MODULE 8

Unit 8
SHEAR STRENGTH
OF SOIL

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Module 8: Shear Strength of Soil

This module presents definition of shear strength and its related parameters, the
significance of shear strength, shear failures in soils, typical response of soils to
shearing forces, effects of increasing the normal effective stress, effects of
overconsolidation ratio, and cemented soils. This module also presented the four
models for interpreting the shear strength of soils. The laboratory determination of
strength parameters includes direct shear test, triaxial shear test and the types of
tests. For the field tests in determining the shear strength of soil, vane shear,
standard penetration, and cone penetration test are discussed.

References:
Budhu, Muni. (2015). Soil Mechanics Fundamentals – Imperial version. John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd.

Das, B. M., & Sobhan, K. (2014). Principles of geotechnical engineering (8th ed.).
Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

Adajar, M. A. Q. (2017). Lecture on Advanced Soil Mechanics – Shear strength of

soils. De La Salle University, Manila.

8.1 Definition of key terms

Shear strength of a soil (τf) is the maximum internal shear resistance to applied
shearing forces.
Effective friction angle (Ø’) is a measure of the shear strength of soils due to
friction. It is also called angle of shearing resistance.
Cementation (ccm)is a measure of the shear strength (can also be interpreted as
bond strength) of a soil from forces that cement the particles.
Soil tension (ct) is a measure of the apparent shear strength of a soil from soil
suction (negative porewater pressures or capillary stresses).
Cohesion (co) is a measure of the resistance due to intermolecular forces.
Undrained shear strength (su) is the shear strength of a soil when sheared at
constant volume.
Apparent cohesion (C) is the apparent shear strength at zero normal effective
stress.
Critical state is a stress state (failure stress state) reached in a soil when
continuous shearing occurs at constant shear stress to normal effective stress ratio
and constant volume.

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Dilation is a measure of the change in volume of a soil when the soil is distorted by
shearing.

8.2 Significance of shear strength

The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil; If
the soil fails, the structure founded on it can collapse. Understanding shear strength
is the basis to analyze soil stability problems like:
–lateral pressure on earth retaining structures
–slope stability and
–bearing capacity.

Foundation failure due to liquefaction

Slope failure results to landslides due to inadequate shear strength

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Slope failure

8.3 The shear strength of soil

The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of
the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement of its individual soil
particles Shear strength in soils depends primarily on interactions between particles
Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles are such that they
slide or roll past each other.

Compacted soil shows higher shearing resistance than the loose soil

Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:

– Cohesion between particles (stress independent component)
•Cementation between sand grains
•Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
– Frictional resistance between particles (stress dependent component)

8.4 Typical response of soils to shearing forces

We are going to summarize the important features of the responses of two groups of
uncemented soils—type I and type II—when subjected to a constant vertical
(normal) effective stress, σ’n and increasing shear strain, γzx.
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Type I soils – loose sands, normally consolidated and lightly overconsolidated clays
(OCR< 2)
•There is a gradual increase in shear stresses as the shear strain increases (strain
hardens) until an approximately constant shear stress, which is called the critical
state shear stress (τcs) is attained.
•Compression is observed, that is, the soil became denser until a constant void ratio,
which is called critical ratio, ecs, is reached.

Response to shearing

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Type II soils – dense sands and heavily overconsolidated clays (OCR > 2)
•There is a rapid increase in shear stress reaching a peak value, at low shear strains
and then show a decrease in shear stress with increasing shear strain (strain
softens) until the critical state shear stress is attained
•Compress initially, which is attributed to particle adjustment, and then expand, that
is, they become looser until critical void ratio is attained.

Type II-A soils

•The final shear stress of overconsolidated clays decreases below the critical state
shear stress.
•This is due to development localized failure zones called shear bands.
•Shear bonds are loose pockets or bands of soil mass that have reached the critical
state shear stress.
•At large strains, the particles of some overconsolidated clays become oriented
parallel to the direction of the shear bands and the final shear stress attained is
lower than the critical state shear.

All soils reach the critical state shear stress (τcs) and critical void ratio (ecs),
irrespective of their initial state, at which continuous shearing occurs without
changes in shear stress and volume for a given normal effective stress.

Shear stress – strain and Void ratio – strain relationships

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8.5 Effects of increasing the normal effective stress

Effect of increasing the normal effective stress :
- The peak shear stress tends to disappear
- The critical state shear stress increases
• Line OA is the called the failure envelope. φ’cs is the critical state friction angle.
• The curve OBC is called the peak shear stress envelope.
• The residual shear stresses of Type II-A soil lies on line OD, below line OA, and
the φ’r is called the residual friction angle.
• Effects of increasing the normal effective stress on the volume change and void
ratio:
- the amount of compression will increase
- the change in volume expansion decreases
- the critical void ratio decreases.

Effects of increasing normal effective stresses on the responses of soil

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8.6 Effects of overconsolidation ratio and cementation

The higher overconsolidation ratios result in higher peak shear stresses and greater
volume expansion.

Effects of OCR on peak strength and volume expansion.

The particles of some soils are cemented (chemically bonded). These soils possess
shear strength even when the normal effective stress is zero.

Effects of apparent cohesion on the stress – effective normal stress graph

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8.7 Four models for interpreting the shear strength of soils

1. Coulomb’s failure criterion

Impending slip between two rigid bodies was the basis for Coulomb’s frictional law.
Coulomb’s model requires the assumption of physical mechanism of failure such as
a plane of sliding.

Analogy of the Coulomb’s failure criterion on a (a) box and on the (b) soil.
In terms of stresses, Coulomb’s law is expressed as:

In modeling the peak behavior, sliding, for the dense assembly, would be initiated on
an inclined plane rather than on horizontal plane (as shown in the figure below).

In real soils, the particles are randomly distributed and often irregular. Shearing of a
given volume of soil would cause impending slip of some particles to occur up the

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plane while others occur down the plane. Shear failure of soil may be modeled
using the Coulomb’s frictional law:

where: τf is the shear stress when slip is initiated σ’ is the normal effective stress on
the slip plane φ’ is the friction angle α is the dilation angle.
The effect of dilation is to increase the shear strength of the soil and cause the
Coulomb’s failure envelope to be curved. Large normal effective stresses tend to
suppress dilation. At the critical state, the dilation angle is zero.

2. Taylor’s failure criterion

Taylor (1948) used an energy method to derive a simple soil model. The shear
strength of soils is due to friction and to interlocking of soil particles.

The critical state shear strength is:

The peak shear strength is:

Taylor’s model can be applied at every stage of loading for soils that are
homogenous and deform under plane strain conditions similar to simp le shear.

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3. Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria

This theory states that a material fails because of a critical combination of normal
stress and shear stress, and not from either maximum normal or shear stress alone.
The Mohr–Coulomb (MC) failure criterion is a limiting stress criterion, which requires
that stresses in the soil mass cannot lie within the shaded region.

The maximum shear stress (τmax) is not the failure stress.

The failure stresses are:

Key points on the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion:

1. Coupling Mohr’s circle with Coulomb’s frictional law allows us to define shear
failure based on the stress state of the soil.
2. Failure occurs, according to the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion, when the soil
reaches the maximum principal effective stress obliquity, that is, (σ’ 1 / σ’3)max.

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3. The failure plane or slip plane is inclined at an angle θ f = 45° + (φ’f /2) to the plane
on which the major principal effective stress acts where the subscript f is replaced by
cs for critical state and by p for peak state.
4. The maximum shear stress, τmax = [(σ’1 - σ’3)/2] is not the failure shear stress.
5. Information on the deformation or the initial stress state of the soil is not included
in the interpretation of soil strength using the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion.

4. Tresca failure criterion

The shear strength of a fine-grained soil under undrained condition is called the
undrained shear strength, su. We use the Tresca failure criterion—shear stress at
failure is one-half the principal stress difference—to interpret the undrained shear
strength. The undrained shear strength, s u, is the radius of the Mohr total stress
circle:

Tresca’s failure criterion for undrained conditions as represented by Mohr’s circles.

The subscript f is replaced by subscript cs for critical state and subscript p for peak
stress.

The shear strength under undrained loading depends only on the initial void ratio or
the initial water content. An increase in initial normal effective stress, sometimes
called confining pressure, causes a decrease in initial void ratio and a larger change
in excess porewater pressure when a soil is sheared under undrained condition.

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8.8 Three regions of soil states

Region I. Impossible soil states.

Region II. Impending instability (risky design). Soil states within the region are
characteristic of dilating soils that show peak shear strength and are associated with
the formation of shear bands. Associated with brittle material type behavior.
Region III. Stable soil states (safe design). Soil states in this region will behave like a
ductile material, that is, the soil will not collapse suddenly but will continuously
deform under constant load.

8.9 Important points on the geotechnical design involving

shear strength of soil
1. You should not rely on the Φ’p in the geotechnical design because the amount of
dilation one measures in the laboratory or field tests may not be mobilized by the soil
under the construction loads.
2. You should use Φ’cs unless experience dictates otherwise.
3. A higher factor of safety is warranted if Φ’p than Φ’cs is used in design.
4. If the shear stress (τ) induced in a soil is less than the peak or critical shear
strength, then the soil has reserved shear strength, and we can characterize this
reserved shear strength by a factor of safety (FS).

τp
For peak condition in dilating soils: FS=
τ
τ cs
For critical state condition in all soils: FS=
τ
5. The friction angle at the critical state, φcs, is a fundamental soil parameter.
6. The friction angle at peak shear stress for dilating soils, φp, is not a fundamental
soil parameter but depends on the capacity of the soil to dilate.

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8.10 Laboratory determination of shear strength

parameters

1. Direct shear test

The direct shear (DS) is a popular test to determine the shear strength parameters
because it is simple, easy to perform, and cheap. This test is useful when a soil
mass is likely to fail along a thin zone under plane strain conditions (strain in one
direction is zero). The sample container for a DS test is either a horizontally split,
open metal box (see the figure below), called a shear box, or a horizontally split
metal cylinder. Soil is placed in the box (or cylinder), and one-half of the box (or
cylinder) is moved relative to the other half. Failure is thereby constrained along a
thin zone of soil on the horizontal plane (AB). Serrated or grooved metal plates or
porous stones are placed at the top and bottom faces of the soil to generate the
shearing force. Vertical force (normal stress) is applied through a metal platen.
Shear force is applied by moving one half of the box relative to the other to cause
failure in the soil specimen.

Shear box.
Direct shear test is quick and inexpensive. Its shortcoming is that it fails the soil on a
designated plane which may not be the weakest one. It is used to determine the
shear strength of both cohesive as well as non-cohesive soils. ASTM D 3080 is the
standard reference for conducting the direct shear test. The actual direct shear
apparatus is shown in the figure below.

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The direct shear apparatus

Schematic diagram of the shearing of soil using a shear box

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Calculations of the test data:

Assume that the pore water pressure is zero:

1. For a given test, the normal stress can be calculated as

Normal force
σ ' =Normal effective stress=
Cross−sectional area of the specimen

2. The resisting shear stress for any shear displacement can be calculated as
Resisting shear force
τ =Shear stress=
Cross−sectional area of the specimen

x
3. Shear strain, γ=
ho
−y
4. Volumetric strain = ε v = where x = horizontal displacement, y = vertical
ho
displacement, ho = initial height of the sample.

V o G s ρw
5. Initial specific volume, ν o=
ms
V t G s ρw
6. Specific volume at any stage of the test, ν= where: V t =V o ± Ay
ms
Vo = volume of specimen at start of test
Vt = volume of specimen at any stage of test
Gs = specific gravity of soil solid
ρ = mass density of soil
ms = dry mass of soil

The typical results from a direct shear test is presented in the figures below. Data
are from the study of Engr. Emerzon Torres.

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Direct shear test data of a riversand using three different effective normal stress
(13.63 kPa, 27.75 kPa, 83.25 kPa) at relative density of 90%.

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The failure line for dry and saturated riversand, from undrained direct shear test.

Example:
Following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on an overconsolidated
clay:

Diameter of specimen = 50mm

Height of specimen = 25mm

Note that residual shear force is also the shear force at the critical state.

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Determine the relationships for peak shear strength (τp) and the residual or critical
state strength (τcs).

Solution:

Area of the specimen (A) = (π/4)(50/1000)2 = 0.0019634 m2. Now the following table
can be prepared.

Test No. Normal Normal Peak τp = Critical or τr = Sr/A

force, N stress, σ’ shear Speak/A residual (kN/m2)
(N) (kN/m2) force, (kN/m2) shear
Speak (N) force, Sr
(N)
1 150 76.4 157.5 80.2 44.2 22.5
2 250 127.3 199.9 101.8 56.6 28.8
3 350 178.3 257.6 131.2 102.9 52.4
4 550 280.1 363.4 185.1 144.5 73.6

The variations of τp and τr with σ’ are plotted in the figure below. From the plots, we
find that

Peak strength: τp (kN/m2) = 40 + σ’tan27

Residual or critical strength: τr = σ’tan14.6.

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2. Triaxial test
The triaxial shear test was developed by Casagrande in an attempt to overcome
some of the serious disadvantages of the direct shear test.

The advantages of the triaxial test over direct shear test are the following:
1. Triaxial test is more versatile
2. Drainage can be well controlled
3. There is no rotation of the principal stresses like the direct shear test
4. Also the failure plane can occur anywhere.

Principles of the triaxial compression test

1. The triaxial compression is used to measure the shear strength of a soil under
controlled drainage conditions.
2. A cylindrical specimen of soil is encased and subjected to a confining fluid/air
pressure and then loaded axially to failure.
3. The test is called “triaxial” because the three principal stresses are assumed to be
known and are controlled.

The principal stresses acting on the soil specimen in a triaxial compression test.
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4. During shear, the major principal stress, σ 1 is equal to the applied axial stress (Δσ
= P/A) plus the chamber (confining) pressure, σ3.
5. The applied axial stress, σ 1 – σ3 is termed the “principal stress difference” or
sometimes the “deviatory stress”
6. The intermediate principal stress, σ 2 and the minor principal stress, σ 3 are
identical in the test, and are equal to the confining or chamber pressure.

Triaxial compression apparatus

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Parts and sample preparation of a triaxial compression test

1. Pressure distribution panel. The pressure distribution panel controls the

compressed air supply to the air/water cylinders via the pressure regulators. It
delivers pressurized water to the triaxial cell.

Pressure distribution panel

2. Air water cylinder

It is the interface between the air and water pressure mediums.

3. Volume change

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It measures the volume of water flowing in or out of the sample.

4. Triaxial load frame and triaxial cell

The triaxial load frame delivers the shearing force to the specimen.

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Modes of failures in a triaxial test:

Types of triaxial tests

1. Unconsolidated-undrained (UU) test
2. Consolidated-undrained (CU) test
3. Consolidated-drained (CD) test

The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for determining
shear strength parameters. It is used widely for research and conventional testing.
In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm (1.4 in.) in diameter and 76 mm (3 in.) long
generally is used. The specimen is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed
inside a plastic cylindrical chamber that usually is filled with water or glycerine. The
specimen is subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the fuid in the
chamber, step 1. (Note: Air is sometimes used as a compression medium.) To cause
shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress (sometimes called
deviator stress) through a vertical loading ram, step 2. This stress can be applied in
one of two ways:
1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressure in equal increments until the
specimen fails. (Axial deformation of the specimen resulting from the load applied
through the ram is measured by a dial gauge.)
2. Application of axial deformation at a constant rate by means of a geared or
hydraulic loading press. This is a strain-controlled test.

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Stress paths from triaxial test are presented in a plot of deviatoric stress, q against
the mean effective principal stress, p’.

q=(σ 1−σ 2)

' σ ' 1 +σ ' 2+ σ ' 3

p=
3
Consolidated Drained (CD or S - slow) Compression test
• The purpose of CD test is to determine the drained shear strength parameters ϕ’ cs
and ϕ’p to analyze the long term loading of soil mass.
• The elastic moduli for drained condition E’ and E’s are also obtained from this test.
• Drainage valves are OPEN during consolidation as well as shearing phases.
• The load is applied at such a slow strain rate that particle readjustments in the
specimen do not induce any excess pore pressure. (can take up to 2 weeks). Called
the slow test.
• Since there is no excess pore pressure, total stresses is equal to effective stresses.

The test is performed in two stages:

Stage 1: Isotropic Consolidation Phase. The saturated specimen is subjected to
confining pressure σ3, and the sample is allowed to drain until the excess porewater
pressure dissipates.

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• Stage2 : Shearing Phase. The confining pressure σ3 is kept constant and

additional axial loads or displacement are added slowly until the soil fails. Drainage
of the excess porewater is permitted and the amount of water expelled is measured.

At failure, the maximum effective principal stress is σ ’1 = σ1= σ3 + Δσf where: Δσf is
the deviator stress at failure. The minimum effective principal stress is σ’ 3 = σ3.

Failure envelope of normally consolidated clay

Failure envelope of overconsolidated clays

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The shear strength of clays at very large strains is referred to as residual shear
strength (or ultimate shear strength, critical state shear strength).

Consolidated Undrained (CU or R) Compression test

• The purpose of CU test is to determine the undrained and drained shear strength
parameters (Su, ϕ’cs, ϕ’p).
• This test can simulates long term as well as short term shear strength for cohesive
soils if pore water pressure is measured during the shearing phase.
• Drainage valves are open during consolidation phase but closed during the
shearing phase.
• Loading does not commence until the sample ceases to drain (or consolidate).

Two stages of the CU test:

• Stage 1: Isotropic consolidation phase. The saturated specimen is subjected to
confining pressure σ3, and the sample is allowed to drain until the excess porewater
pressure dissipates.

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•Stage 2: Shearing phase. After complete dissipation of pore water pressure from
consolidation, the axial load is increased under undrained condition and the excess
pore water pressure is measured.

At failure:
Total major principal stress =σ1 = σ3 + Δσf
Total minor principal stress = σ3
Pore water pressure at failure = ud(failure) = AfΔσf
Effective major principal stress = σ1 −AfΔσf = σ’1
Effective minor principal stress = σ3 −AfΔσf = σ’3
Failure envelope for normally consolidated clay:
τ = σ tan Øcu -> Total stress failure envelope
τ = σ’ tan Ø -> Effective stress failure envelope

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Unconsolidated Undrained (UU or Q - quick) Compression

test
• The purpose of UU test is to determine the undrained shear strength, Su of
saturated soils.
• This test is also called the quick test. The confining pressure and the axial stress
are applied fast so the soil does not have time to settle or consolidate.
• UU test simulates short term shear strength for cohesive soils.
• The test is performed with the drain valve closed for all phases of the test.

• Stage 1 : Isotropic compression phase. The confining pressure σ 3 is applied

without drainage of pore water.
• Stage 2 : Shearing Phase. The confining pressure is kept constant and the
increments of axial stress is applied without allowing the pore water pressure to
drain.

Typical results of UU test.

Unconfined Compression test

• The purpose of this test is to determine the undrained shear strength of saturated
clays quickly.
• In the UC test, no confining stress is applied to the sample (σ 3 = 0)
• The axial load is increased quickly until the soil sample fails.
• The loading is applied quickly so that the porewater can not drain from the soil; the
sample is sheared at constant volume.

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• At failure, σ3 = 0, and so σ1 = σ3 + Δ σf = Δ σf = qu

Su = qu / 2 where: qu is the unconfined compression strength.

Failure envelope for unconfined compression test

Example 2:

A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay.

The results are
σ3 = 140 kN.m2
(Δσd)f = 104 kN/m2

Determine:
a. Angle of friction, Ø’.
b. Angle θ that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.

Solution:
For normally consolidated soil, the failure envelope equation is
τ f =σ ' tan φ ' (because c’ = 0)

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For the triaxial test, the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure are
σ ' 1=σ 1=σ 3 + ( Δ σ d )f =140+104=244 kN /m2

And

2
σ ' 3=σ 3 =140 kN /m

Part a
The Mohr’s circle and the failure envelope are shown in the figure below. From the
equation for φ’

σ ' 1−σ ' 3 244−140

sin φ ' = = =0.333
σ ' 1 +σ ' 3 244+ 104
Or

'
φ =17.46°

Part b
φ' 17.46 °
θ=45+ =45 °+ =53.73 °
2 2

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Example 3:
Refer to Example 2.

a. Find the normal stress σ’ and the shear stress τf on the failure plane.
b. Determine the effective normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress.

Solution
Part a
From the Mohr-Coulomb formulas:

244+140 244−140 kN
( σ ' n )f = 2
−
2
sin ( 17.46 ° )=176.36 2
m

And
244−140 2
τ f= cos ( 17.46 )=49.59 kN /m
2

Part b

244−140 2
τ max= =192 kN /m
2
8.10 Field tests determination of shear strength of soils

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Field tests to determine the shear strength of soils

VANE SHEAR TEST (VST) The shear vane device consists of four thin metal blades
welded orthogonally (90°) to rod. The vane is pushed, usually from the bottom of a
borehole, to the desired depth. A torque is applied at a rate of 6° per minute by a
torque head device located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane
rod.
The undrained shear strength from the VST is calculated from:

Where: T is the maximum torque, h is the height, d is the diameter of the vane.

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STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

consists of advancing a split spoon soil sampler with a 140lb. hammer falling freely 30
inches. The values reported on the boring logs are the blows required to advance
successive 6-inch increments. The sum of the number of blows for the last two
increments is the “N” value that is an indication of soil relative density. There are several
correlations with internal friction angle and elastic modulus in granular soils.

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CONE PENETROMETER TEST (CPT) consists of pushing a series of cylindrical

rods with a cone at the base into the soil at a constant rate of 2cm/sec. Continuous
measurements of penetration resistance on the cone tip and friction sleeve are
recorded during the penetration. The Piezo-cone records pore pressures in addition
to point and friction resistance.

Self-assessment:

1. Objective-type questions:

a. What is the difference between Type I and Type II soils?

b. All soils reach a _____ state, at which continuous shearing occurs without
changes in shear stress and volume for a given normal effective stress.
c. _____ increases the shear strength of the soil and causes Coulomb’s failure
envelope to curve.
d. Which friction angle, peak or critical state, is more reliable?
e. What are the four models use for interpreting the shear strength of soils?
f. In the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, the maximum shear stress is ______
(greater, equal, or less) than the failure shear stress.
g. What are the three types of triaxial tests?

2. CE Board May 2004

A consolidated drained tri-axial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay.
The results were as follows:
Chamber confining pressure = 300kPa
Deviator stress = 400kPa
a. Compute the angle of friction of the clay sample.
b. Compute the shear stress on the failure plane.
c. Compute the effective normal stress on the plane of maximum shear.

Answers:

1. a. Type I soils—loose sands and normally consolidated and lightly

overconsolidated clays—strain-harden to a critical state shear stress and compress
toward a critical void ratio.
Type II soils—dense sands and overconsolidated clays—reach a peak shear stress,
strain-soften to a critical state shear stress, and expand toward a critical void ratio
after an initial compression at low shear strains.

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b. critical
c. Dilation
d. critical state
e. Coulomb, Mohr-Coilomb, Tresca, Taylor
f. greater
g. Consolidated drained (CD), consolidated undrained (CU), unconsolidated
undrained (UU)

2. a. 23.58°
b. 183.30 kPa
c. 500 kPa

Activity
Part 1 – Problem solving

1. Following data are given for a direct shear test conducted on dry silty sand:
Specimen dimensions: diameter = 71 mm; height = 25 mm
Normal stress: 150 kN/m2
Shear force at failure: 276 N
a. Determine the angle of friction, Ø’.
b. For a normal stress of 200 kN/m2, what shear force is required to cause failure?

2. For a dry sand specimen in a direct shear test box, the following are given:
Size of specimen: 2.8 in. x 2.8 in. x 1.25 in. (height)
Angle of friction: 41°
Normal stress: 22 lb/in.2
Determine the shear force required to cause failure.

3. Refer to Figure 12.54. Shear strength parameters are needed for the design of a
foundation placed at a depth of 2 m in the silty sand layer. Soils collected from this
sand were compacted in the direct shear mold (diameter = 63.5 mm) at the same dry
unit weight as the field and subjected to four direct shear tests.
Results are as follows:

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MODULE 8

a. Determine the shear strength parameter φ’ for the soil.

b. Determine the shear strength at the bottom of the silty sand layer.

Part 2 – concept understanding

1. Which failure criterion is used to interpret the results from a direct shear test?
Why?

2. Which failure criterion is used to interpret triaxial test results for long-term loading
condition? What is basis for this criterion?

3. Why does a sample need to be saturated to interpret the results from triaxial
undrained tests?

|Page CE 8 – Geotechnical Engineering 1