non-metals are located on the right-hand side of the
periodic table (except hydrogen). There are fewer non-
metals than metals, but their properties are much more
varied. They consist of one liquid – bromine (Br) – five
solids and 11 gases.

Figure 15.15 Arsenic, found in rock, is a metalloid.

Figure 15.14 A bottle of liquid bromine, the only liquid non-metal

Quick check 15.5
Metalloids
The elements located between the metals and non- 1 Recall the side of the periodic table where metals
are located.
metals, are called metalloids. These elements tend to
2 Select the correct word to complete this sentence:
look like metals, but behave
metalloids The name given to elements which behave like
elements in the periodic more like non-metals. For
table that are situated close metals and non-metals is ____________.
to the border between example, tellurium is shiny
metals and non-metals;
they share properties and and a fair conductor of
appearance characteristics
with both metals and electricity like a metal, but
non-metals
brittle like a non-metal.

Table 15.3 summarises the properties of metals and

non-metals.

Metals Non-metals
Shiny Dull
High density Low density
Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable Brittle
High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
Ductile

Table 15.3 Properties of metallic and non-metallic elements

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 Section 15.2  Structure of the periodic table 489

Section 15.2 questions

Remembering
1 Recall how many groups there are on the periodic table.
2 Name an element in:
QUIZ
a period 3
b group 15
c the transition metals.
3 Identify which period hydrogen and helium are in.

Understanding
4 Classify the following elements as either metals or non-metals.

Element Metal or non-metal

Oxygen (O)
Boron (B)
Aluminium (Al)
Iodine (I)
Nickel (Ni)

Applying
5 Identify the element that is in:
a period 4, group 6
b period 2, group 13
c period 5, group 18
d period 7, group 1
e period 6, group 15.

Analysing
6 Categorise the following elements as transition metals, metals or metalloids.

Element Category
Rubidium (Rb)
Arsenic (As)
Vanadium (V)

Evaluating
7 Explain why elements close to the ‘step ladder’ separating metals from non-metals are classified as metalloids.
8 Decide what happens to the number of protons as you move to the right across a period.
9 Determine the relationship of an element’s atomic number, number of electrons and its position in the
periodic table.

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490 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

15.3 Electron configurations of

the elements
Learning goals
1 To recall the electronic arrangement of some of the elements
2 To explain how the electronic arrangement of elements relates to their properties
3 To predict the properties of elements using the periodic table

Where are the electrons? the properties of elements. Electrons generally fill the
DOC
electron shell closest to the nucleus first. This is because
Previously, you may have learned about
it is the lowest energy state for an atom, also known as
WORKSHEET the atomic model, so you should be able
the ground state. Electrons, being negatively charged,
to recall that electrons are located in
are strongly attracted to the positively charged nucleus,
shells, and that they ‘orbit’ the centre of
which is why the closest shell is filled first. Each shell can
the atom, known as the nucleus. You should also know
only hold up to a specific number of electrons.
that the nucleus houses the protons and neutrons of
an element. You can work out how many electrons an Table 15.4 summarises how electron shell
houses the electrons which
element has by finding its atomic number or its position many electrons can be housed orbit the nucleus of an atom
on the periodic table. in each electron shell.

The way electrons arrange themselves around the

Maximum number of
nucleus of an atom is not random; they arrange Shell
electrons it can house
themselves in a very organised manner that affects
1st (lowest energy level) 2
2nd 8
–
– Electron
3rd 18
Neutron
Nucleus +++ – 4th (higher energy level) 32
+ Proton
Table 15.4 The number of electrons housed in each shell
–

Figure 15.16 A Bohr atomic model for lithium is a simplified Quick check 15.6
picture of an atom.
– 1 How do electrons arrange themselves in
an atom?
– – 3rd shell
2 Complete the sentence by picking the
– (max. 18 electrons)
correct words:
– –
Nucleus The electron shell closest to/furthest from the
– –
1st shell nucleus is the first/last to be filled.
–
(max. 2 electrons) 3 What is the maximum number of electrons which
– –
2nd shell can be housed in the following?
(max. 8 electrons) a First shell c Third shell
Figure 15.17 Diagram of how electrons arrange themselves in b Second shell d Fourth shell
shells around the nucleus of a sodium (Na) atom

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 Section 15.3  Electron configurations of the elements 491

Electron configurations of the elements situated in the centre of the atom and therefore are not
affected when particles bump into one another during
The electron configuration shows how the electrons for
chemical reactions. It is the electrons, and mainly the
a particular element are arranged.
outermost electrons, which are the most affected.
Magnesium (Mg) has an atomic number of 12, so it has
The outermost electrons in electron configuration
12 electrons. It has an electron configuration of 2,8,2. This the arrangement of an
an atom are called valence atom’s electrons in the shells
shows that there are two electrons in the first shell, eight around the nucleus
electrons. It is these electrons
in the second and two in the third. Figure 15.18 shows the valence electrons
in the outer shell that are the electrons in the outer
electron arrangement of a magnesium atom. As you can shell of an element
most affected when atoms
see from the diagram, shell 4 is empty, as magnesium does
bump into one another during
not have enough electrons for this shell to be occupied.
chemical reactions.
The sum of all the numbers in the electron configuration
should add up to the total number of electrons in that atom.

2 electrons –
–
(shell 1)
Valence
– – – B –
8 electrons electrons
– (shell 2)
–
– –
Mg 2 electrons
– – –
(shell 3)
– 2,3
– – Shell 4 is
empty Figure 15.19 Boron (B) has an electron configuration of 2,3. It
– therefore has three valence electrons (red).

2,8,2 The biggest influence on an element’s chemical and

Figure 15.18 The electron configuration of magnesium
physical properties is the number of electrons in the
outermost shell. This means that elements with the same
number of valence electrons are grouped together in
Quick check 15.7
the periodic table. For example, all elements in group 1
1 State the name given to atoms when they are at have one valence electron. Their electron configurations
their lowest energy level. all end in the number one. The last digit of group 17
2 State the number of electrons an element with an tells us that elements in this group have seven valence
electron configuration of 2,8,3 has. electrons. This handy trick works for all the elements up
3 State the atomic number of an element which has
to calcium (Ca).
18 electrons.
4 State the electron configuration of oxygen
We can also determine the period an element is in using
(8 electrons).
its electron configuration. For example, if an electron
configuration contains two numbers (as for lithium),
Electron configuration and then it is in period 2.
element properties
The way atoms react is largely determined by the
arrangement of their electrons. Protons and neutrons are

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492 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

– Valency and bonding ion

a charged version of an
– atom, formed from the loss
The number of valence (outer or gain of electrons
Li 2,1 Lithium
shell) electrons an atom cation
– a positively charged ion
possesses determines how it formed from the loss of
electrons
– will bond with other atoms.
anion
– – Metals, located on the left side a negatively charged ion
formed from the gain of
– of the periodic table, have electrons
– – fewer than four electrons in
Na 2,8,1 Sodium
– –
– their outer shell. Metals tend to want to lose electrons
– – and obtain a full, outer shell – this makes them stable.
When they lose electrons, they form positively charged
ions (known as cations) represented like this:
– – –
– – Na+ or Mg2+
– A single + sign indicates the atom has lost one electron,
– – – –
K 2,8,8,1 Potassium while a number before the + sign indicates how many
– – – –
– electrons were lost.
– –
– – Non-metals, located on the right-hand side of the periodic
table, have outer shells that are almost full. To achieve
Figure 15.20 These elements in group 1 have one valence stability, they tend to gain electrons – forming negatively
electron. charged ions (known as anions) represented like this:

S2– and F–
Quick check 15.8
A single − sign indicates the atom has gained one
1 Recall what the reactivity of a chemical element is electron, while a number before the – sign indicates how
determined by.
many electrons were gained.
2 State the group that the element with the
electron configuration 2,8 belongs to, and why. Cations and anions are collectively known as ions; that
3 State the period that the element with the is, a charged version of an atom.
electron configuration 2,8,4 belongs to, and why.
An atom’s willingness to lose or gain electrons is an
indicator of its chemical reactivity.

– –
– –
– –
– –
– – –
O O2–
– – –

– –
2,8
– –
2,6
Figure 15.21 An oxygen atom has an electron configuration of 2,6. It tends to gain two electrons to achieve a stable outer shell,
giving it an electron configuration of 2,8. It now has a net negative charge and is represented as O2–.

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 Section 15.3  Electron configurations of the elements 493

charged anions, and this attraction is known as an

Explore! 15.3
ionic bond. Strong electrostatic forces bond the ions
The Large Hadron Collider together into an ionic compound, which tend to take on a
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is used for much lattice structure. The structure of a sodium chloride lattice
international scientific research and is based at CERN is shown in Figure 15.23. Because the bond is strong, ionic
on the border of Switzerland and France. The LHC compounds tend to have high melting temperatures. For
is a particle accelerator that can make particles, example, table salt (NaCl) has a melting point of 801°C.
like protons and ions, collide at close to the speed
of light! Na atom Na+ ion
Use your preferred search engine to find the (net charge +1)
–11
Large Hadron Collider page on the CERN website. –10 +1
–1
+11 +11 +1
Explore the facts and figures for answers to the –1 –1
+1
following questions. –1
–1 +1 +1
1 How long is the ring in which particles are Electron transfer –1
–18 +1
accelerated at the LHC? –17 –1 –1
+17 +17 +1
2 What is a hadron? –1
+1
3 What is one of the main goals of the LHC?
Cl atom –
Cl ion Solid sodium chloride, NaCl
(net charge –1) (net charge 0)
Ionic bonding
Figure 15.23 A sodium atom donates an electron to a chlorine
When an electron is donated from one atom to another, atom (left). The sodium atom now forms a positively charged
positive and negative ions are formed (Figure 15.22). cation and the chlorine atom forms a negatively charged anion.
These ions are attracted to each other and bond into an ionic
Positively charged cations are attracted to negatively
compound (right). A crystal lattice configuration is a common
way to represent an ionic compound.

Covalent bonding
When two non-metals bond together, they both require
some electrons to complete their outer shell but neither
is prepared to lose theirs! Instead, these two atoms
can share electrons, forming a molecule which is held
together by a strong covalent bond.

Sodium atom, Na Chloride atom, Cl

An oxygen (O) atom has an ionic bond
a strong bond between an
electron configuration of 2,6. anion and a cation, formed
via electron donation
As we have seen previously,
covalent bond
it requires two electrons a strong bond, almost always
– between two non-metals
to complete its outer shell. which share electrons to
+ Instead of receiving electrons form a molecule

from a metal atom and forming an ionic bond, it can

instead share electrons with another non-metal, such as
hydrogen, and form a covalent bond. It will need to do
this with two hydrogen atoms to have a stable outer shell.
Refer to the molecule in Figure 15.24: each hydrogen
atom has a full outer shell (two electrons) and the oxygen
atom has a full outer shell (eight electrons). Each bond in
+ –
Sodium ion, Na Chloride ion, Cl a covalent molecule is actually a shared pair of electrons.
Figure 15.22 Ionic bonding in sodium chloride

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494 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Quick check 15.9

H O H O
1 Recall what valence electrons are.
2 Define these terms in your own words:
a ion
H
H b cation
H O c anion.
2H + O H 3 Explain why certain elements are likely to form
cations while others tend to form anions.
Figure 15.24 Two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom
covalently bond to form a water molecule. The lines between
4 Does covalent bonding involve donation or
the atoms represent covalent bonds. sharing of electrons?

Section 15.3 questions

Remembering
1 Identify the missing information in the following table:

QUIZ Electron shell Maximum number of electrons housed

1st
32
3rd
8

2 Recall why the shell closest to the nucleus filled with electrons first.
3 For the following electronic configurations:
• Name the element.
• Identify the number of valence electrons.
• Identify the period and group they are in.
a 2,8,1 b 1 c 2,7 d 2,8,8
4 Determine the electronic configurations for the following elements.
a Helium (He) b Beryllium (Be) c Phosphorous (P) d Potassium (K)

Understanding
5 The electronic configuration of carbon is 2,4. List all the information you can determine from this.
6 Describe and explain the order in which electrons fill shells around the nucleus.
7 Compare the number of protons and electrons in an uncharged atom with those in an ion.

Applying
8 Apply your knowledge of electron arrangement to explain what is significant about the electronic configurations
of group 18 elements.
9 Chlorine has the electronic configuration 2,8,7. Construct a diagram showing the arrangement of the electrons
within a chlorine atom.

Analysing
10 Distinguish between valence electrons and other electrons of an atom.
11 Compare how an oxygen atom would participate in an ionic bond versus a covalent bond.

Evaluating
12 Helium, a group 18 element, has the electronic configuration 2, meaning that it has two valence electrons.
Explain why helium is not located next to hydrogen with the other group 2 elements, which also have two
valence electrons.
13 Explain why atoms in the same group have similar properties.

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 Section 15.4  Special groups of elements 495

15.4 Special groups of elements

Learning goals
1 To recall the properties of elements in specific groups
2 To compare the reactivities of groups in the periodic table
3 To relate elements in the same groups’ electronic configuration to their common properties

When scientists were trying to organise the elements,

why they are put in the same group
their aim was to group together elements that had DOC
as they seem to be so different. They
similar properties. In the modern-day periodic table,
are grouped this way because they
elements with similar properties are grouped together in WORKSHEET
all have the same number of valence
columns, which are known as groups.
electrons, so they usually bond with
other substances in the same way. You can also see in
You have already read about the differing behaviours
Figure 15.25 that the elements in group 14 look similar.
of metals and non-metals, so you may be wondering

Carbon (C) Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) Tin (Sn) Lead (Pb)
Figure 15.25 Group 14 elements

3 The alkali metals (group 1) This reaction can be written alkali metals
Li as the following word and group 1 metals that form an
alkaline solution when they
6.941 The alkali metals (group 1) make up the react with water
Lithium balanced chemical equations.
11 first group of the periodic table. We will
Na focus on the first three elements of this sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
22.99
Sodium group as these are the elements that you
19 may have access to in the classroom; you 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
K will find out why later on in the section.
39.10
Potassium

37 Physical properties
Rb Unlike most metals you will have come
85.47
Rubidium across, lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and
55
potassium (K) are soft and can be cut with
Cs
132.9 a knife. When they are cut open, they
Caesium
have a shiny appearance on the inside
87
Fr compared to their dull outer surface. This
is because their outer surfaces readily
Francium Figure 15.27 A piece of sodium metal which has
react with oxygen in the air, forming dull been cut by a knife. It is shiny on the inside and
Figure 15.26
metal oxides. dull on the outside.
The elements in
group 1 are also
known as the
alkali metals.

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496 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

When placed in water, lithium, sodium and potassium

Did you know? 4.1
will float as they are less dense than water. Again, this is
unlike most other metals you may have encountered. Do not touch group 1!
At school, all the group 1 metals will be stored in
Reactivity bottles of oil and teachers will never touch them with
All group 1 metals are highly reactive due to their one their hands. They are so reactive that even coming
valence electron. Elements are stable when they have a into contact with water vapour in the air and sweat
full outer shell of electrons, so group 1 metals are more on your hands, can cause them to react violently!
than happy to react with other substances and give up
their one valence electron. When they do this they all
form ions with a +1 charge.

–
– –
–

– Na –

–
– –
–

Figure 15.28 The one valence electron makes group 1

elements highly reactive.

The reactivity of group 1 metals actually increases down

the group. This is because it becomes easier to remove
Figure 15.29 What happens when sodium reacts with
the outer electron as the atom gets bigger and the outer water? Here, the hydrogen gas produced has ignited.
shell gets further away from the nucleus.

Alkali metals are most famous for their reaction with

Quick check 15.10
water and this is where they get their name. All group 1
metals react violently with water, producing hydrogen 1 Why are group 1 metals also known as alkali metals?
gas and an alkaline solution. 2 Why do alkali metals form +1 ions when they
react with other substances?
The word and balanced chemical equations show what 3 Why are alkali metals shiny on the inside and dull
happens when sodium reacts with water. on the outside?
4 True or false?
sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen a Alkali metals are denser than water so
they float.
b Alkali metals are hard.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
5 Other than an alkali, what other product is
formed when alkali metals react with water?
You can use these equations to predict what will happen
6 Which metal is the most reactive in group 1?
when other alkali metals react with water.

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 Section 15.4  Special groups of elements 497

Practical 15.2: Teacher demonstration

Investigating the reactivity of group 1 metals

Aim
To determine the order of reactivity of two group 1 metals.

Materials
• lithium and sodium metals (Note: If any of these metals are unavailable, there are many online videos which
show these reactions.)
• universal indicator
• large, thick-walled glass bowl
• scalpel
• white tile
• blotting paper
• tweezers
• safety screen
• disposable gloves

Procedure
1 Write a prediction in your science journal stating which you think will be the most reactive metal out of
lithium and sodium.
2 Copy the results table below.
3 The teacher is to half fill the large glass bowl with water and add a few drops of universal indicator until the
colour can be seen throughout the liquid.
4 Using the tweezers, the teacher is to take a piece of lithium from its bottle and place it on the white tile.
5 The teacher is to use the scalpel to cut off a small piece of the metal and observe the appearance of the
metal on the inner and outer surfaces.
6 Making sure that all students are behind the safety screen, the teacher is to add the small piece of metal to
the water. Record your observations.
7 Repeat for sodium.

Results

Appearance More or less Observations

Hard or soft
when cut dense than water during reaction
Lithium
Sodium

Risk assessment
1 Explain the decision to use tweezers rather than hands to pick up the metals.
2 Why was a safety screen necessary when conducting this experiment?

Discussion
1 Describe the purpose of the universal indicator.
2 Describe any patterns, trends or relationships in your results.
3 Describe how you determined the reactivity of each of the metals investigated.
4 How did you determine whether the metals were more or less dense than water?
5 Explain how the reactivity of the metals changes as you go down group 1.

Conclusion
1 Propose a conclusion regarding the varying levels of reactivity of the group 1 metals based on this experiment.
2 Support your statement by using the data you gathered.

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 498 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE
1
H
1.008
Hydrogen

3 4 The alkaline earth metals – 5 6 7 8

Li Be (group 2) – B C N O
6.941 9.012 Atomic number 79 – – 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00
Lithium Beryllium Au –
Symbol of element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen F

11 12 Physical properties Relative atomic mass 197.0 13 14 15 16

Gold – of element
Name Mg –
Na Mg The naturally occurring alkaline earth Al Si P S
22.99 24.31 – 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06
Sodium Magnesium metals tend to be shiny and silvery – – Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur C
–
19 20 21white, and
22 they have 24
23 low melting 25
and 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu – Zn Ga Ge As Se
39.10 40.08 boiling47.87
44.96 points. Magnesium
50.94 52.00and calcium
54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Figure 15.30 Group
Cobalt Nickel 2 elements
Copper have
Zinc two valence
Gallium electrons.
Germanium Arsenic Selenium B
are abundant in Earth’s crust and are
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
Rb Sr Yconsidered
Zr essential
Nb to allMo living organisms.
Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 101.1 with102.9
a charge 106.4
of +2 as107.9
they lose112.4 114.8
two electrons 118.7
when 121.8 127.6
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium

55 56
Reactivity 72 73 74 75 76 they 77 react. 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
Cs Ba All group
57–71 Hf2 elements
Ta are W reactive,Re but not Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po
132.9 137.3 Lanthanoids 178.5 181.0 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0
Caesium Barium as reactive
Hafniumas group
Tantalum1 elements.
Tungsten This is Osmium JustIridium
Rhenium like group 1 metals,
Platinum Goldalkaline earth Thallium
Mercury metals also react Bismuth
Lead Polonium A

87 88 because104 they have 105two valence

106 electrons
107 108 with109 oxygen to 110form metal
111 oxides
112 and with113 group 11417 115 116
Fr Ra 89–103 Rf Db Sg
compared to one in group 1 elements. Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
elements to form metal salts. Table 15.5 shows the Nh Fl Mc Lv
Actinoids
Francium Radium Group 2 elements therefore form ions
Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium names andDarmstadtium
Meitnerium formulasRoentgenium
of the products
Copernicium formed.
Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Te

57 58 59 Product 61 when62reacting63
60 formed 64
Product 65
formed 66
from 67
reacting 68 69
Element
La Ce Nd withPm
Pr oxygenSm Eu Gd Tb Dy
with chlorine Ho Er Tm
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9
Beryllium (Be) Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium
Beryllium oxide
Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Beryllium
Gadolinium chloride
Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Y

BeO BeCl2
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium oxide Magnesium chloride
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md
232.0 MgO 238.0
231.0 MgCl2
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium N
Calcium (Ca) Calcium oxide Calcium chloride
CaO CaCl2

Table 15.5 The products formed when group 2 metals react with oxygen and chlorine

Quick check 15.11

1 List four of the alkaline earth metals.

2 What charge do alkaline earth metals tend to form when they react?

Practical 15.3: Teacher demonstration

Investigating the reactivity of group 2 metals

Be careful
Aim
To reduce risk of skin burn
To investigate the relationship between the position of a group 2
from acid:
element in the periodic table and its reactivity with acid.
• ensure appropriate
Background personal protective
equipment is worn
Prior understanding
• safety glasses are to be
Metals in group 2 of the periodic table are less reactive than those
worn at all times
in group 1. This investigation will determine the order of reactivity
• wash hands after practical.
within group 2.
Recommended: Use a spreadsheet to analyse the data for this
experiment and calculate uncertainty.
continued…

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 Section 15.4  Special groups of elements 499

…continued

Useful formula
Change in volume (mL) = final volume (mL) − initial volume (mL)
mean change in volume (mL)
Rate of gas produced (mL/min) =
mean reaction time (min)

Materials
• 3 similarly sized samples of calcium (approximately • rubber stopper with glass tubing inserted through
5 mm in diameter) to fit the test tube
• 3 similarly sized samples of magnesium • rubber stopper to fit the 100 mL measuring cylinder
(approximately 5 mm in diameter) • 4 mm plastic tubing (minimum 30 cm)
• 30 mL hydrochloric acid (1 M) • 1 large bowl
• 6 test tubes • retort stand, bosshead and clamp
• 10 mL measuring cylinder • stopwatch
• 100 mL measuring cylinder • tweezers
• test-tube holder

Planning
1 Develop a hypothesis by predicting how a change in the periodic position of the group 2 metal will affect
its reactivity.
2 Identify as many controlled variables as possible and describe how these will be managed to prevent any
from affecting the measurements.
3 Complete a risk assessment for this investigation, describing how any risks will be controlled.

Procedure

Part 1: Prepare the results table

Draw the table shown in the results section into your science journal.

Part 2: Measure the reactivity of the first metal sample

1 The teacher is to fill the large bowl with tap water.
2 Fill the 100 mL measuring cylinder with tap water.
3 Stopper the measuring cylinder using the rubber stopper (a complete seal will not be possible).
4 Invert the measuring cylinder into the large bowl and clamp it in place with the stopper below the water line,
as shown in Figure 15.31.
5 Remove the stopper from the measuring cylinder.
6 Attach the plastic tubing to the glass tubing on the rubber stopper. Place beside the measuring cylinder for
easy access later.
7 Measure 5 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid and pour into a test tube.
8 Using tweezers, add a piece of the first metal sample into the acid in the test tube. Be careful not to splash
the acid.
9 Attach the rubber stopper with the plastic tubing to the test tube and position the end of the plastic tubing
underneath the measuring cylinder so the gas can be collected.
10 Measure the initial volume of the gas in the inverted measuring cylinder and record in your table. Start
the stopwatch.
11 After five minutes, record the final volume of the gas in the inverted measuring cylinder in your table.
12 Remove the rubber stopper and tubing from the test tube. Store the test tube and contents in the
test-tube holder.
continued…

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500 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

…continued
13 Repeat steps 7–12 with the other two samples of the first metal.
14 Remove the measuring cylinder and refill with tap water.
Measuring
cylinder

Delivery
tube
Bung
Water

Hydrochloric
acid
Retort stand
Water and clamp
Test tube

Metal piece Large bowl

Figure 15.31 Diagram of experimental set-up

15 Stopper the measuring cylinder using the rubber stopper.

16 Invert the measuring cylinder into the large bowl and clamp it in place with the stopper below the water line.
17 Remove the stopper from the measuring cylinder.
Part 3: Measure the reactivity of second metal sample
Repeat steps 7–12 with the other second metal samples.
Results
Calculate the mean reaction rate for each metal sample
1 Calculate the change in gas volume for each trial and record it in the results table.
2 Calculate the rate of gas production in mL/min for each metal and record it in the results table.
3 Draw a scatter plot to analyse the relationship between the period number of each metal and its reaction rate.
4 Calculate the uncertainty for each metal.
5 Optional: format the graph and insert a copy below the results table into your science journal.
Uncertainty
Mean rate of rate of gas
of gas production:
Measurements Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
production max – min
(mL/min)
2

Period 2 Initial volume (mL)

Magnesium Final volume (mL)
Change in volume (mL)
Rate of gas production
(mL/min)
Period 3 Initial volume (mL)
Calcium Final volume (mL)
Change in volume (mL)
Rate of gas production
(mL/min)
continued…

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 Section 15.4  Special groups of elements 501

…continued

Discussion
1 Compare the mean rate of gas production for the different elements.
2 Predict the trend in reactivity for group 2 elements that have been positioned lower on the periodic table.
3 Draw a conclusion as to how increasing the period position of different elements might affect the rate of gas
production in reactions with acids.
4 Compare the uncertainties for each element. Which were the best results? Justify your answer with data.
5 Critique your management of the controlled variables. Were they managed properly to ensure they did not
change and affect the measurements?
6 Could these results be used to predict reactivity trends in other groups on the periodic table? Explain
your reasoning.
7 Suggest any changes that could be made to the method to improve the quality of the data in future
experiments. Justify your suggestions by explaining how each change will improve the data quality.

Conclusion
1 Propose a valid conclusion that can be drawn from these results.
2 Justify this conclusion using data from your results.
2
3 State whether or not your hypothesis is supported.
He
4.003
Helium

7 8 9 The
10 halogens (group 17) –
N O F Ne
Group 17 elements are also known as
4.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
trogen Oxygen Fluorine the
Neon halogens. –
– –
15 16 17 18
P S Cl Ar
Physical properties – –
0.97 32.06 35.45 39.95 –
sphorus Sulfur Chlorine At room
Argon temperature, fluorine and
33 34 35 chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid
36
As Se Br Kr
and iodine is a solid. The halogens are
– Cl –
4.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
used as bleaching agents and can kill
rsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
bacteria. This is why chlorine is added to – –
51 52 53 54
the water in public pools!
Sb Te I Xe –
21.8 127.6 126.9 131.3 – –
imony Tellurium Iodine Reactivity
Xenon

83 84 85 86
All group 17 elements have seven valence –
Bi Po At Rn
electrons. When they react with other
09.0 – –
smuth Polonium Astatine substances,
Radon they gain an electron to make
115 116 117 a full outer shell of eight electrons. This
118 Figure 15.32 Group 17 elements have seven valence electrons.
Mc Lv Ts Og
means that they form ions with a charge
of –1.
covium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson

As shown in Table 15.6, the reactivity electron. This is the opposite of halogens
group 17 elements (e.g.
68 69 70 of group 17 elements decreases as you
71 group 1. chlorine and iodine)
Er Tm Yb Lumove down the group. This is because
67.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
as the size of the atom increases down They all also form molecules that are made up of two
bium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
the group, it is harder for it to gain an atoms – so we call them diatomic, for example, Br2.

100 101 102 103

Fm Md No Lr
rmium Mendelevium ISBN
Nobelium Lawrencium
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502 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Halogen Formula State at 25˚C Colour Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) Reactivity

Fluorine F2 Gas Pale yellow −220 −188

Reactivity increases up the group

Chlorine Cl2 Gas Pale green −101 −35

Bromine Br2 Liquid Brown −7.2 58.8

Iodine I2 Solid Purple 114 184

Table 15.6 Some properties of the halogens

Quick check 15.12

1 Name three elements in group 17.

2 Give the charge of a group 17 ion.
3 State one physical or chemical trend that can be
observed going down group 17.

The noble gases (group 18)

Figure 15.33 Neon is used in fluorescent signs.
noble gases Group 18 elements are also
group 18 elements (e.g.
neon and krypton) known as the noble gases.
–
– –
Physical properties –
The noble gases tend to be colourless, odourless and
non-flammable. Their applications include neon signs, – Ne –
medical imaging and radiotherapy to treat cancer.
–
– –
Reactivity
–
Unlike the other groups we have discussed, noble gases
Figure 15.34 Group 18 elements all have eight valence
are extremely unreactive. They were once called inert electrons and therefore a full outer shell.
gases because it was thought that they did not react
with anything.
Quick check 15.13

1 Name three elements in group 18.

2 Why don’t noble gases form ions?

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 Section 15.4  Special groups of elements 503

Explore! 15.4

The Hindenburg disaster

The Hindenburg airship could travel from Europe to North and South America in half the time of the fastest ocean
liner. The airship was filled with hydrogen rather than helium due to export restrictions that the USA imposed
against Nazi Germany.
In 1937, while trying to land in New Jersey, USA, the Hindenburg caught fire and burst into flames. It was
completely destroyed. Out of 97 people on board, 35 were killed.
1 What was the problem with using hydrogen gas in the Hindenburg airship?
2 Why would helium have been a safer alternative?
3 Why is helium able to be used to fill airships?
4 Helium is heavier than hydrogen and therefore provides less lift. Why is this a problem for airship designers?

Figure 15.35 The Hindenburg airship was a revolution Figure 15.36 The Hindenburg bursting into flames on arrival
in travel. in New Jersey, USA

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504 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Section 15.4 questions

Remembering
1 Identify the group number of the following:
a alkaline earth metals c noble gases
QUIZ
b halogens d alkali metals.
2 Recall what happens to the reactivity as you move down group 1.
3 State whether these statements are true or false.
a All halogens are gases.
b All alkali metals form hydrogen when they react with water.
c Noble gases do not form ions.
d Alkaline earth metals form ions with a +2 charge.
e The general formula of a halogen molecule is X2.
4 State how many valence electrons each of the following groups has:
a alkali metals
b alkaline earth metals
c halogens
d noble gases.
5 A new element is discovered. It is shown to form an ion with a charge of +2. Identify the group it should
belong to.

Understanding
6 Explain why group 2 elements are less reactive than group 1.
7 Helium does not have eight valence electrons. Explain why it is still classified as a noble gas.
8 Explain why alkali metals are stored in oil or even sealed in inert gases.

Applying
9 Predict the products of the following reactions:
a potassium and water
b magnesium and chlorine
c calcium and oxygen
d sodium and fluorine.

Analysing
10 Analyse the properties of the halogens in Table 15.6. Astatine (At) is also a group 17 element placed below
iodine. Use Table 15.6 to predict some properties of astatine.
11 Classify the following elements as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens or noble gases:
a magnesium
b argon
c sodium
d potassium
e iodine.
12 Compare and contrast the properties and reactions of group 1 and 2 elements.

Evaluating
13 Deduce why group 18 was not present in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
14 Would you expect strontium to be, chemically, more similar to calcium or rubidium? Justify your choice.

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 Chapter 15  CHAPTER REVIEW 505

Chapter review
Chapter checklist
You can download this checklist from the Interactive Textbook to complete it.

Success criteria Check

15.1 I can outline the development of the periodic table.

e.g. Discuss some of the changes that occurred in the arrangement of the SCORCHER

periodic table over the years.

15.2 I can describe the structure of the periodic table in terms of groups
and periods.
e.g. Determine which group and period of the periodic table that carbon is in.
15.2, 15.4 I can recall some of the properties of different elements and groups in
the periodic table.
e.g. Contrast the properties of group 1 and group 17 elements.
15.3 I can determine the electron configuration of different elements.
e.g. Magnesium has an atomic number of 12. Determine its electron
configuration.
15.3 I am able to describe how electron configuration is linked to an element.
e.g. Explain how the number of valence electrons affect an element’s reactivity.
15.3 I can describe the different types of bonding that elements can undergo.
e.g. Contrast ionic and covalent bonding.
15.4 I can describe the properties of special groups of elements.
e.g. Contrast halogens and noble gases.

Reflections
1 What connections come to mind when you think about the periodic table of elements in your everyday life?
2 What new concepts have extended your thinking about elements and the periodic table?
3 What information did you find challenging or confusing?

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506 Chapter 15  THE PERIODIC TABLE

Data questions
Magnesium and calcium are group 2 alkaline earth metals and can be taken as general health supplements to aid
regulation of bodily functions including muscle function and bone development. A scientist is testing the claim
from eight different supplement brands that their magnesium and calcium tablets contain 200 mg of each element.
Each supplement was analysed and the amount of magnesium or calcium present in each tablet is presented in
Figure 15.37.

Mg/Ca content in supplement samples

220
200
180
Mass of element (mg)

160
140
120 Mg
100 Ca
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Brand number
Figure 15.37 Mass of magnesium or calcium found in eight commercial supplement samples

1 Identify all samples that had less than the advertised 200 mg of magnesium.
2 Brand 3 advertised that the magnesium content was 200 mg ±10%. Calculate the minimum amount of
magnesium that could be present in this advertised sample.
3 Use your answer to Question 2 to determine whether the analysed brand 3 has a magnesium content within the
advertised range.
4 Brand 5 is being investigated for false advertising with its claim that ‘we have a more accurate calcium content
than (brand 1)’. Explore this statement and draw conclusions about its accuracy.
5 A spokesperson for Brand 6 has stated that ‘the calcium content is more difficult to maintain as it is a more
reactive metal than magnesium’. Contrast the magnesium and calcium content in brand 6. Does this explanation
match the data presented in Figure 15.37?
6 Identify the general trend between the mass of magnesium and the mass of calcium in a brand’s supplements.
7 The 200 mg magnesium supplements are deemed to be falsely advertised if the content is found to be below
180 mg. Compare the data for the eight samples. Which of the brands have been falsely advertised?
8 A magnesium content of over 220 mg would also be considered misleading advertising. Use the data to justify
that no brand is providing misleading information in this regard.
9 Brand 7 has released a new series of magnesium and calcium supplements containing 250 mg of magnesium or
calcium. Use your response to Question 5 to predict whether the samples of these products would contain more
magnesium or calcium.

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 STEM activity:  CREATING COMPOSITE MATERIALS 507

STEM activity: Creating composite materials

Background information Glass fibre- Steel-
  reinforced reinforced
Materials engineers develop and test new materials.
concrete (GFRC) concrete
‘Composite materials’ are made by combining two or
more materials, usually those with different properties. Strength    
The materials do not blend with one another. Benefits compared    
to concrete
Temperature    
Figure 15.38 Mud bricks variance
are a composite of
mud and straw. Mud is
2 As a group, decide on a purpose for creating
strong if you compress a new material for manufacture. Research the
it, but breaks when you important properties and features the new
bend it. Straw is strong
composite material will require.
if you pull on it, but is
easily crumpled. Mud Design and sustainability
bricks combine the
two materials to create 3 List the ratios of each component material used in
better building blocks the composite, and the method of manufacturing
that hold shape when and testing your composite material.
squeezed of bent.
4 Design the best possible method to create your
new composite material.
Design brief: Create a composite material for the 5 Discuss the sustainability of your material, and its
purpose of building a specific product. environmental impact. Your new material must
have a positive environmental impact and be
Suggested materials sustainable to manufacture.
• web browser • ice block sticks Create
• scissors • paper 6 Manufacture the composite material in the various
• ruler • cardboard ratios as set out in the design phase and allow it to
• coins • elastic bands set if required.
• paper towels • string or yarn 7 Test your material by applying forces to your
• tape • other materials, where material. Record the type of force.
• PVA glue possible
Evaluate and modify
Research and feasibility 8 Evaluate the original material capabilities
compared to the new material. Discuss and explain
1 Research the two composite materials: glass fibre-
the difference.
reinforced concrete (GFRC) and steel-reinforced
9 What are the maximum forces that could be
concrete. Copy and complete the table above and
applied to each ratio? Explain the effect of the
add other properties you believe are important.
ratios of the single materials when used as a
a What are the differences and what are the
composite material.
benefits of one material over the other?
10 Suggest ways to improve the composite material.
b How would the discovery of each material change
Should another material be added? Should the
the way we use concrete?
ratios of the component materials be altered?
11 Predict how the composite material might behave
if it was constructed differently but with the
same materials.

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