1.

1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics). It
is one. of the primary engineering sciences that have important applications in many engineering
disciplines. Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the number of fluid engineering
applications is enormous: breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes,
ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a
few. When you think about it, almost everything on this planet either is a fluid or moves within
or near a fluid.

But, What is a Fluid?

What is the difference between a solid and a fluid? We have a general, vague idea of the
difference. A solid is “hard” and not easily deformed, whereas a fluid is “soft” and is easily
deformed (we can readily move through the air). Although quite descriptive, these casual
observations of the differences between solids and fluids are not very satisfactory from a
scientific or engineering point of view.

 
 Showing the molecular difference between solids, liquids, and gases:

A closer look at the molecular structure of materials reveals that matter that we commonly think
of as a solid (steel, concrete, etc.) has densely spaced molecules with large intermolecular
cohesive forces that allow the solid to maintain its shape, and to not be easily deformed.

However, for a matter that we normally think of as a liquid (water, oil, etc.), the molecules are
spaced farther apart, the intermolecular forces are smaller than for solids, and the molecules have
more freedom of movement. Thus, liquids can be easily deformed (but not easily compressed)
and can be poured into containers or forced through a tube.

Gases (air, oxygen, etc.) have even greater molecular spacing and freedom of motion with
negligible cohesive intermolecular forces and as a consequence are easily deformed (and
compressed) and will completely fill the volume of any container in which they are placed.

Both liquids and gases are fluids.

Although the differences between solids and fluids can be explained qualitatively on the basis of
molecular structure, a more specific distinction is based on how they deform under the action of
an external load.

"Specifically, a fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted on by

shearing stress of any magnitude."

Deformation of a solid and a fluid exposed to an applied force

Shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a tangential force acts on a surface as
shown by the figure in the margin. When common solids such as steel or other metals are acted
on by a shearing stress, they will initially deform (usually a very small deformation), but they
will not continuously deform (flow). However, common fluids such as water, oil, and air satisfy
the definition of a fluid—that is, they will flow when acted on by shearing stress. Some
materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste, and so on, are not easily classified since they
will behave as a solid if the applied shearing stress is small, but if the stress exceeds some critical
value, the substance will flow. 
1.2 Common Conversions and Constants

Let start first with some conversion multipliers that may commonly use:

Some Conversion Multipliers

Force 1 lb 4.448 N
Energy 1 ft-lb 1.3558 J
Dynamic Viscosity 1 lb-sec/ft 47.88 Pa-s
Kinematic Viscosity 1 ft2/sec 0.093 m2/s
Mass 1 slug 14.59 kg
Length 1 ft 0.3048 m
Volume 1000 liter 1 m3
Important Constants
g = 9.81 m/s2 (SI) ; 
Acceleration due to gravity
g = 32.2 ft/s2  (English)
Specific Gravity of Water SG = 1.0
Specific Gravity of Mercury SG = 13.6
Specific Gravity of Sea Water SG = 1.03
Specific Gravity of Oil SG = 0.8
Density of Water  ρ=1000 kg/m3
Density of Standard Air ρ=1.23 kg/m3
P = 101.325 kPa

P = 760 mm head of mercury(Hg)

Standard Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level
P = 10.30 m head of water(H2O)

P = 14.7 psi
1.4 Basic Fluid Properties

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

 identify the fundamental properties of fluids that are essential for a given situation;
 compute the necessary values for a given property of the fluid.

Assuming the fluid to be a continuum, we will now define some important physical properties
that are used to describe it.

Density

The density ρ

(rho) or Mass density refers to the mass of the fluid that is contained in a unit of volume.
Mathematically,

ρ=mass of fluid(kg)/volume of fluid(m3)

ρ=mV

(kg/m3)

*Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Specific Weight or Unit Weight

The specific weight g (gamma) or Weight density of a fluid is its weight per unit volume,

γ=weight of fluid(N)/volume of fluid(m3)

γ=W/V (N/m3)

but, W = m*g; Weight = (mass) * (grav. accel)

then, γ=m×g/V

and remember ρ=m/V

∴γ=p∗g

* Unit Weight of Water = 9810 N/m3

Specific Gravity

The specific gravity SG of a substance is a dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio of
its density or specific weight to that of some other substance that is taken as a “standard.”

Water at atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa and a temperature of 4oC is taken as the standard for
liquid (standard air for gases). Thus,

SG=ρ/ρW=γ/γW

The density of water for this case is ρ

w = 1000 kg/m3, and its specific weight is 9.81 kN/m3. So, for example, if an oil has a density of ρ

oil = 880 kg/m3, then its specific gravity will be So = 0.880.

ρW= 1000kg/m3 γW=9.81 kN/m3

γW=9810 N/m3 γW=62.4 lb/ft3

Specific Volume
The specific volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid.

v=Volume of fluid/mass of fluid = V / m = 1 / ρ

(m3/kg)

Ideal Gas Law

In this text we will consider every gas to behave as an ideal gas.* Such a gas is assumed to have
enough separation between its molecules so that the molecules have no attraction to one another.

Also, the gas must not be near the point of condensation into either a liquid or a solid state. From
experiments, mostly performed with air, it has been shown that ideal gases behave according to
the ideal gas law. It can be expressed as,

P=ρRT

Here, P is the absolute pressure, or force per unit area, referenced from a perfect vacuum, R is
the density of the gas, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Typical values of
R for various gases. For example, for air, R = 286.9 J/(kg-K), where 1 J (joule) = 1 N-m.

Sample Computation:

1.) A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 m3. Find its (a) Weight,
W, (b) unit weight γ

, (c) mass density, ρ

, (d) specific gravity, SG.

Solution:

Given will be all directly substituted to the discussed formula suited for each question. 

a.) W = m*g

       W = (1200 kg)(9.81 m/s2)

       W = 11772 N or 11.722 kN

b.) γ=W/V
       γ=11.722kN/0.952m3

        γ=12.366kNm3

c.) ρ=m/V

        ρ=1200kg/0.952m3

       ρ=1260.5kgm3

d.) SG=ρ/ρW

      SG=1260.5kgm31000kgm3

       SG=1.26

2.) If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m3/kg, what is its specific weight?

Solution:

Specific weight is another term for Unit Weight. But we will be commonly using the term "Unit
Weight" in this course.

We can't think of a formula (from the discussed above) that will accommodate the given and the
required property at the same time.

This will be not direct as example number 1 but at first, try to find available fluid property
relationships using the given.

v=1ρ, v is given so we can get a value for ρ.

ρ=1v=10.7848m3kg

ρ=1.2742kgm3

Do we have a direct formula for unit weight and density?

Remember, γ=WV
, but W=m*g, thus γ=m×g/V, but ρ=mV, ∴γ=p∗g 

γ=ρ∗g=(1.2742kgm3)(9.81ms2)

γ=12.5Nm3

3.) A lead cube has a total mass of 80 kg. What is the length of its side? The specific gravity of
lead is 11.3

Solution:

length? , with given mass  and SG.   Can you think of a relationship for the three given values?

SG=ρ/ρW,
more likely we will use this instead of γ/γW, because the given is in
mass and not in weight.

SG is given, ρW

is standard at 1000 kg/m3, then we can find a value of ρ.

But what is ρ? 

ρ=m/V, mass is given but the Volume, is it given?

Somehow! Length is the required, and to get the volume of a cube, V=L3.

Therefore,

SG=ρ/ρW=mV/ρW

, substituting the given and V=L3

11.3=80kgL31000kgm3

L = 0.192 m

1.5 Viscosity
 

Viscosity in a much simpler way is how thick(lapot) or thin(labnaw) a fluid is. Honey has a
higher viscosity compared to water.

Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity

Referring to Figure below, consider two large, parallel plates a small distance "y" apart, the space
between the plates being filled with fluid.

To keep the upper plate moving at a constant velocity "U", it is found that a constant force
"F" must be applied. Thus there must exist a viscous interaction between plate and fluid,
manifested as a drag on the former and a shear force on the latter.

The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will move at velocity "U", and the
fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have velocity zero. If distance "y" and velocity "U" are
not too great, the velocity profile will be a straight line.

In the late 19th century, Isaac Newton proposed that the shear stress (τ or F/A) in the fluid is
directly proportional to the shear strain rate or velocity gradient (U/y). This is often called as
Newton's Law of Viscosity, and it can be written as:
 (Shear Stress) τ U/y (Velocity Gradient) 

but from the figure (by similar triangle) U/y=dV/dy,

thus,                                                                   τ∝dV/dy or    τ=k⋅/dV/dy

  

where the constant of proportionality "k" is called as dynamic or absolute viscosity, denoted as μ

(mu). 

∴τ=μ⋅dV/dy or F/A=μ ⋅ dV/dy or FA=μ⋅U/y

, (this is what we will be using commonly)

where:

τ= shear stress in lb/ft2 or Pa

μ= absolute or dynamic viscosity in lb-sec/ft2 (poise) or Pa-sec

y = distance between the plates in ft or m

U = velocity in ft/s or m/s  (We use U instead of V, because  V is already used in our first
discussion for volume)

Kinematic Viscosity
It is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the of the fluid (μ), to its mass density (ρ). 

This is denoted by ν, (nu). ν=μ/ρ, [ ft /s (stoke) or m /s]

2 2

Note:

1 poise = 0.1 Pa-sec

1 stoke = 0.0001 m2/s

  

Example problems:

1.) Using the figure below. If the fluid is glycerin at 20oC ( μ

= 1.5 Pa-sec) and the width between plates is 6 mm, what shear stress (in Pa) is required to move
the upper plate at 5.5 m/s?

Solution: 

Τ or FA =?
Μ = 1.5 Pa-sec 

U = 5.5 m/s

y =6 mm = 0.006 m

Using the formula:  F/A=μ⋅U/y

τ=1.5Pa ⋅ sec ⋅ 5.5ms/0.006m

τ=1375Pa

1.6 Surface Tension and Capillarity

 

A liquid maintains its form because its molecules are attracted to one another by cohesion. It is
this force that enables liquids to resist tensile stress and thereby creates surface tension in the
liquid. On the other hand, if liquid molecules are attracted to those of a different substance, the
force of attraction is known as adhesion, and this force, along with that of cohesion, gives rise to
capillarity.

Surface Tension
The phenomenon of surface tension can be explained by visualizing the cohesive forces acting
on two molecules (or particles) in a liquid, shown in the figure below.

The molecule located deep within the liquid has the same cohesive forces acting on it by all the
surrounding molecules. Consequently, there is no resultant force acting on it.
However, the molecule located on the surface of the liquid has cohesive forces that come only
from molecules that are next to it on the surface and from those below it. This will produce a net
resultant downward force, and the effect of all such forces will produce a contraction of the
surface.

In other words, the resultant cohesive force attempts to pull downward on the surface.

To separate the molecules at the surface requires a tensile force. We call this tensile force per
unit length in any direction along the surface is the surface tension, σ

(sigma).

 It has units of N/m, and for any liquid, its value depends primarily upon the temperature.
 The higher the temperature, the more thermal agitation occurs, and so the surface tension
becomes smaller.

Capillarity (Capillary Action)

Capillarity is the behavior of the fluid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall of a fluid in a capillary
is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion and
adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel.

 If the force of a liquid’s adhesion to the molecules of the surface of its container is greater than
the force of cohesion between the liquid’s molecules, then the liquid is referred to as a wetting
liquid. In this case, the meniscus or surface of the liquid, such as water in a narrow glass
container, will be concave. (Fig.a)
 If the adhesive force is less than the cohesive force, as in the case of mercury, then the liquid is
called a nonwetting liquid. The meniscus forms a convex surface. (Fig,b)

 
Derivation of Formula of Capillary Action in a Capillary Tube:

∑F=0;↑=↓

      (Surface Tension) x (Contact Perimeter) = (Weight of fluid)                                            

σ⋅cos(θ)⋅Πd=γ⋅(Πd^2/4)⋅h

h=4σ⋅cosθ/γd

Where:
h = capillary rise or depression, (m)

d = diameter of the tube, (m)

γ= unit weight of the fluid (N/m3)

σ= surface tension (N/m)

θ= wetting angle of liquid

2.1 Pressure- 2
Fusion art workshops.jpg

Intended Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

 To understand the characteristics of pressure in a given situation.

 To compute the pressure under various circumstances.

In general, fluids can exert both normal and shear forces on their surfaces of contact.
However, if the fluid is at rest relative to the surface, then the viscosity of the fluid will have no
shearing effect on the surface.

Instead, the only force the fluid exerts is a normal force, and the effect of this force is
called pressure.

From a physical point of view, the pressure of a fluid on the surface is the result of the
impulses exerted by vibrating fluid molecules as they contact and bounce off the surface.

Pressure
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. If force is
distributed uniformly into the area, we can say:

P=Force/Area=F/A , (N/m^2 or Pascal "Pa")

 We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of
pressure in solids is normal stress.
 Pascal’s Law.
 In the 17th century, the French mathematician Blaise Pascal was able to show that the
intensity of the pressure acting at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions.

 Other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar and
standard atmosphere.

1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa

Absolute and Gage Pressure

If a fluid such as air were removed from its container, a vacuum would exist and the
pressure within the container would be zero. This is commonly referred to as zero absolute
pressure.

Any pressure that is measured above this value is referred to as the absolute pressure,
Pabs. For example, standard atmospheric pressure is the absolute pressure that is measured at
sea level and at a temperature of 15°C. Its value is

Pabs= 101.3 kPa

Any pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure is called the gage
pressure, Pg, because gages are often used to measure pressure relative to the atmospheric
pressure.

The absolute pressure and the gage pressure are therefore related by:

Pabs = Patm + Pg

Realize that the gage pressure can either be positive or negative.

For example, if the absolute pressure is Pabs = 301.3 kPa, then the gage pressure becomes

Pg = 301.3 kPa - 101.3 kPa = 200 kPa.

Likewise, if the absolute pressure is Pabs = 51.3 kPa, then the gage pressure is

Pg = 51.3 kPa - 101.3 kPa = -50 kPa

(a negative value producing a suction, since it is below atmospheric pressure)

In this text we will always measure the gage pressure relative to standard atmospheric
pressure; however, for greater accuracy the local atmospheric pressure should be used, and from
that the local gage pressure can be determined. Also, unless otherwise stated, all pressures
reported in the text and in the problems will be considered as gage pressures. If absolute pressure
is intended, it will be specifically stated or denoted as, for example, 5 Pa (abs.).
2.2 Static Pressure Variation-2

Pressure Variation

The difference in pressure between any two points at different levels in a liquid is given by:

p2−p1=γ(h2−h1)

when γ

= unit weight of the liquid and h2 — h1

= difference in elevation.

If point 1 is in the free surface of the liquid and h is positive downward, the above equation
becomes:

p=γh(gage)

These equations are applicable as long as y is constant (or varies so slightly with h as to cause no
significant error in the result).
 

Pressure below Layers of Diffirent Liquids:

pbottom=∑(γh)+pair

pbottom=γ1h1+γ2h2+γ3h3+pair

Pressure head

Pressure head h represents the height of a column of homogeneous fluid that will produce a
given intensity of pressure.

Solving equation p=γh

, for h, we obtain

h=pγ

 
For example, if the gage pressure is 50 kPa, then the pressure heads for water (γw=9.81kNm3)
and mercury (γHg=133kNm3)are,

hw=pγw=50×103Nm29.81×103Nm3=5.1m

hHg=pγHg=50×103Nm2133×103Nm3=0.376m
2.3 Sample Problems-2

Sample Problems

1.) What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use SG=1.03 for salt water.

Solution: P = ? (if not mentioned to be absolute pressure, treat "PRESSURE" to be gage

pressure)

P=γh

P=(S.G.saltwater⋅γw)(h)

P=(9.81kNm3×1.03)(12.5m)

P=126.3kNm2orkPa

2.) Find the absolute pressure at a depth of 5 m below the surface of a liquid with SG = 0.85. The
barometer reading on the surface is 1.5 bar.

Solution:

Pabs=? ,     (Pabs = Pgage + Patm)

h = 5 m,    (height needed in calculation of Pgage)

Patm = 1.5 bar,    (the key word is "barometer reading", as per discussion barometer is used to
measure atmospheric pressure)
 note: 1 bar = 105 Pa

Pabs=Pgage+Patm

Pabs=(9.81kNm3×0.85)(5m)+1.5bar(100kPa1bar)

Pabs=191.6925kPa

3.) Determine the absolute pressure inside a closed tank with a vacuum pressure of 30 kPa.
Assume standard atmospheric pressure.

Solution:

Pabs = ?

Pgage =  -30 kPa (vacuum means negative gage pressure)

Patm = 101.325 kPa (standard Patm is a constant you need to memorize)

Pabs=Pgage+Patm

Pabs=−30kPa+101.325kPa

Pabs=71.325kPa

4.) Convert 760 mm of mercury column head into:

(a) Oil column head with a specific gravity of 0.82,

(b) Glycerin column head with SG of 1.26,

(c) Water column head.

Solution:
(a) ρHg=ρoil
γHghHg=γoilhoil

(13.6×9.81kNm3)(0.76m)=(0.82×9.81kNm3)(hoil)

∴hoil=12.605m

(b) ρHg=ρglycerin
γHghHg=γglycerinhglycerin

(13.6×9.81kNm3)(0.76m)=(1.26×9.81kNm3)(hglycerin)

∴hglycerin=8.203m

 
(a) ρHg=ρw
γHghHg=γwhw

(13.6×9.81kNm3)(0.76m)=(1×9.81kNm3)(hw)

∴hw=10.336m
2.4 Measurement of Static Pressure-2

Barometers
A barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.

A simple barometer consists of a tube more than 30 in (762 mm) long inserted in an open
container of mercury with a closed tube end at the top and an open tube end at the bottom and
with mercury extending from the container up into the tube.

Mercury rises in the tube to a height of approximately 30 in (762 mm) at sea level. In as much as
the tube is longer than 30 in, there will be a vacuum (pressure near absolute zero) above the
mercury in the tube(Pt.A). The only pressure causing the mercury to rise in the tube is that of the
atmosphere; and, of course, the amount the mercury rises varies with the applied atmospheric
pressure. 
The level of mercury will rise and fall as atmospheric pressure changes; direct reading of the
mercury level gives prevailing atmospheric pressure as a pressure head (of mercury), which can
be converted to pressure, if desired.

Manometers
A manometer is a simple and inexpensive device for measuring pressure and pressure
difference. It is usually bent to form a U-tube and filled with a liquid of known specific gravity.
The surface of the liquid will move in proportion to changes in pressure.

The following are the three types of manometers:

Piezometer

Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into the wall of pressure conduit
for the purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in many purposes, the piezometer is not
practical to use in lighter liquids with large pressure and cannot be used to measure gas pressure.

 
Open Manometer

Open manometer is a tube bent into a U-shape to contain one or more fluids of different specific
gravities. It is used to measure pressure. An example of the open manometer is shown below.

Differential Manometer

Differential manometer cannot measure pressure but can measure pressure difference. Frequently
in hydraulic problems, the difference in pressure is more useful information than the pressure
itself.

 
Steps in Solving Manometer Problems

Ordinarily, it is easier to work in units of pressure head rather than pressure for solving any
manometer problem.

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer approximately to scale.

2. Decide on the fluid of which head is to be expressed. Water is more desirable. In most cases, we
suggest using the head in water even if there is no water in the system.
3. Starting at a point of know pressure head, number in order the levels of contact of fluids of
different specific gravities.
4. Proceed from level to level, add pressure head in going down and subtract pressure head in
going up with due regard to the specific gravity of the fluids.

2.5 Hydraulic System-2

The hydraulic system uses fluids usually oil to accomplish significant work (lifting heavy loads,
turning a shaft, drilling precision holes, car jacks, car brakes, etc.) with a minimum investment in
mechanical linkage through the application of Pascal’s law, which states:

"Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its
interior surfaces and equally upon equal areas ."

As we have said above, pressure in fluids is caused by particle collisions with

themselves and the surface of a container. These collisions cause a net force at
right angles to all surfaces the fluid is in contact with. Thus the equation is
Pressure equals Force over Area.
 P=Force/Area=F/A; N/m2 or Pa

The diagram above illustrates the idea of using a hydraulic system to apply a small force to
produce a large force. 

In this drawing, two pistons (brown) fit into two glass cylinders filled with oil (yellow) and
connected to one another with an oil-filled pipe. If you apply a downward force to one piston
(the left one in this drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second piston through the oil in
the pipe. Since oil is incompressible, the efficiency is very good -- almost all of the applied force
appears at the second piston. The great thing about hydraulic systems is that the pipe connecting
the two cylinders can be any length and shape, allowing it to snake through all sorts of things
separating the two pistons. The pipe can also fork, so that one master cylinder can drive more
than one slave cylinder if desired.

Remember P=F/A
Therefore, P1= F1 (input)/ A1 and P2= F2 (output)/ A2
But, P1=P2
, because the pressure at any given moment in time is the same throughout the hydraulic system.
Thus, 

F1(input)/ A1=F2(output)/ A2

Sample Problem:

1.) Solve the following problem with a little help from the diagram above of a simple hydraulic
system of two pistons and cylinders connected together.

The cross-section area of piston A1 is 0.000400 m2.

The cross-section area of piston A2 is 0.00800 m2.

(a) If a force of 40 N (F1) is applied to piston 1, calculate the pressure created in the fluid.

P = F / A = 40 N / 0.0004 m2 = 100,000 Pa

(b) Calculate the force F2 created by the force of 40 N on piston A1.

Since the pressure is the same throughout the hydraulic system, we can say the pressure acting
on piston 2 is also 100 000 Pa.

P = F / A ;  F = P x A = 100 000 x 0.008 = 800 N

(d) In order to create a force of 2000 N from cylinder 2, what should the cross-section area of
piston 2 be if the force applied to piston 1 is still 40 N?

The pressure P2 remains the same at 100 000 N

F2 is now 2000 N, need to solve for A2

P = F / A ;  A = F / P = 2000 / 100 000 = 0.02 m2

2.6 Sample Problems-2

1.) The mechanics of a pneumatic jack used in a service station is shown in the figure. If the car
and lift have a weight of 25 kN, determine the force that must be developed by the air
compressor at B to raise the lift at a constant velocity. Air is in the line from B to A. The air line
at B has an inner diameter of 15 mm, and the post at A has a diameter of 280 mm.

Solution:

Note: Weight of air can be neglected

Analysis: Due to equilibrium, the force created by air pressure at A is equal and opposite to the
weight of the car and lift. The average pressure at A is therefore,

PA=FAAA=25(103)NΠ(0.140m)2=406×103Pa

Since the weight of the air is neglected, the pressure at each point is the same in all directions
(Pascal’s law), and this same pressure is transmitted to B. Therefore, the force at B is
PB=FBAB;406×103Pa=FBΠ(0.0075m)2

PB=71.7kN

This 71.7-N force will lift the 25-kN load, even though the pressure at A and B is the same.

The principles on which this example is based also extend to many hydraulic systems, where the
working fluid is oil. Typical applications include jacks, construction equipment, presses, and
elevators. The pressures in these systems often range from 8 MPa when used with small vehicles,
all the way to 60 MPa for hydraulic jacks. Any compressor or pump used for these applications
has to be designed so that its washers and seals maintain these high pressures over an extended
period of time.

2.) The air pressure within the bicycle tire is determined from a gage to be 70 kPa. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 104 kPa, determine the absolute pressure in the tire.

Solution:

Analysis: Before the tire was filled with air, the pressure within it was atmospheric, 104 kPa.
Therefore, after the tire is filled, the absolute pressure in the tire is,

Pabs=Patm+Pgage

Pabs=104kPa+70kPa

Pabs=174kPa

A point to remember is that a newton is about the weight of an apple, and so when this weight is
distributed over a square meter, a pascal is actually a very small pressure (Pa = N/m2) . For this
reason, for engineering work, pressures measured in pascals are almost always accompanied by a
prefix.
3.1 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces-2

Intended Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

 To analyze the total hydrostatic force on surfaces in a given condition.

 To compute total hydrostatic force on surfaces under various circumstances.

When designing gates, vessels, dams, or other bodies that are submerged in a liquid, it is
important to be able to obtain the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of the liquid and
to specify the location of this force on the body. In this section, we will show how this is done on
a plane surface by using three different methods:

1. Formula Method
2. Geometrical Method
3. Integration Method.

 
Formula Method

where:

h¯= vertical distance of the center of gravity of the immersed area below the free surface.

yp= distance of the center of pressure from the free surface along with the inclination of the
plane.

cg= center of gravity of the immersed area

cp= center of pressure

e= eccentricity

θ= angle of inclination with respect to horizontal.

In general, the total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface is equal to the product of the area
of the surface and the unit pressure at its center of gravity, F=P centroid*A
.

where pcg is the pressure at the center of gravity. For homogeneous free liquid at rest, the
equation can be expressed in terms of unit weight γ of the liquid, F=γh¯A

, where  h¯  is the depth of liquid above the centroid of the submerged area.

Resultant Force, F

F=Pcentroid∗A

F=γh¯A

Location of the Resultant Force, yp

yp=y¯+e

e=Ix¯Ay¯

, but    h¯=y¯sinθ

  

therefore,      e=Ix¯sinθAh¯

,                          

multiply numerator and denominator by γ

therefore,

e=γIx¯sinθF
  

Moment of Inertia Formula

 
3.2 Sample Problems-2

1.) A rectangular plate (2.5 m wide, 6 m high) is submerged vertically in the water with its top
flushed with the water surface.

(a.) Determine the total hydrostatic force acting on one side of the plate.

(b.) And its location from the water surface.

Solution:

a.) F=γh¯A

     F=(9.81kNm3)(3m)(6m∗2.5m)

      F=441.45kN

b.) yp=y¯+e;plateisverticalsoθ=90thusy¯=h¯;e=Ix¯Ay¯

      e=bh312Ay¯=(2.5m)(6m)312(2.5m∗6m)(3m)=1m

     yp=3+1=4m
 

2.) A triangular gate is submerged in seawater (1.03) as shown in the figure. neglect the weight
of the gate.

(a.) Determine the total hydrostatic force acting on the gate and its location from the hinge at A.

(b.) Determine the reaction at B. Assume that the gate rests on a smooth floor at B.

Solution:
a.) F=γh¯A

    F=(1.03∗9.81kNm3)(3+23(3)sin30)(12∗2∗3)

     F=121.2516kN

b.) Rb=?

   e=Ix¯Ay¯=Ix¯sinθAh¯=bh336sinθbh2∗h¯

e=(2)(3)336sin30(2)(3)2(3+23(3)sin30)=0.0625m

∑MA=0;↩+

RB(3cos30)−F(23(3)+e)=0

RB(3cos30)−(121.2516)(23(3)+e)=0

RB=96.256kN

 Additional:

#.) A vertical triangular with top base horizontal and 1.5 wide is 3m high. It is submerged in oil
having SG=0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2m. Det the magnitude and location of
the total hydrostatic pressure acting on one side of the gate.
Ans.F=54.3kN; 3.167m from the oil surface
 #.) 

4.1 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces-2

Intended Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

 To analyze the hydrostatic pressure on curved surfaces in a given condition.

 To compute horizontal and vertical components of hydrostatic force on curved surfaces and its
resultant under various circumstances.

Introduction
If a submerged surface is curved, then the pressure acting on the surface will change not only its
magnitude but also its direction, since it must always act normal to the surface. In this case, it is
generally best to determine the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force caused
by the pressure, and then use vector addition to find the resultant.

Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

Consider the curved gate surface having a length L (perpendicular to the screen) subjected to
water pressure as shown in the figure. The pressure diagram for the curved gate is shown in
figure (A).

By Pascal's Law, the pressure at any depth h remains the same in all directions no matter what
the orientation of the surface is. In the case of a curved surface, the pressure acting at any point is
directed normal to the curve at that point as shown in (A). 

If the curve is a circular curve, then the pressure acting at any point must pass through the
centroid of the circle (any tangent to a circle is normal to its radius). The resultant of these
differential forces, therefore, also passes through the center of the circle.

Horizontal Component, FH

The horizontal component of the total hydrostatic force on any surface is always equal to the
pressure on the vertical projection of the surface. The resultant force at the horizontal component
can be located through the center of the pressure of this projection.

FH=γ⋅h¯⋅Av

where Av is the vertically projected area of the curved surface.

 
Vertical Component, Fv

 The vertical component of the total hydrostatic pressure force on any surface is always equal to
the weight of the entire water column above the surface extending vertically to the free surface.
The resultant force of the vertical component can be located through the centroid of the column

Fv=γ(Vol)

=Wt.ofliquid(realorvirtual)abovethecurvedsurface

Resultant Force, F

F=√FH^2+FV^2

θx=tan^−1(FV/ FH)

4.2 Sample Problems-6

1. A 15-m long curved gate (r=3m) depicted in the figure is retaining a 10-m depth of water in a
large storage tank.

 Determine the vertical component of the total hydrostatic force acting on the curved surface.
 determine the magnitude of the total hydrostatic force acting on the curved surface.
Solution:

 Live Discussion Notes: Ex.1 Download Ex.1

2. Refer to the given figure. The curve surface is subjected to hydrostatic pressure on one side.
The lengths of the gate is 5m.

Determine Fv, Fh, F, directional angle.

 

Solution:
 

Ans: Fh=3139.2 kN ; Fv=1881.79 kN; F=3660.02 kN; directional angle=30.94o

4.3 Complex Fv - Sample Problems-2

1. The semicircular plate in the figure is 4 m long and acts as a gate in a channel. Determine the
resultant force the water pressure exerts on the plate, and then find the components of reaction at
the hinge (pin) B and at the smooth support A. Neglect the weight of the plate.
Solution: (drawing)

Answer: Fh=706.32 kN; Fv=554.74 kN; F=898.12 kN; Rby=554.74 kN; Rbx=353.16 kN;
Ra=353.16 kN
Live Discussion Notes: Ex.3 Download Ex.3

2. The plug in the figure is 50 mm long and has a trapezoidal cross-section. If the tank is filled
with crude oil, determine the resultant vertical force acting on the plug due to the oil pressure.

Solution: (drawing)
5.1 Analysis of Gravity Dams-2
 

Intended Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

 analyze problems regarding gravity dams; and

 compute stresses acting on the foundation of the dams.

Introduction:

Dams are structures that block the flow of a river, stream, or other waterways. Some dams divert
the flow of river water into a pipeline, canal, or channel. Others raise the level of inland
waterways to make them navigable by ships and barges. It can also harness the energy of falling
water to generate electric power. Dams also hold water for drinking and crop irrigation and
provide flood control.

Gravity Dams

Gravity dam is just one type of dams that can be made (others are,  embankment dam, arch dam,
buttress dam, etc.) 

Gravity dams use only the force of gravity to resist water pressure - that is, they hold back the
water by the sheer force of their weight pushing downward. To do this, gravity dams must
consist of a mass so heavy that the water in a reservoir cannot push the dam downstream or tip it
over.

They are much thicker at the base than the top - a shape that reflects the distribution of the forces
of the water against the dam.

Analysis of Gravity Dams

A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is raised on its upstream side. These
forces cause the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation and overturn it about its downstream
edge or toe. These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam and gravitational
forces which causes a moment opposite to the overturning moment. The dam may also be
prevented from sliding by keying its base.
5.1 Buoyancy-2
 

Intended Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

 analyze the acting forces on a submerged or floating object;

 compute for the buoyant force acting at a given situation; and
 analyze the stability of a submerged or floating body.

Introduction

Our body feels lighter while taking a swim in the pool. Also, when drawing water from a well,
the bucket feels lighter till it is partially or fully immersed in water. Have you ever wondered
why this change in weight is felt?

When immersed in water or any other fluid, the body experiences a force from the downward
direction opposite to the direction of the gravitational pull, which is responsible for the decrease
in its weight.  But here too, we observe that some objects such as a plastic bottle float over water,
while others such as a needle sink.

Buoyancy

Buoyancy is the force that causes objects to float. It is the force exerted on an object that is partly
or wholly immersed in a fluid. Buoyancy is caused by the differences in pressure acting on
opposite sides of an object immersed in a static fluid. It is also known as the buoyant force.
Buoyancy is the phenomenon due to Buoyant Force.

"The upward force applied by the fluid on the object or the body when an object is put in or
submerged in the fluid."

Archimedes' Principle

A principle discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes that states that...

"any body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force (buoyant force equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid".
This principle, also known as the law of hydrostatics, applies to both floating and submerged
bodies, and to all fluids.

From the figure below, the body is immersed in a fluid of unit weight.

Remember the topic of the hydrostatic force on the curved surfaces.

The horizontal components of the force acting on the body are all in equilibrium since the
vertical projection of the body on opposite sides is the same.

The upper face of the body is subject to a vertical downward force which is equal to the weight
of the fluid above it, and the lower face is subject to an upward force equal to the weight of real
or imaginary liquid above it. The net upward force acting on the body is the buoyant force.

B.F.=γliquid⋅Voldisplaced

but,Voldisplaced=Volsubmerged

To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting, and apply conditions of static
equilibrium:
  ∑FH=0

  ∑FV=0
  ∑M=0

  

Forces Acting on the Body, and the Comparison of Object's Unit Weight to the Liquid's Unit
Weight:

  

Sample Problems:

1.An iceberg having SG=0.92 is floating on salt water of SG=1.03. If the volume of ice above
the water surface is 1000 cu.m. What is the total volume of the ice?

Ans. 9364.64 cu.m.

2. A block of wood 0.6m x 0.6m x h meters in dimension was thrown into the water and floats
with 0.18m projecting above the water surface.The same block was thrown into a container of a
liquid having a SG of 0.9 and it floats with 0.14m projecting above the surface.

Det. the value of h; the SG of block; the Wt. of block

Ans. h=0.54m; SG=0.67; W=1.28kN

 

3.The 500-N flat-bottom container in is 600 mm wide and 900 mm long. Determine the depth the
container will float in the water
(a) when it carries the 200-N steel block, and
(b) when the block is suspended directly beneath the container,
Take Yst = 77.0 kN/m3.

Ans. a) d= 132.14m ; b) d=127.33m