CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TO THE LIFE, LETTERS,

The Significance of Paul which is the most crucial question we face when
There is little dispute that Paul has had left a reading Paul's letters today--is how writings intended
significant mark, both in his own time and throughout for very particular congregations and circumstances can
history. (a) In his own time Paul was among the most be relevant to all groups, times, and places. Since much
successful missionaries and church planters of the of Paul letters consists of direct advice, it is easy to
emerging Christian movement. He was driven by a short-circuit the necessary process of careful
sense of mission ("necessity is laid on me, woe is me if interpretation, by not taking into account either Paul's
I do not preach the gospel," 1 Cor 9:16), and at great unique context or our own context, and instead
personal risk travelled throughout the Greco-Roman applying the directives with a literalistic one-to-one
world founding, maintaining, and networking small correspondence.
cells of believers in strategically located cities. He was
especially significant as one who tried to bridge two The Enigmatic and Controversial Paul
worlds, the Jewish and the Gentile worlds; and as a There is much in Paul's writings, however, that is
bridge-builder he opened himself up to the charge of simply difficult to understand, even after one carefully
being a compromiser. Some historians have been so seeks to appreciate Paul's context. Even in his own time
impressed with the impact of Paul that they have named some readers had difficulty understanding his meaning
him as the "second founder" of Christianity. But this is (2 Pet 3:15-16). Some of his comments will no doubt
surely an overestimation, based largely on the remain enigmas forever, for instance, why women
impression we get from the book of Acts and the ought to wear veils "because of the angels" (1 Cor
prominence of his letters in the NT; in reality Paul was 11:10).
merely one among a large group of otherwise largely At the same time, both then and throughout history,
anonymous Christian missionaries. (b) On the other controversy has surrounded Paul. Not only have Paul's
hand, it is difficult to overestimate Paul's significance letters evoked controversy both then and now, but his
throughout the history of the church. His significance letters themselves are filled with controversy. Much in
emerged mainly from his literary bequest--his letters to his letters is a response to the challenges of various
struggling congregations. Even in his own time his "opponents," especially in Galatians, 2 Corinthians,
letters appeared "more weighty" than his personal Philippians, and Colossians. And his letters as a whole
presence or public speech (2 Cor 10:10). And by now evoke polar reactions: for some he is the champion of
the accumulated impact of his letters far surpasses the women's liberation, for others he is to blame for
impact of his own person in his lifetime. Writings women's oppression; for some he is the primary
attributed to Paul now account for about one quarter of corruptor of Jesus' gospel (by making Jesus a mere
the NT, second only to the contribution of Luke-Acts. heavenly being, idea or phantom and no longer the
As a result of his letters, Paul is perhaps the best known historical person), for others he is the savior of
and most colorful personalities of the NT. (We hear Christianity (who rescued Christianity from the narrow,
Jesus through the memory and reflections of his Jewish framework of Jesus' teaching by translating the
followers and only then in translation from Hebrew to gospel into a new context); for some he is to blame for
Greek; with Paul we read his very own words originally Christian socio-political conservatism, while for others
expressed in Greek.) he remains an eschatological visionary whose vision of
Nevertheless, Paul did not write his letters a new world motivates activism in the world; and so on.
expecting them to become "sacred scripture." He wrote (It should be admitted at the outset that Paul's writings
letters as pastoral, emergency writings in response to among all NT writings are probably the most easily
particular situations and crises in the churches. If he manipulated by systems of domination. But the
were to come back, he would, no doubt, seek to question remains whether they should thus be entirely
rephrase a few statements that he made in the heat of rejected, since there is also much that has liberating
the moment (e.g. Gal 5:12). The process by which potential.)
Paul's writings came to be regarded as "scripture" was a One of the things we quickly notice is that many of
long process, taking at least 100 years. One of the most these extremes come from Paul himself. In fact, when
important questions the early churches faced--and we takes Paul's letters as a whole we find statements
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that appear to be contradictory--Paul seems to make to Paul. There are also more legendary materials
extreme remarks to solve one problem but then turns purporting to be by or about Paul that were written in
around and seems to say the opposite in other contexts the early church (second to third centuries CE), now
in order to solve a different problem. So, for instance, collected as part of the “New Testament Apocrypha.”
in some texts he sounds like a universalist (Rom 5, 11),
while elsewhere his comments go in an opposite 1. Paul the Letter Writer.
direction; in some texts he affirms the equal partnership A. Composing, writing, sending, and
of men and women, but elsewhere restricts the ministry collecting/editing Paul’s letters.
of women; in some texts he claims the Jewish Law is --available materials: reed pen, ink from soot,
bankrupt (Gal), but elsewhere he describes it as the papyrus (either in rolls on in folded stacks [“codex”)
actual will and revelation of God (Rom). What these --composition: Paul did not personally commit his
tensions reflect primarily is the situational character of words to writing, but used a secretary (called an
Paul's letters and that Paul often defends his gospel “amanuensis”). Note Rom 16:23, the only place where
between two opposite fronts. Unfortunately, reading a a secretary leaves his own obvious mark on a letter. At
letter of Paul is like listening to one end of a phone the end of his letters, Paul would often close with words
conversation--we often have a difficult time grasping written with his own hand, a sort of signature of
what's really going on in the other end (the nature of the authenticity and of personal connection (2 Thes 3:17;
problem or crisis) and why Paul reacts and argues the Gal 6:11; 1 Cor 16:21; Phlm 19; Col 4:18.
way he does. We also know that it is Paul's own --how ancient authors typically used secretaries:
missionary and theological method to adapt his secretaries were used (a) as copyists/recorders or note-
language and his approach to that of his audience, as he takers (it may be that Paul’s secretaries kept notes on
puts it, "I have become all things to all people in order parchment notebooks (cf. the scratch-and-rewrite
to win them" (1 Cor 9:19-23). Paul meets us not as an membrana [notebooks] of 2 Tim 4:13), (b) as editors
"arm-chair" theologian but as a pastoral "task" (completing a draft to the author after quick dictation,
theologian who seeks to communicate a "word on then presented to the author for approval), (c) as
target," the contextual and situational (and thus substitute authors (somewhat rarer; an author would
contingent) expression of the coherent and abiding request that a secretary compose a letter to be sent in
gospel (which he nowhere articulates in the abstract, the author’s name, with quite general content
apart from an application of it). instructions). Another possibility is that Paul’s
secretaries helped in the archiving of letters, retaining a
Appropriating Paul for Today copy of all letters sent.
Any adequate interpretation of Paul, then, must --collaborating with co-authors. Paul identifies a
take careful account of (1) the character of Paul’s letters number of co-authors in his letters: Silvanus and
as pastoral writings, (2) the circumstances and crises Timothy (1 & 2 Thes); Timothy (2 Cor, Phil, Phlm,
which motivated Paul to write, (3) Paul's theological Col), Sosthenes (1 Cor), “all the brothers with me”
method as a missionary, pastor, and theologian (by (Gal). No co-author is identified in Rom, Eph, 1-2 Tim,
which he seeks to communicate a “word on target”), Titus. The question still remains whether identifying
and (4) his indebtedness to Jewish apocalyptic theology co-authors is a literary device to enhance the appeal or
as the primary language and thought-structure to authoritity of the letter, or indicates true authorial
communicate his gospel. His letters are not designed as collaboration.
deposits of timeless, unchanging rules and advice, --the question of a “Pauline” style. The discussion
which apply to all times and places. Rather his letters of a distinctive Pauline style has occupied many
are pastoral responses to very specific issues and scholars. It has recently been argued (J. M. O’Connor)
contexts. This feature calls for special caution and care that the strongest features of oral rhetoric (indicating
in interpreting Paul's writings and in applying them for dictation at the speed of ordinary speech) can be found
today. The question becomes how Paul’s “words on in Romans and 2 Cor 10-13. Otherwise, it seems that it
target” become a “word of target” to modern Christians is quite difficult to identify a distinctive Pauline style,
in a very different context. especially when the varying roles of secretaries and co-
authors are taken into account.
Which Paul? The Historical, Canonical, or --sending letters. A government system existed
Legendary Paul only for imperial mail. Private methods depended on
The legacy of historical-critical study of Paul in the the wealth of the author. Probably in the early years,
last 100 years requires us to ask, which Paul? Critical Paul relied on strangers who happened to be going in
historians proceed only with a careful evaluation the the right direction (traders, pilgrims, migrants, etc.); but
nature of "sources." In the case of Paul, we have two once the church became established in major centers,
main sources: the Book of Acts, and letters attributed there would have been a ready network of regular
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travelers (most on business, perhaps), or church himself. (In fact, Paul didn't write any letters; he
workers supported by a church to deliver a letter. dictated them to a secretary and then added remarks in
--collecting Paul’s letters. Theories explaining the his own hand at the end of the letter. Nevertheless, we
collection of Paul’s letters are diverse. Some assume a still consider Paul as the author, since the letters
gradual process (over many years, by many ultimately come from him.) There are many reasons
individuals), others assume a more immediate, big why scholars have questioned the "authenticity" of
bang, process, in which one prime mover supervised the some letters. When we look at the letters themselves,
collection. A compromise theory is probably the best: we will look carefully at the evidence.
at first smaller collections of letters in various regions The state of opinion among mainline scholars goes
emerged, eventually to be brought together (in the first something like this:
half of the second century CE). When Pauline (a) 7 letters are treated as "undisputed letters,"
collections first emerged in the early church, the letter supposed by all scholars to be "authentic" (that is,
to the Hebrews was always included, mainly because of "authentically by Paul," not authentic or inauthentic in
its conclusion, which seems quite Paul-like (even content). These are: Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians,
though by now most scholars admit that it was not Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon.
authored by Paul). The earliest manuscript of Pauline (b) 3 letters are thought to be "deutero-Pauline,"
letters does not apparently include 1 & 2 Timothy and probably written/authored by a co-worker or disciple
Titus, but does have the writing to the Hebrews. soon after Paul's death, seeking to answer the question
--The current canonical order is arranged (more or what would Paul say if he were still here. These are:
less) according to two principles: longest to shortest, Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians.
and public to private. (c) 3 letters are thought of as clearly post-Pauline,
[see also below on the Structure of the Letters and perhaps from a time up to a generation after Paul.
Traditions embedded in the Letters] These are the so-called "Pastoral Epistles," 1 & 2
Timothy and Titus.
B. Types of letters. Paul’s letters can be grouped in In my opinion the case for pseudepigraphy is
many ways: (a) by agenda, mood, purpose, or strongest in the case of the Pastoral Epistles--they were
structure; (b) by author; (c) by recipients. The last likely composed at least a generation after Paul.
category yields the following groupings: (1) letters to a Ephesians is also probably not by Paul himself,
single “church” (1 & 2 Thes; 1 & 2 Cor); (2) letters to although it might have been "commissioned" by Paul
“churches” in a region (Galatians); (3) letters to while he was in prison; and it was originally intended as
members of churches, to “saints” (“holy ones”) in an a "circular" letter (or letter-essay) and certainly not
area (Phil, Romans, Colossians); (4) letters intended as addressed just to the Ephesians. The case against
a circular letter or letter-essay to be appreciated by Colossians and 2 Thessalonians I find to be quite
anyone (“Ephesians”, originally not addressed uncertain and I am inclined to treat them as "authentic,"
specifically to Ephesus); (5) to individuals (1 & 2 Tim, that is as “authored” in some way by Paul.
Titus); (6) to an individual and the “church” in his (3) A further issue is that of the "integrity" of
house (Philemon). “Apparent letters” (essays written in Paul's letters, that is, whether the present form of Paul's
the form of letters) are probably Ephesians, the Pastoral letters is the original form of the letters. Two problems
Epistles (1 & 2 Tim, Titus) and Hebrews. can be identified. (a) Some of the extant (surviving)
letters show signs of editing and conflating; this was
C. Potential problems in using the letters as sources for accomplished for the purposes of collecting Paul's
the “historical” Paul. When it comes to using the letters letters as a group. Thus it is likely that 2 Corinthians
as sources for Paul, we find the following difficulties: and Philippians, though quite definitely authentic, were
(1) What we have is a mere sampling of Paul's probably not originally penned in that very form. Their
writings, and then only writings from the context of his present form seems to be a combination of two or more
pastoral relations with his churches. We have no idea fragments from Paul's letters. (b) In a few cases, one
how Paul originally presented the gospel to these can detect "interpolations" inserted by later editors,
believers. either to clarify or extend Paul's advice. These are from
(2) A further difficulty is the problem of "glosses" (explanations usually inserted in a margin of a
"pseudepigraphy" or "pseudonymity," the phenomenon manuscript) later inserted as a regular part of a text.
of people writing in the name of someone else. These are rare, but likely examples are 1 Cor 14:34-35
Scholars call this the problem of the "authenticity" of and 2 Cor 6:14-7:1; Eph 1:1. Heb 13:22-25 may be a
Paul's writings, that is, whether it was actually Paul fragment of a Pauline letter tacked on to the end of
who wrote them. In the last 100 years or so, it has Hebrews.
become customary among scholars to claim that not all
letters now attributed to Paul were written by Paul
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2. Paul the Hero: Paul in the Book of Acts "the New Testament Apocrypha," writings which date
While Acts provides us with the main outline of his from the second to the fourth centuries C.E. Writings
missionary travels, it is by no means comprehensive which purport to be by Paul include: another letter to
and it is shaped by the theological and social agenda of the Corinthians, the letter or the Laodiceans (see Col
the author, whose identity remains a mystery although 4:16), and letters between Paul and Seneca (the most
associated with Paul's co-worker "Luke" in Christian esteemed Stoic philosopher of Paul's day). Accounts
tradition. In particular, it must be remembered that the about Paul include the collection now called the "Acts
speeches on the lips of Paul do not necessarily represent of Paul." Most of these "apocryphal" (Gk, "hidden")
the precise words of Paul but the author's summary of writings, which are intended to continue or to bolster
what Paul probably said in a given instance. Even if the Paul's image and authority, are worthless as historical
author was an occasional travelling companion of Paul, sources for Paul, perhaps with the exception of the
he was not present at most of the speeches given by likely historical kernel behind the story of Paul and
Paul in Acts. Acts was written between 30 and 40 years Thekla (included in the Acts of Paul) which was widely
after the events narrated about Paul and must be told in oral form in the second century before it was
considered as an interpretation of Paul. Nevertheless, written down in the early 200's. It is about a woman
Acts gives us an interesting outline of the "types" of who experiences various trials because of her desire to
speeches and sermons that Paul delivered: follow Jesus, who cuts her hair to look like a man and
refuses to marry (as a reaction against subservience to
A. Missionary-evangelistic speeches, which men), and whom Paul eventually commissions as a
illustrate Paul's adaptation to his different missionary-apostle.
audiences. Thus emerges the question of the "canonical"
--summary statements from different contexts: 9:20-30; (biblical) or "historical" picture of Paul. The
16:31; 17:1-3; 18:4-5, 28 "canonical" picture of Paul is based on all the writings
--to a Jewish synagogue in Antioch of Pisidia: 13:16- of the NT that refer to Paul or are attributed to Paul.
41 The "historical" picture is based on a narrower set of
theme: Jesus as the promised Messiah; argument writings (taking into account pseudepigraphy and
from scripture interpolations) and a critical reading of sources like
--to a rural town of Gentiles at Lystra: 14:15-17 Acts or even later accounts of Paul like the "Acts of
theme: God as one, revealed in nature; argument Paul and Thekla." The "legendary" Paul is a picture
from nature based on any literature claiming to be by or about Paul,
--to intellectual elite at Athens: 17:22-33 whether in the New Testament or later writings of the
theme: humanity's quest for God who is near to early church (the "NT Apocrypha").
all; argument from philosophy For believers who hold to the authority of scripture
B. Pastoral speeches as a whole, the distinction between the historical and
--to Ephesian elders in Miletus; Paul's farewell speech: canonical portraits of Paul becomes somewhat
20:17-35 troublesome, particularly when such a distinction is
--to his shipmates: 27:21-26, 31-34 seen to be in contradiction to a particular view of the
--references to other speeches to believers: 11:25-26, "inspiration" of scripture. Especially in pastoral, local
27-30; 12:25; 13:1-3; 15:12, 22,25, 35. church settings, it is appropriate to use sensitivity if and
C. Defense speeches when one introduces these questions raised by modern
--before mob in the Jerusalem temple: 22:1-21 scholarship.
--before the Sanhedrin, presided over by a Roman
military commander: 23:1-6 The Life and Ministry of Paul
--before Felix, procurator, in Caesarea, accused by A. Paul's life prior to faith in Messiah Jesus.
Jewish leaders: 24:10-21 Sources: Phil 3:4-6; 2 Cor 11:21-22; Gal 1:13-14; Acts
--before Festus, procurator, in Caesarea: 25:8-12 7:58; 8:1-3 9:11; 16:37; 21:39-40; 22:2-3, 28-29; 23:6.
--before Herod Agrippa II and others: 26:1-29 1. Family. Paul was born of a true Jewish family,
D. Dialogue a "Hebrew of Hebrews." Yet, he was born and raised in
--with leaders of Jewish community in Rome: 28:17-28 Tarsus of Cilicia, a major Greek city in which there was
the mingling of Eastern and Greek populations. In this
3. Non-canonical “letters” and “acts” of Paul. context, the Jewish community would have experienced
In addition to the Book of Acts and the letters the extremes of assimilation and defensiveness in
attributed to Paul in the NT, there are also writings relation to the dominant, Greek cultural surroundings.
outside of the NT which claim to be by or about Paul. From his early years, he was likely bilingual. He was
These more "legendary" sources can be found in a also born a citizen of Rome, a privileged status
modern collection of early Christian writings called
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somehow achieved by his father. He had two names for his reversal, his new understanding of entry
his two cultural worlds: Saul and Paul. requirements into the family of faith makes him an even
2. Education and Training. In accordance with more "successful" missionary.
synagogue practice, he would have started the formal
study of Torah (Law) at an early age; at age 13 he B. Paul as emissary of Messiah Jesus.
becomes a "bar mitzvah," "son of the commandment," a 1. The Transformation/reversal. (Gal 1:12,15-16; 1
fully responsible adult. Apparently Paul was either a Cor 9:1, 16; 15:3-11; 2 Cor 12:12; Acts 9, 22, 26). The
very gifted student or connected with money, since he turning point in Paul's life occurs through a vision of
as able to further his education in Jerusalem under the the risen Jesus, an experience which he likens and treats
most prestigious Rabbi (professor) of the day--Gamaliel with equal value to the experience of the original
I, student of Hillel, leader of the Pharisees. As a apostles (1 Cor 15:1-8). Paul does not dwell on the
Pharisee he claims to have excelled far beyond his experience itself (unlike Acts); and for him it was
contemporaries, being "zealous" for the Law and his mainly a “call” experience in the manner of the
ancestral traditions. His letters in our Bibles betray his prophets of old. For him what is most important is the
rabbinic training--especially in his practice of biblical meaning of this event: (a) he is convinced that the
interpretation. In the context of this learning (or else in crucified Jesus is indeed God's Messiah (a radical step
the context of Greek-style learning), he also mastered for a Jew for whom the idea of a crucified Messiah is a
many of the techniques and sources of Greek literature. contradiction in terms); (b) he feels directly called to be
Paul's world is a city world--most of his metaphors apostle/emissary to the Gentiles; (c) he evaluates the
come that world: stadiums, law-courts, markets, Law in a new way, becoming convinced of a new
processions, etc. It is clear that his prior education and understanding of the people of God and of the entry
experience in both Jewish and Greek settings provided requirements.
the presuppositions and grammar (language) for his The question emerges as to whether the term
interpretation of the Christ-event (the Gospel is "conversion" is the best term to describe this event.
incarnated in a specific culture). Indeed, it is a life-changing turn around. But it does not
In addition to his academic training Paul also correlate with what we often associate with
learned a trade. In his letters he says that he worked conversions. (a) Paul did not change from being
with his hands (1 & 2 Thes); Acts clarifies that he was a morally bad to morally good. (b) His change was not a
"leather-worker, tent-maker" (Acts 18:3). To have psychological release. A common understanding of
engaged regularly in this trade would have meant for Paul is that he was crushed by his sense of guiltiness
him a conscious stepping down in social status. before a just God and the burden of legalism and longed
3. Paul the persecutor. Our primary impression of for love and inwardness. In other words, Paul's
Paul prior to his transformation/reversal is that he was a dissatisfaction with his life in Judaism was the context
persecutor of the church of Jesus. His claims this to be for his "conversion." Instead, however, Paul's own
his only sin, a reason for which he might be considered claim is that the Solution (Jesus as Messiah) caused a
an "abortion" or "unwanted birth" (1 Cor 15); otherwise new Diagnosis of the problem (potentially oppressive
he claims to have been "blameless" under the Law (Phil and exclusive character of the Law), not the other way
3). Why did Paul persecute the church (or at least one around. (c) Paul did not change religions but rather
wing of the church, the "liberal" and Greek-speaking considered that he found the fulfilment of his Jewish
wing of Stephen and Philip)? Not because they claimed hopes; after his reversal he continues to serve the same
Jesus to be Messiah. Rather, because they called into God of the Bible and continues to live as a Law-abiding
question central institutions and tenets of the Jewish Jew (unless the context requires him to live differently--
faith, namely Moses, the Law, and the temple. Gal 2; 1 Cor 9).
According to Jewish law (Deut), apostasy of this sort is 2. Paul's self-understanding of his role; his
grounds for stoning. (The earlier persecution of the missionary strategy. Two main metaphors to describe
Jerusalem leaders by the Sanhedrin had been because of his role within the scope of God's renewing work: (a)
the popularity of the earliest community of believers, apostle/emissary (one sent with an authoritative
something which threatened the leaders--Acts 3-5.) commission) of Messiah Jesus to the Gentiles (e.g. Rom
Later, it is the claim of the exalted status of Jesus 1:5; 11:13; 15:15-16); (b) slave of Lord/Master Jesus
(blasphemy; treating the Messiah as one with divine (to indicate his ownership and total responsibility). The
status) which becomes the most significant grounds for following are key components of his strategy: (a) he
persecution by the Jewish community. seeks to go where no one else has gone before (Rom
There is some likelihood that Paul was a 15:20; 2 Cor 10:15-16); (b) he refuses to accept subsidy
missionary for the Jewish faith prior to his reversal (Gal from his churches, although he considers this a "right"
5:11). Proselytizing (name for making Jewish converts) (1 Cor 9), and works for his own livelihood, perhaps to
was not uncommon among some Pharisees. Following retain his independence as a minister from rich patrons
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(note that he does accept gifts from the relatively poorer (2) Galatia (Acts 16:6-10)
Macedonians, Phil 4:15-16) and perhaps to avoid (3) Macedonia (Philippi, Acts16:11-40;
appearing like just another wandering preacher Thessalonica, Acts 17:1-10)
pursuing financial gain (1 Thes 2:1-12; 2 Cor 2:17); (c) (4) Achaia/Greece (Beroea & Athens, Acts 17:10-
he seeks to accommodate his language and lifestyle so 34; Corinth, Acts 18:1-18)
as to be most successful (1 Cor 9); (d)he engages in 49/50-51
both public and private modes of communicating the --18 months in Corinth [1 & 2 Thessalonians]
gospel of Jesus; (e) he chooses strategically located --return to Antioch, via Ephesus (Acts 18:19-21)
urban centres for the focus of his work; (f) he uses a
network of associates to help in his ministry and to 52-57
relate to various churches. "3rd journey": (Acts 18:23-21:14)
(1) from Antioch to Ephesus (Acts 18:23-9:1)
C. An Outline of Paul’s Career as "apostle/emissary 52-55
of Messiah Jesus." Acts provides us with the basic (2) 3 years in Ephesus (Acts 19:1-41):
outline of Paul's career and with two absolute dates: the [Letter A to Corinth (see 1 Cor 5:9-11), now lost]
expulsion of Jews in Rome referred to in Acts 18:1 was [Letter B to Corinth: 1 Corinthians]
in 49 CE; and the proconsulship of Gallio in Corinth --emergency visit to Corinth
[Acts 18:12] was between 50 and 51 CE. Probable [Letter C to Corinth (see 2 Cor 2:1-11; 7:5-13, the
dates for other events are determined by correlating "tearful letter"), now lost]
isolated references to intervals of time (e.g. Gal 1-2; Ac summer 55
18:11; 19:11, 22) to this overall outline and these arrest and imprisonment in Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1:8-
specific dates. 11; Acts 19:23-41):
[probably: Philippians, Philemon, Colossians;
31/32 letter to Laodicea (see Col 4:16), now lost]
Reversal/Commission (Gal 1:12-16; 1 Cor 9:1, 16-17; 55-56
15:3-8; Acts 9:1-25; 22:4-16; 26:9-18) (3) Macedonia (Acts 20:1-2):
[Letter D to Corinth: 2 Corinthians 1-9]
Three years in Damascus and Arabia (Gal 1:17; cf. 2 [Letter E to Corinth: 2 Corinthians 10-13]
Cor 11:32-33; Acts 9:19-25) [prob. Galatians]
56
34/35 (4) Achaia: 3 months in Corinth (Acts 20:2-3)
Visit to Jerusalem, 15 days; meets with Cephas/Peter [Romans]
and James (Gal 1:18-24; cf. Acts 9:26-30) --trip to Jerusalem, via Miletus and Caesarea (Acts
20:3-14)
35-48
14 years in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21-24) 57-59
(1) Missionary work in the area of Tarsus (Acts Jerusalem and Caesarea: arrest, imprisonment,
9:30; 11:25-26) appeal (Acts 21:15-26:32)
(2) then invited by Barnabas to be part of the
leadership of the church in Antioch (Acts 11:25-30; 59-60
12:25-13:1) [Acts has extra visit to Jerusalem: Journey to Rome (Acts 27:1-28:16)
11:27-30; 12:25]
46-48 60-62
(3) "1st journey": with Barnabas to Cyprus, 2-year house arrest in Rome (Acts 28:16-30)
Pamphylia and Galatia (Acts 13:1-14:25) [Ephesians ?]
--return to Antioch (Acts 15:22-35) --uncertainty after 62: (a) probably execution
between 62-64 (1 Clement 5); (b) possibly release
48/49 and further mission work and execution in later
Jerusalem Conference (Acts 15:1-21; Gal 2:1-10) 60's.
--return to Antioch (Acts 15:22-35); conflict
with Cephas/Peter (Gal 2:11-14) and Barnabas Paul's Letters: Form and Function
(Gal 2:13; Acts 15:36-41) Paul's letters follow a stereotyped form, generally
following the typical pattern of a Greco-Roman letter.
49-52 But Paul makes some interesting alterations to the
"2nd journey": with Silas (Acts 15:36-18:22) typical pattern, giving them a distinctive form.
(1) Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:41)
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Salutation: The standard pattern is Author to e. ethical codes: e.g. clusters of moral maxims (Rom
Addressee, Greetings. Paul expands on any one of 12:9-13; 1 Thes 5:12-22), household codes (Col 3:18-
these components, and instead of the usual "greetings" 4:1), virtue and vice lists (e.g. Gal 5:19-23)
begins with a statement of "grace and peace." These traditional materials come from a variety of
Thanksgiving: A typical letter began with a thanks to sources: traditions of Jesus' words; ethical sayings of
the gods for good health. Instead, Paul begins with a Judaism; and early Christian creeds and traditions.
distinctly Christian thanksgiving and prayer, and often
introduces his major concerns indirectly in this section. The Problem of Jesus and Paul
Central Section, Body: In this section we find (1) The relationship between Jesus and Paul is both a
information exchange and updating, particularly about historical problem (what did Paul know about Jesus;
Paul's recent travels or future travel plans, and past and who mediated knowledge of Jesus to Paul; etc.) and a
future visits to the congregation, (2) various topics of theological problem (is Paul theologically interested in
teaching and doctrine, and (3) practical exhortation, the earthly ministry of Jesus; does Paul's theology
called "paraenesis." These elements are not always cohere/agree with the teachings of Jesus; etc.). The
neatly separated. evidence is as follows:
Closing: In a typical letter, one finds here a wish for (a) Paul is nearly silent when it comes to the deeds and
good health, greetings, and a "farewell." At the closing ministry of Jesus (only mentions that Jesus was born of
of his letters, Paul might include all or some of the a woman [Gal 4:4], is of David's line [Rom 1:3], died
following: (1) benediction and peace wish for the on a cross [Phil 2:8, etc.], and was poor [2 Cor 8:9]).
congregation; (2) doxology; (3) greetings [greetings (b) Paul's references to Jesus focus especially on the
from and greetings to; and sharing of "holy kiss"]; (4) cross, the resurrection, and the return. These especially
final note with his own hand, a sort of signature [in 1 are seen to have implications for salvation and for
Cor, Gal, Palm, 2 Thes]. ethics. For instance, when Paul refers to imitating
All of Paul's surviving letters were probably Jesus, he refers only to Jesus' cross--his willingness to
dictated to a secretary/scribe (called an "amanuensis"), humble himself and serve others through his martyrdom
and were carried by personal courier, probably a co- (e.g. Phil 2:5-11; 1 Cor 11:1; Rom 15:1-9). In fact,
worker or some other traveller going in the right Paul models his own life in accordance with this pattern
direction. (e.g. 2 Cor 1:3-7; chaps. 12-13). (c) Paul considers the
The letters functioned as a substitute for Paul's own "words of the Lord" to have special authority, citing
personal presence; their purpose was to maintain, them directly on occasion (1 Thes 4:1-2, 15; 1 Cor
restore, or initiate a relationship between Paul and his 7:10-11, 25, 40; 11:23-24; 14:37; cf. Ac 20:35) and
readers. All the letters were intended for public reading sometimes echoing them (e.g. Rom 12:14; Rom 13:8-
in the gathered "assembly." Even the personal letter 10).
addressed to Philemon is also addressed to the What are explanations for all this evidence? (a)
"assembly" that meets in his house. One is that Paul is simply ignorant or else reticent to
share more of what he knows about Jesus. (b) An
Traditions Embedded in the Letters alternative explanation is that Paul is theologically
Not all of the contents of Paul's letters were uninterested in the historical/earthly Jesus--only
dictated as original compositions by Paul. Paul interested in the cross, resurrection, exaltation, and
constantly quotes or alludes to earlier Christian and/or return of Jesus. (c) Another one is that Paul assumes
scriptural traditions and texts. He also refers to the fact his congregations know about the Jesus story and
that he has received traditions about the faith, which he teachings, either through his own teaching earlier or
has then passed on (e.g. 1 Cor 11:2,23; 15:1-3; 2 Thes through other available writings (e.g. "Q" exists by this
2:15; 3:6; Rom 6:17). Besides scripture quotations and time). (d) Another approach is to suggest that one
allusions, which pervade Paul's letters, the following cannot make a firm conclusion on this matter, since we
kinds of traditional materials can be also found in Paul's only have a mere sampling/selection of his writings and
letters: speeches. Paul may have in fact written more about
a. liturgy fragments: eucharistic (1 Cor 11:23-25) and Jesus in another context, now lost. (e) A final
baptismal (e.g. Rom 6:4-5,11; Gal 3:28) approach is to admit that while explanation (b) goes too
b. early Christian creeds and confessions: 1 Cor 15:3- far, Paul nevertheless presents the gospel in language
7; Rom 1:2-3; 4:25; 10:9; Gal 1:4; 1 Thes 1:10 quite different from that of Jesus or the Gospels--for
c. songs and hymns: Phil 2:6-11; Col 1:15-20 instance, Paul nowhere talks about "following Jesus,"
d. prayers: e.g. the use of Aramaic expressions, amen but rather talks about "being in Christ" or "participating
(Gal 6:18; 1 Cor 14:16; 2 Cor 1:20), maranatha (1 Cor in Christ". The question that then emerges is whether
16:22), abba (Gal 4:6; Rom 8:15) the substance of Paul's theological and ethical teaching
coheres with that of Jesus. This is a difficult matter to
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settle. It involves comparing Jesus and Paul not just on 21. On the other hand are opponents who considered
the basis of the use of certain words or statements, but themselves also to be within the Christian movement;
in terms of overall patterns, themes, and interests. some were of predominantly Jewish background (e.g.
Galatians, Phil 3, 2 Cor 2:17; 5:12; chaps 10-13; Rom
Paul's Urban Communities and the Social Level of 3), while others might have been from Gentile
Paul and his Churches backgrounds (e.g. Col 2). Paul's rhetoric against his
Most of the "churches" that Paul helped to found missionary rivals hits a peak in 2 Cor 10-13 and is quite
and organize took the form of small house church a contrast to his more relaxed perspective on his rivals
fellowships. Small in this case means fellowships of a in Philippians 1:15-18.
size perhaps between 30 to 80 members. These groups
usually met in the homes of more wealthy members Central Features of Paul's Theology
who had space enough to accomodate larger gatherings. Paul nowhere provides us with a simple summary
These meetings might have taken place in the evening, of his gospel. Paul's theology does not come to us in
focused around a common fellowship meal--it was only some pure form, but only through his situationally
later on in the history of the early church that Christians oriented letters. The quest to identify Paul's central
began to meet mainly on the first day of the week. In convictions, then, must read between the lines (using all
some locations, such as a larger center like Corinth, his letters, which themselves are only a limited
there were probably several different house churches, sampling of his preaching and teaching), seeking to
which might meet together from time to time. understand his coherent convictional world, and
Recent studies have suggested that the Pauline explicating the assumptions that stand behind, in front
churches represented a cross-section of society and that of, or alongside his specific words. Protestants have
believers came from various social levels. Many came traditionally thought that the center of Paul's theology is
from the poorest classes (e.g. 1 Cor 1:26); and at the "justification by faith," focusing on the individual's
same time, for instance in Corinth, believers were freedom from guilt--whether objective or subjective--
among the wealthiest of citizens (e.g. Rom 16:23). through God's grace. While this theme is important for
Numerous conflicts within the church were likely Paul (when properly articulated), many scholars doubt
generated from this sort of disparity (e.g. 1 Cor 11, see whether it is actually the "center" of Paul's thought. In
below). fact, this theme is missing in many of the letters. Paul’s
What about Paul's own social status? The social adeptness at rhetorical (persuasive) flexibility for the
status of a given occupation depends on the one who is gospel (1 Cor 9:19-23) is no doubt also a product of
making the evaluation. It is clear enough, however, that Paul’s “cultural hybridity,” borne out of the experience
Paul considered that his own activity as a of being brought up between two worlds (Jewish and
missionary/church planter, coupled with his role as one Greco-Roman) in an immigrant situation: Paul appears
who "worked with his hands," to be a conscious step to be able to work in quite disparate mental frameworks
down to a lower social status relative to what he might and languages (e.g. Pharisaic or Stoic), at different
otherwise have had (as a learned scribe); see e.g. Phil 3; times and places, a necessary hazard in the universal
2 Cor 12-13. Some of the conflicts between Paul and translatability of the gospel.
his congregations--particularly that between Paul and A recent scholar (J. C. Beker) has argued that the
the wealthy Corinthians--were rooted in matters of significance of Paul's theology can be identified in
status consciousness. connection with two main ideas. (1) Paul's theological
In relation to this churches, Paul considered method is essentially to seek a "word on target." What
himself (a) as "father" in the faith, which can signify we have, then, is always the "contingent" expression (in
either love and caring (especially 1 Thessalonians) or concrete situations) of Paul's "coherent" gospel (the
severity and discipline (1 Corinthians) and also (b) as abiding "truth" of the gospel). Understanding Paul's
"brother" in a new family. theological method is then a matter of appreciating the
dynamic interplay of "coherence" and "contingency."
Paul's Authority and his Opponents We see "contingent" expression on the surface of the
Paul's work generated a considerable degree of letters, but behind this is a "coherence" which the
conflict and opposition. Sometimes opponents are interpreter is drawn to pursue. (2) Paul's "coherent"
referred to specifically and sometimes they are alluded gospel focuses around the theme of the coming triumph
to or implied by Paul's statements. Paul's "opponents" of God over all forces that oppress God's creation (as
can be divided into two large categories. On the one opposed to some other narrower theme such as the
hand are opponents outside of the Christian movement, individuals' justification by faith). According to Beker,
some Jewish, others Gentile. We read of these, who the main thought structure that carries this theme is that
sometimes persecuted Paul's churches directly, in 1 of "Jewish apocalyptic," which can be summarized by
Thes 2, Phil 1, 1 Cor 16:9, 2 Cor 1-2, and Rom 12:14- four major ideas:
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(1) the dualism of the two ages, of two "power of “justice and peace,” with full expression therefore of
fields": the present age and the age to come, the reign “joy” (Rom 14:17), he limits his speculation, content to
of God versus the reign of Satan (a dualism that is at the claim that it involves a victory over all powers of
same time historical, cosmic, epistemological, darkness so that “God will be all in all” (1 Cor 15:28;
anthropological, and socio-political--that is, these cf. Rom 11:36).
power conflicts occur in the linear progress of history Some texts imply the notion of “heavenly, spiritual
and social reality, in the macro-universe of spiritual ascent” while focused on “resurrection” (e.g. 1 Cor
powers, in sources of wisdom, in the micro-universe of 15:50-57; 1 Thes 4:17; 5:10; Phil 3:11, 20-21; 2 Cor
the individual person, and in the division between the 4:16-5:9). But these texts can only be rightly
righteous/believing and the unrighteous/unbelieving); understood against the backdrop of Paul’s
(2) a universal cosmic transformation and understanding of the new age as a merging of heaven
restoration that accompanies the coming of the age to and earth in a new creation. It is clear that the dawning
come; new age involves “bodily restoration” [resurrection]
(3) the imminence of the age to come; and and the restoration of all creation (Rom 8:18-25): the
(4) the faithfulness and sovereignty of God, new age for Paul does not mean a complete
ensuring that all creation will be redeemed. replacement/destruction of the present age (of which
only the “external form” is passing away, 1 Cor 7:31).
A summary of Paul's underlying convictions would Paul does not elaborate on the “intermediate state,”
include the following: except to say that believers are “in Christ” or “with
Christ” after death (Phil 1:23; 1 Thes 4:16; 2 Cor 5:6-9;
(A) God will soon conclude/complete (through a 1 Cor 15). Heaven is never presented as the final
triumph over powers of evil) the transformation destination of believers, but only as the source of their
(i.e., "salvation, kingdom, new age, new creation, deliverance and framework of their identity.
new humanity," etc.) that was set in motion through
Jesus the Messiah. (iii) Powers: For Paul, the oppressive “powers of
evil,”which keep all creation in thrall, are named and
(i) God’s act in Christ. Beker argues that for Paul, manifested in various ways:
the Messiah's violent death is most importantly an --the Devil/Satan (e.g. 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 2:11; 1 Cor
unmasking of evil powers and his resurrection signifies 5:5; 1 Thes 2:18; Rom 16:20)
the triumph over these powers; the Messiah's death is --rulers, principalities, powers (1 Cor 2:6-8;
not simply or primarily a sacrifice for human sin, even Rom 8:38-39; Pauls sees the “powers,”
though Paul would not have disputed this aspect which especially in their earthly manifestation,
he received by tradition. And most importantly, the as created, yet fallen, with the outcome as
death and resurrection of the Messiah are together the either the rehabilitation/reconciliation
inauguration and sign of the coming world (Col 1) or the destruction/conquest of the
transformation. Crucial for Paul is the Messiah’s powers (1 Cor 2:6-8; 15:24-28).
prototypical and paradigmatic role, in salvation and in --angels and demons: (1 Cor 10:20-22)
life: in exemplifying the way of faithful trust and --death (1 Cor 15:26, 54-55)
obedience, especially in the path of the cross (e.g. Phil --sin/error
2:5-11; Rom 5:12-21; 15:2-3, 5, 7; 2 Cor 8:9; etc.). --“elements of the cosmos” (Gal 4:3, 9; Col 2:20)
These interrelated (but somewhat disparate) Powers are
(ii) For Paul, the coming transformation embraces responsible for the corruption of the “flesh” and the
all persons, all peoples and the entire universe. N.B. “law,” which the powers use for their purposes,
Paul's conceptuality of "salvation" is more resulting in the layers of alienation and “groaning” now
horizontal than vertical, more corporate than experienced (divided self; social brokenness; political
individual; it has more to do with participation in oppression; decay in all creation; e.g. Rom 7-8).
the coming of the new age in which heaven and
earth merge than the ascent/retreat of the individual (iv) Transfer Terminology: Paul uses a variety of
from earth to heaven (or to spiritual ecstasy). Paul terms and metaphors to describe believers’ transfer
does not display interest in the topography of the new into [or state within] the realm of "salvation" (and
age, or present fantastic scenes of judgment (as in the character of “salvation” itself):
Jewish and Christian apocalypses; but Revelation 20-22
would constitute an appropriate picture commentary on (a) social metaphors—
Paul’s expectation—the dawning of the new creation, in --“liberation/release/freedom/rescue” from
which heaven is realized on a restored earth.) While bondage/slavery to evil powers,
Paul knows the coming “the reign of God” to be an age decay/death, sin/error and the law (Rom
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6:6, 17-18, 22; 8:2, 21-22; Gal 1:4; 4:8; implied, e.g. Christ as the last/new
cf. transfer from the “dominion” of Adam/humanity.
sin/law to the dominion of grace, Rom Cf. being “in Christ” (the preposition en can
6:14; Col 1:13). have a primarily spatial [“in”] or
--“righteous-making/justification/justice- instrumental [“by”] sense): the phrase is
bringing”—the coming of used in relation to (a) state or process of
"righteousness," including release from salvation (1 Thes 5:18; Gal 2:17; 3:14, 26;
sin and guilt (Rom 3:21-26; 5:1, 9; 6:7; Rom 3:24; 6:11, 23; 8:2, 39; 2 Cor 5:19,
8:30; 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 2:16-17; 5:4; etc.); 21); (b) communal situation or character
cf. also defeat of Sin/Error (R 8:1-4) and of the church (1 Thes 2:14; Gal 1:22; 2:4,
exemption from “wrath” (1 Thes 1:9-10, 17; 3:28; Rom 6:11; 8:1; 12:5; 2 Cor
etc.); this imagery sometimes has a 5:17); and (c) apostolic ministers (1 Cor
legal/forensic meaning, at other times a 4:15, 17; 15:31; 16:24; Rom 9:1; 15:17;
social-relational meaning. 16:3, 7, 9, 10; 2 Cor 2:14, 17; 12:2, 19;
--“reconciliation” of alienation and enmity 13:4).
between God and humanity (Rom 5:1-11;
2 Cor 5:18-19); cf. “peace with God”; (c) ritual metaphors—
--“redemption,” i.e., literally “buying back”— --“washing/cleansing” (Eph 5:26; 1 Cor 6:11), cf.
(Rom 3:24; 8:23; 1 Cor 1:30; Col 1:14; Eph 1:7, partnership in Christ’s death and resurrection via
14; 4:30); baptism
--“adoption” as “sons/heirs”—Rom 8:14-23; Gal --being “made holy” (“sanctification, being set
3:28-4:7 (cf. Jesus as “Second Adam,” 1st-born of a apart”: 1 Cor 1:2; 6:11; 1 Thes 5:23); cf.
new family (Rom 8:29). “church” as “saints/holy ones [cf. Ex
--“belonging to” Christ (as in “being married” to 19:6]”
Christ)—Rom 7:3-4; cf. Rom 1:6; 1 Cor 15:23.
--“being known” by God (Gal 4:9; 1 Cor 8:3; (v) Immimence. Paul believes the
13:12); cf. being “foreknown” (Rom 8:29; 11:2), conclusion/consummation of the cosmic restoration to
“predestined (Rom 8:29-30; Eph 1:5, 11). be imminent, and he considers his own ministry as
--being “called/called out” (Rom 8:29-30; 1 Cor hastening the coming of the final drama (especially
1:2; etc.); cf. ekklesia, kletos/kletoi. through his mission to the nations, a key element of the
--“being/living with” Christ: with future emphasis prophetic hope for the dawning of the age to come).
(1 Thes 4:17; Rom 6:8; 8:17, 32; 2 Cor 4:4; 5:8); --Paul sees his own generation as one
with past emphasis (Eph 2:4-6; cf. Col 2:12, 13, “upon whom the concluding events of the
20; 3:1) ages have come” (1 Cor 10:11).
--time is therefore short and “compressed”: 1 Cor
(b) physical metaphors— 7:25-31; Rom 13:11-14; 16:20; Phil 4:5; 1 Thes
--re-creation and transformation toward the 4:13-5:10
recovery of the image of God and the --Paul repeated sees things (his work, the success
recovery of the broken cosmos (Rom of his mission, his accountability, etc.) through the
8:18-25; 2 Cor 3:18; 2 Cor 5:17; cf. being lens of Christ’s “parousia,” the “day (of the
made “whole,” 1 Thes 5:23; Gal 4:19, Lord),” the final “judgment,” the “judgment seat of
“Christ formed in you”; Gal 6:14-15); Christ” (e.g. 1 Cor 1:7-8; Col 3:20-21; etc.)
believers as “new humanity” (e.g. Col 3)
--“participation/partnership” (koinonia) in the (vi) In-between: As a result of this transformation
death and life of Jesus, ritualized in baptism (Rom already underway, believers stand between the tension
6; Gal 2; 1 Cor 10:14-22; Phil 3:10-11); of the "already" and the "not yet" of deliverance. Cf.
--“unification” with Christ/God (Gal 2:19- Paul’s visionary and ecstatic passion in relation to
20; Col 3:3; 1 Cor 6:17 [being “joined”]; practical sobriety (charisma vs. taxis).
Rom 6:5);
--“clothed” with Christ (Gal 3:27; Rom 13:14; (B) “From Faith(fullness) toward Faith(fullness)”:
Col 3:10-14) Participation in the reign of God, the new humanity,
Cf. “incorporation into” Christ, or being conceived as a Messianically redefined/reconstituted
“in Christ,” is both a physical and social Israel, is open to all people, through a trusting,
metaphor: “baptized into Christ” (Rom committed response ("faith, oebedience") to God's
6:3; 1 Cor 10:2; 12:13; Gal 3:27-28), with gracious initiative, thereby fulfilling the promise to
some notion of “corporate personality” Abraham (the blessing to all the nations; Rom 4; Gal 3-
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5). Believers from the nations are grafted into the root of obedience can only take place by an infusion of
of Israel, in effect becoming honorary Jews through the divine power, not only through human effort.
Messiah, the “seed of Abraham,” in whom the older
boundary markers (esp. “works of law”) have been Paul and Social Issues: Was Paul a Social
overcome. Conservative?
Slavery, Women, Government, Economics, Ecology
(C) The Church: In between the "already" and the "not By Gordon Zerbe
yet" of the coming restoration, the church (ekklesia, Interpreters through the years have raised the
"called out assembly") is called to be the question whether Paul was a "social conservative."
beachhead/vanguard (or, agent and sign, or microcosm) Here we enter an area that is filled with apparent
of the new age, in which all former social distinctions contradictions. Thus, as noted in the introduction, for
are erased (e.g. Gal 3:26-28) and in which people live some interpreters Paul is the guardian of the socio-
according to the pattern of the new age. During the in- political status quo; for others Paul is to blame for
between times, the Spirit is the “seal” and “the repression in the name of Christianity; and on the other
downpayment/guarantee” of future salvation (2 Cor hand, for other interpreters Paul remains a visionary
1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30), and power that makes whose vision of the a transformed new world motivates
renewed life possible in the present (Rom 8; Gal 5) and liberating, world-transforming action. The tension
that gifts the church for ministry (Rom 12; 1 Cor 12; stems to a great extent from the fact that Paul was both
Eph 4). a visionary and a pastor. Thus he looked for the
While situated in a cosmic battle/struggle, in which imminent transformation of the present evil world order
Christ will ultimately prevail over all hostile powers and sought to live in that light; yet, he insisted that
(Rom 12:21; 1 Cor 15:24-28; Rom 16:20; Phil 1:27-30; believers should also accommodate to their present
2:25; 3:20-21; Phlm 2), believers put on only the attire situation, the world as it still is--for the sake of getting
and weaponry of the virtues (1 Thes 5:8; Rom 6:13; along, both with fellow believers within the new,
8:32, 37; 13:11-14; 2 Cor 6:7; 10:4; Eph 6:15). diverse community, and with those outside the
community of faith.
(D) Ethics: Participation has its expectations: moral The difficulty is that Paul's restrictive, cautionary,
and ethical engagement and faithful service in response and conservative words are the most apparent, partly
to God's grace. because of the pastoral character of the letters that have
(i) Paul assumes that believers must live survived; and to this day these words are also often
according to God's will (moral expectations), preached the loudest. And it must be admitted directly,
the norms of the new age (“law of Christ” e.g. that Paul's words are more easily used and manipulated
Gal 5-6; 1 Cor 9:21). Grace and mercy is no by systems of domination than any other parts of the
escape from responsibility, but the very New Testament, perhaps of the Bible. While some
foundation and motivation for new life of interpreters have held up Paul's advice as a warrant to
service. The content of all God's expectations maintain the current social order, others have
are summarized in the command to love (e.g. sometimes argued that in Paul we have a kind of
Rom 13:8-10); and Paul's moral teaching "failure of nerve," suggesting that Paul's own theology
emphasizes "social virtues," not merely should have led him to more radical steps in the real
"personal virtues" (Gal 5). Paul also assumes world. But some have also suggested that we actually
that God's will must be carefully discerned in have a more liberating and radical Paul than often
every new situation and is not always known thought, both in thought and in practice (e.g. Neil
ahead of time (Rom 12:1-2; Phil 1:10). The Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the
importance of a life of faithful obedience can Politics of the Apostle. Orbis, 1994).
also be seen in warnings that some might lose In the next paragraphs, we will evaluate the
their status in the people of God without this evidence carefully, looking at Paul's words on five
faithful response (e.g. 1 Cor 10:1-13). topics: women, slavery, governing authorities,
(ii) Moral faithfulness is not achieved by threat of economics and labor, and ecology.
punishment or by compulsion under an inflexible law, The classic argument for Paul's social conservatism
but through an infusion of the Spirit (Rom 7:4-6; 8:1- rests on the following texts:
4) which takes place in the context of "freedom." (1) the so-called "household codes" of Col 3:18-4:1
Furthermore, within a person [the pre-believing state?] and Eph 5:22-6:9, in which people of lower stations are
a battle is waging between the "flesh" and the "spirit" exhorted to obey or be submissive (women, slaves,
so that a person is not always able to do what they children); (2) Paul's statements on submission to the
know to be right and want to do (Rom 7; Gal 5:16-17; governing authority, which seems to promote near blind
Phil 2:12-13). This is a further reason why living a life obedience since the governing authorities are "God's
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servants" (Rom 13:1-7); and (3) Paul's words in 1 Cor plantation labor to office-type, managerial, civil
7:17-24, which seem to invite believers to stay in their service-type work. [Most of the Roman "civil servants"
place and not to change their situation. were slaves; and many of the business managers of the
landed elite were slaves with large financial assets
A. Paul and Slavery ("with peculium"), since it was held that actual business
1. Background: slavery as an established dealings were beneath the dignity of an aristocrat. Note
institution in the ancient world. By the time of Paul, also that in Jesus' parables many of the business
the institution of slavery had already been around for managers of landowners are "stewards" and "slaves"
centuries, throughout the Ancient Near East, including (e.g. Lk 16:1-12; Mt 25:14-30).]
Israelite and Jewish society (despite Israel's origins and The process of being liberated from slavery is
self-identity as liberated slaves). While ancient Israel's known as "manumission." One's freedom could be
practice and law (well-known to Paul) was part of this bought by oneself (through savings), by others (one's
widespread system, some limitations and protections relatives or community), or could be granted freely by
were put in place. While slaves had the status of an owner. A freed slave was in a special legal category
property (Ex 21:32; Lev 25:46), there were limitations as a "freedman/freedwoman" (libertus/liberta) was
on a master's power, especially excessive force leading expected to be a client of the master for life and still
to injury or death (Ex 21:20,25-26). The enslavement had the stigma of slavery attached to oneself. Children
of fellow Israelites was sharply limited: debt slaves of "freedpersons" were truly free.
were to be freed on the Sabbatical year (Ex 21:2; Dt Challenges to the institution of slavery were
15:12; Jer 34:8-17), self-slavery was to end on the year extremely rare. The Jewish Essenes denounced slavery
of Jubilee (Lev 25:13,40), and female slaves [sold by and refused to own slaves (according to Philo, who
their fathers!] were given some protections (Ex 21:7- seems to have sided with this viewpoint). In the Greco-
11). These limitations were based on the Exodus Roman context, some in the upper classes freed their
liberation from slavery. There were, however, hardly rich slaves (business managers) in reward for good
any limitations on foreign slaves (Lev 25:44-46) and service (some slaves amassed fortunes as the business
female captives in war (Dt 21:10-14). Israelites were managers of rich landowners). In some mystery
also supposed to grant fugitive slaves asylum (Dt religions the slave status of an "initiated" member was
23:16-17; but cf. 1 Kgs 2:39-40). Slaves were a part of to be overlooked by the rest of the "initiated," including
the household, fully under the master: they were to be the masters. And some Stoics proclaimed the equality
given rest on the Sabbath (Ex 20:10; Dt 5:14) and to of all humans based on the idea of common descent
take part in the religious observances of the family (Seneca; Justinian).
(Gen 17:13; Ex 12:44; Lev 22:11; Dt 12:12, 18; 2. Slavery in Paul. In Paul's writings most of the
16:11,14). references to slavery or enslavement or to the buying (1
Slavery was very widespread during the Roman Cor 6:19-20; 7:23) or liberating (Gal 4:5) of slaves are
empire, and provided for much of the wealth of cities used metaphorically to refer to theological ideas (e.g.
and landed estates. As property, slaves were given very Rom 6). For instance, Paul often likens his own role as
little legal protection: they had no legal rights to marry apostle to that of "slave of Lord Messiah Jesus" even
or to have their own children; masters had absolute though he assumes slavery is a degrading status (2 Cor
power--to punish, abuse, or to kill; strong penalties 11:19-21; Phil 2:7). Paul employs this image for his
were in place for fugitives and for those harboring role in both positive and ironic ways (especially when
fugitives. Estimates are that between 1/4 to 1/3 of the confronting the status claims of the rich), without
population of Rome were slaves--a Roman senate thereby seeking to legitimize slavery as an institution.
proposal that all slaves be required to wear distinctive He uses the image to highlight his sense of being
dress (so that mixing would be curtailed) was defeated “grasped” (cf. 1 Cor 9:16; Phil 3:12), both his
since it was argued that this would allow slaves to find obligation-ownership and his status in relation to his
out how many of them there were, potentially leading to Lord, but also its ironic sense of downward mobility as
revolt. The supply of slaves came from the following the proper path of Messiah and his faithful (Phil 1:1;
sources: military captives, self-sale by the poor, sale of 2:7). Or, Paul uses the imagery of being “enslaved” to
one's child, abductions in border areas, indebtedness, the choice of being either enslaved to God, grace, or
children of slaves. A master could gain a supply of justice, or to sin and impurity (e.g. Rom 6).
slaves through purchase, inheritance, or by home When it comes to concrete references to slavery,
breeding (slavechildren are the property of the master). we see some degree of tension or ambivalence in Paul's
The actual experience of a slave depended on the letters.
particular circumstances and character of the master: a On the "conservative" side, we are confronted
master could range from benevolent to abusive (cf. 1 especially by the household codes (Col 3:22-4:1; Eph
Peter 2); the work could range from that of menial, 6:5-9). Codes such as these for those in various social
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roles were well-known in the Greco-Roman world. In 16, Paul expects Philemon to receive Onesimus as
these passages, Paul asks slaves to obey and be "more than a slave," i.e., as no longer a slave; and Paul
submissive (even to masters who are abusive) and for says that Onesimus is dear to Philemon "as a brother"
masters to be fair. Paul seems merely to Christianize both "in the flesh" (literally) and "in the Lord"
without much change the hierarchical household pattern (figuratively). Paul rhetorically argues that he is really
of the Greco-Roman world. And in addition, in 1 Cor a "partner" with Philemon (17-19) and has equal claim
7:21-24 Paul refers to the situation of slavery in over Onesimus, and might even have wanted the
connection with (and as an example for) his argument services of this slave (v. 13); but instead he says that
that believers should not try to change those conditions any loss of financial resources should be debited to
that are a function of birth or birthright (sexuality, Paul's account (vv 18-19). Finally, it is most likely that
ethnic identity, legal slave/free status given by birth), Onesimus sought out Paul in the first place because he
and one’s status as married or single--in the light of the knew that Paul was pretty well the only patron that
imminent world transformation (7:26, 29-31), which he might be able to manage his freedom, having heard (or
assumed would happen in his own lifetime. heard about) his claim of the ending of social
We also find passages, however, on a "liberating" distinctions in Christ (e.g. Gal 3:28). [This
or "radical" side. First we notice the liturgical interpretation goes against the standard one that
"charters" proclaiming the end of social distinctions in Onisimus just happened to run into Paul while Paul was
the Messiah's community: 1 Cor 12:13; Gal 3:28; Col in prison and was then converted. Had Onesimus run
3:11. The question is whether Paul meant these in away, the fugitive Onesimus would have kept himself
some concrete way as opposed to merely figuratively or clear of the authorities and far away from the prison.
spiritually. Does Paul propose simply that an Since most slaves followed the religion of their master,
attitudinal shift must take place in how a person is we must assume that Onesimus knew (or knew about)
regarded, while the structures of the status quo are Paul for some time, assuming that Philemon's
maintained? Other texts confirm that Paul meant these conversion had taken place some time previously.
not only figuratively, but also concretely as Some interpreters even argue that Philemon sent
representing the vision that will ultimately be realized Onesimus to Paul in the first place.]
in the Messiah's community. Paul thinks that We also need to take a second look at 1 Cor 7:20-
differences between slave and free are negated or 24. Paul himself realized that the situation of slavery
suspended by virtue of incorporation “in Messiah,” was not a very good analogy for his primary concern
which implies a kind of rebirth, and a change in status about whether to change one's marital status. And so
accompanying that rebirth. Paul understands one’s Paul claims in a cryptic passage (v 21) that when one
slave status as a given of birth and not generally has the opportunity to be liberated that one should avail
amenable to change, insofar as it involves life “in the oneself of it. (The elliptical Greek, mallon chesai,
flesh” or “in the world.” But “in the assembly” and “in "rather make use of," however, has sometimes been
the Messiah,” which anticipates the final eschatological taken to mean that one should "rather make use of"
reordering of relationships, all this is transformed. one's slavery [e.g. NRSV]; but this translation does not
For instance, Paul indicates that any hierarchical suit the clear direction of the passage as a whole.)
given “in the flesh” is subject to inversion in the arena Moreover, Paul emphasizes that “in the assembly” and
“of Messiah”: “for the person called in the Lord when a “in the Messiah” status, honour, and role by virtue of
slave is a freedperson of the Lord; likewise, the person birthright is both negated and inverted (e.g. 1 Cor
called who was free is a slave of Messiah” (1 Cor 7:22; 12:21-26). Thus, those born free are “slaves of
see also 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:21-31; 12:20-26). Messiah,” and those born as slaves are “freedpersons of
The case of Onesimus is also crucial. The radicality Messiah” (1 Cor 7:22). As a result, Paul invites
of Paul’s letter to Philemon (cc’d to the house-assembly believers to be “enslaved to one another” (Gal 5:13).
he is part of to give it more weight), is that Paul And in 2 Cor 11:19-21 Paul excoriates the status-
requests that the slave-owner Philemon consider the seeking Corinthians for adopting a servile attitude,
slave Onesimus free not only “in the Lord,” but also implying that slavery condition is certainly not a
grant him freedom “in the flesh.” The importance of positive or inevitable institution or condition. In other
Philemon among Paul's letters is inversely proportional words, Paul assumes that freedom for slaves is the
to its short length. While Paul nowhere commands ideal situation; slavery for him is not the norm that
Philemon to free his slave Onesimus, many interpreters God has ordained.
argue that that is essentially what Paul was saying Given Paul's commitment to the "charters" ending
(indirectly) through his crafty rhetoric: Paul is really social distinctions in the church, including slavery, how
asking Philemon to reorient his perspective on the do we explain why he nowhere condemns or works
institution and not just giving advice on a particular against the institution of slavery as a whole. One
personal circumstance (as is commonly thought). In v. answer is that Paul, quite to the contrary of thinking
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that slavery represented God's will for human society, for its members and proposing that members free their
thought that God and the Messiah would soon directly own slaves. However, a different trend became the
shake things up and that believers should therefore wait norm in post-Constantinian Christianity. Already in
for this time. Perhaps a further reason for his hesitancy Ignatius (120's C.E.) we see moves to retain slavery in
was practical--slavery was so widespread and opposition to these liberating measures and in the
established (and even among some of his converts) that Apostolic Constitutions (4th century) slaves are not
one would have to work at it through a slow process of permitted ordination.]
reform and on a case-by-case basis. It is also clear that
the horizon for Paul's vision of social transformation B. Paul and Women
was primarily, though not exclusively, directed to the Paul's comments on women seem to be the most
Messiah's community, the church, the sign and controversial today. Most Christians have come to "see
microcosm of God's reign, and not to all of society (and the light" on slavery, and now are in the process of
even in the church the vision was not applied realizing (and debating) the full implications of the
absolutely). Thus we have a tension in Paul: he biblical vision for gender equality and mutuality. In our
assumes that "in Christ" there is no slave or free (in own context, Paul's words on women appear to some
more than a merely spiritual way) and he assumes that Christians to be the most straightforwardly oppressive,
soon God will thoroughly put an end to the institution; and to others the clearest biblical words calling us to
yet, he also allows believing masters to still have slaves maintain the present order of gender distinctions. It is
and asks slaves to obey and submit; and yet again, in important to look at all of Paul's comments on the topic
the celebration of the Lord's supper especially, as we ask: What was Paul's attitude toward women and
believers are to absolutely forget about and disregard toward women in leadership? Is it consistent or
these social distinctions (e.g. 1 Cor 11)! Paul the pastor ambivalent? Does it promote mutuality or hierarchy?
lives in the midst of considerable tension and Is it liberating or oppressive, or both?
ambivalence. Unfortunately, it has taken the western 1. Paul's Patriarchal Context. First, a brief
church almost 1900 years to realize that Paul indeed summary of Paul's social context is appropriate.
thought that freedom for slaves was the ideal and that Institutionalized and internalized (that is, unconsciously
slavery was not divinely ordained, despite certain assumed) patriarchy was the pattern throughout the
restrictive passages, and realize that what Paul asked Greco-Roman world. Male heads of household had
people to wait for must now be actively pursued. total control over all aspects of their household,
[In the early church after Paul, two directions including the women (called, potestas patria,
developed: one worked against the institution of right/power of fatherhood); this is enshrined in Roman
slavery; the other accepted it fully (accommodating law. Girls and women were generally not permitted the
completely to Roman social values). 1 Peter 2:18-21, same educational advantages as boys and men. Women
similarly to Paul's household codes, exhorts slaves to were commonly assumed to be not only physically, but
submit, even to abusive masters. There is no also intellectually and spiritually inferior to men (also 1
corresponding exhortation to masters, indicating either Pet 3:7). To call someone “womanish” (gynaikarion,
that masters were not typically members of the e.g. 2 Tim 3:6-7) was considered a particular insult.
community, or that their behavior was not thought to be Indeed, given the low status and value--social and
a problem. In the Pastoral Epistles, the household economic--accorded to women, female infanticide was
codes also only address slaves, who are asked to practiced and accepted (to some extent) throughout the
submit, even to believing masters (1 Tim 6:1-2; Titus Greco-Roman world. While the Jewish community
2:9-10). Masters are also not addressed, even though it would never accept such a practice, the status of women
is clear that masters are including in the Christian in the Jewish community was not substantially different
community. Overall, the Pastoral Epistles promote the from that of the rest of the world.
Roman institution of the patriarchal household and The exceptions to this pattern of patriarchy in
Christianize it by claiming that the church and the Paul's world were extremely rare and even the most
Christian family are to mirror the ideal patriarchal liberal of Greco-Roman philosophers went only so far
household. Nevertheless, in one text, "slave-traders" as to suggest that women ought to be educated so that
are included in a list of those who will not enter the they can be even more effective in domestic duties (e.g.
kingdom of God (1:9-11). Similarly, Revelation Epictetus). Given this context, we should already ask
(18:13) includes an implicit prophetic denunciation of how different we should expect Paul to be in relation to
the slave trade by humanizing the "cargo of bodies" as his environment. We will proceed, then, by looking
representing "souls of humans." In the post-apostolic first at those texts where Paul's perspective differs
period, some texts show the church struggling against radically from his surroundings, in giving women
slavery. In 1 Clement (96 C.E.) and in Hermas (mid- significant value and roles in the Christian community,
2nd century) we see the church financing manumission and then proceed to the more restrictive passages.
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2. Texts showing mutual-egalitarian directions. need to wear veils when they do so. But to argue this
i) Numerous women named as "co-workers": case, Paul makes the following claims: "Christ is the
--Phoebe (Rom 16:1-2), called a diakonos (“minister,” head of every man, and the man is the head of his
not just “deacon”) and prostatis (="patron" or “leader,” woman" (11:3) and "[the man] is the image and glory of
not "helper"). God, but woman is the glory of man. Indeed, man was
--Prisca (Rom 16:3-5) not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither
--Mary (Rom 16:6) was man created for the sake of woman, but woman for
--Persis, Tryphena, Tryphosa (Rom 16:12), "worked in the sake of man." After mustering these "theological"
the Lord" arguments and realizing that his readers might not have
--Junia (Rom 16:17), called an "apostle"; later editors been convinced, Paul appeals to the teaching of
tried to give this female name a masculine ending "nature" (11:14-15) and to "common practice" (11:16).
(Junias, otherwise unknown in Greco-Roman literature) Paul's difficulty or ambivalence can be seen in the
so as to obscure the fact that a woman is called an disclaimer he adds in verses 11-12. [For years
"apostle." interpreters have tried to ascertain the situation that
--Euodia and Synthyche (Phil 4:2-3), called "co- caused Paul to react in this way, and to understand the
workers" actual argument, e.g. not offending the "angels." Most
--Nympha (Col 4:15), head of household, host for house have come to the conclusion that it was for some
church practical reason of balancing various attitudes regarding
--Apphia (Phlm 2) women's roles and attire that motivated him to respond
--see also Acts, the many "leading women" who joined in this way. The mystery, then, is why Paul uses the
the church (Ac 16:13-15 [Lydia, head of household and theological argument of a male-female hierarchy in
patron for Paul]; 17:4, 12, 34) creation (based on a faulty reading of Gen 1 in the light
ii) The new reality of the community of faith: of Gen 2) to bolster his exhortation--why didn't he just
ending of social distinctions: say, "We should be cautious so as not to offend those
Gal 3:28; compare 1 Cor 12:13 and Col 3:11 which with different scruples (as he does, essentially, in 1 Cor
omit the male/female distinction. 8-10 and Rom 14-15).]
iii) Passages assuming mutuality: **Col 3:18-19 - part of the so-called "household
**1 Cor 7:2-5 - wives and husbands have equal rights codes", reflecting a common pattern for social morality
over each other for conjugal relations; other Greco- in the Greco-Roman world (for other examples in the
Roman moralists assume that husbands have rights over NT, see Eph 5:21-6:9; 1 Pet 2:18-3:7; Tit 2:2-6, 9-10; 1
their wives Tim 3:4-5,12b; 6:1-2). These passages assumes the
**1 Cor 7:10-16 -assumes that women have equal legal "subordination" of women in the "household." Paul,
right to divorce .(although he discourages that option however, softens the advice of other moralists by
for both husbands and wives). adding that men should "love" their wives, not "rule"
**1 Cor 7:32-35 - says that celibacy is a virtue for men them. In this way, this advice may be radical for its
or women; most other moralists said that celibacy was own time. Nevertheless, it does show a considerable
only for men, women should get married and be accomodation to prevailing social norms of the Greco-
domestic. Roman world.
**1 Cor 11:11-12 - in a restrictive passage, Paul adds **Eph 5:22-33 - an extended elaboration of Col 3:18-
this disclaimer that ultimately men and women are not 19; here the relationship between husband and wife is
independent of each other. modeled on that of Christ and the church: Christ loves,
iv) Gifts not gendered. In lists of "gifts, Paul the church submits in obedience.
makes no distinctions according to gender (see Rom 12; 4. Radically restrictive passages.
1 Cor 12); he assumes that women will also express the These passages, though attributed to Paul in the
most desired gift in worship settings, namely prophecy NT, are usually supposed by scholars not to have come
(1 Cor 11:4-5; cf. 14:1). from the "historical Paul."
v) Men held accountable. Paul puts the onus **1 Cor 14:34-35 - "Paul" tells women to be silent in
and responsibility on men "to manage their tools" (1 the church and should learn from their husbands at
Thes 4:4); that is, he refuses to accept the "myth of the home. This text is often supposed to be an insertion by
seductress" (e.g. Eve) by which men blame women for a pious, traditionalist editor some years after Paul for
their own deficiencies. The euphemism in 1 Thes 4:4 the following reasons: (1) manuscripts show some
has been covered up by modern translations. textual dislocation, the verses are found in different
3. Passages which indicate some sort of locations, indicating that they might have been added in
restriction or subordination for women. the margins of a manuscript and then inserted at
**1 Cor 11:2-16 - Paul assumes that women will pray different places; (2) they flatly contradict 1 Cor 11
and prophesy in church, but suggests that they only where Paul assumes that women will pray and prophesy
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in church as long as they have veils; (3) the verses are point of view, certain "relatively" good actions on the
"intrusive" into the present context, that is, they don't part of the governing authorities was a sign that it may
quite fit. be having an overall good effect; and he seems to be
**1 Tim 2:8-15 - the same restriction applies as in 1 nervous that the new Christian communities might be
Cor 14:34-35, but with further elaboration and reasons: written off by the authorities as a subversive and
women are morally and intellectually deficient; Adam nationalistic Jewish sect and so encourages their
was formed first; Eve was responsible for Adam's sin; relative "subordination." (c) Romans 13 also must be
women will come safely through childbearing (the ideal read in the light of other NT passages, especially
role of women) if they live pure lives. The Pastoral Revelation 13, where in the 90's, during the oppressive
Epistles (1,2 Tim; Titus) indicate other restrictions and regime of Domitian, the imperial government (the Beast
show a very negative attitude toward women (see 1 Tim and Harlot) is presented as the minister and incarnation
5:3-16; Tit 2:3-5; 2 Tim 3:6-7). Either Paul has turned of Satan (the Dragon). In the NT, then, we have two
180 degrees from his earlier welcoming of women in perspectives on the governing authorities: as ministers
his earlier career or someone else is writing in his of God (Rom 13), or as ministers of Satan (Rev 13).
name; for many other reasons, most scholars conclude 2. The visionary, radical side. (b) Most
that the Pastoral Epistles were not written by Paul but importantly, however, Romans 13 must also be
by an admirer sometime after his death, who tried to balanced by Paul's own words that present the other
pass on what "Paul" would have said to the next side of the picture, texts in which governing authorities
generation. are treated with greater suspicion--as representing
powers that Christ will ultimately overcome. For
Our options, then, are: (1) to apply Paul's instance, in 1 Cor 2:6-8, Paul presents the "rulers of this
restrictive advice literalistically to our time, limiting the age" (which includes the governing authorities) as
role of women, (2) to write Paul off as irredeemably "doomed to perish" and accountable for having
oppressive, given the presence of such obviously "crucified the Lord of glory." In 1 Cor 6:1 he calls the
restrictive passages, or (3) to understand carefully the city court system "unjust." In 1 Cor 15:24-28 Paul
tension and ambivalence in Paul's letters themselves, as clarifies that when Christ's reign is fully realized "every
a step on the path toward God's vision of gender [other] ruler and every authority and power" (including
equality and mutuality (as in the case of slavery). earthly governing authorities) will be "destroyed." In 1
There is little doubt that Paul’s voice as a whole leads Thes 5:1-15, Paul unmasks the common imperial
us toward position (3). ideology of presenting the empire itself as the bringer
and guarantor of "peace and security" (which everyone
C. Paul and the Governing Authorities knows is based on terror and miliatry conquest)--the
1. The "conservative" side. The most commonly point is that when this rhetoric reaches its peak, Christ
cited text on this topic is Rom 13:1-7, which is usually will return to vindicate his people and creation.
used to encourage compliance or complete subservience Moreover, in 1 Thes 2:28, Paul refers to those who are
to the governing authorities, presented as hindering him--including the imperial authorities--as
"ordered/instituted" by God and "God's minister." A representing "Satan" (especially when one compares
similar perspective can be found in 1 Peter 2:13-17. this account with that of Acts 17:1-15, where those
Reflecting a very common Jewish idea based on the hindering Paul and his companions includes the
OT, namely that somehow God is sovereign over all governing authorities). To believers in the Roman
earthly rule, these passages simply propose ways in colony of Philippi, Paul emphasizes that their true
which governing authorities might serve as God's identity and allegiance--their "politeia" (i.e.,
"minister"--most significantly by rewarding good and citizenship, commonwealth)--is to heaven (i.e., God),
punishing evil. They do not provide a prescription for not to any human institution (Phil 3:20), and he reminds
ideal government, nor do they give legitimacy to every them that their "political conduct" (in Greek, politeuein,
state or every action by a state. Rather, they are lamely translated in English as "live your life") is to be
addressed to a minority group, alienated from the modeled according to the "good news proclamation" of
corridors of power. Most importantly, these texts must the Messiah (Phil 1:27), implicitly not that of the
be read and interpreted in the light of (a) the particular emperor. "Good news proclamation" (Gk, euangelion,
situation facing the Roman congregation, (b) other "gospel") itself is a politically loaded term, often used
passages in Paul (see below), and (c) other texts in the to describe "proclamations" of the emperor. In Col
rest of the New Testament and the Bible. (a) The 1:15-20 and 2:9-15, the Messiah is presented as the
immediate context is a climate of relative optimism supreme power of the world, whose reign is above all
about the new imperial administration during the early others--over all "thrones or dominions or rulers or
reign (ca. 56) of Caesar Nero (54-68), when numerous powers," whether cosmic or earthly--and whose violent
reforms were introduced. It appears that from Paul's death on the cross unmasked and "disarmed the rulers
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and authorities and made a public example of them, appears that this is the compromise reached for
triumphing over them." And finally, Romans 8:31-39 allowing Paul the freedom to preach his innovative,
echoes this perspective when it proclaims that no other "law-free" gospel in the Gentile world. (Compare Rom
"power" or "ruler"--indeed, nothing in all creation--can 15:27: "[The Gentiles" owe it to [the poor of
ever separate believers from Christ's love and Jerusalem]--for if the Gentiles have come to share in
conquering power. their [the Judeans'] spiritual blessings, they [in return]
All of these texts together indicate that to read Rom ought also to be of service to them in material things.")
13:1-7 by itself as representing the complete Pauline-- After this, it appears that Paul spent a considerable
or even the Biblical--perspective on the governing amount of time arranging for this reciprocal agreement.
authorities is surely in error. The complete perspective At various times, he exhorts believers in Galatia,
is to be found in the interplay of all these passages, Macedonia [esp. Philippi], Greece [esp. Corinth], and
Romans 13:1-7 included. And it is the task of the perhaps elsewhere to participate in this endeavor (1 Cor
church in every context, then, to discern in what ways 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8-9; Rom 15:25-33; Gal 6:6-10, which
governing authorities are ministers of God or of Satan. uses to the metaphor of "sowing" to refer to charitable
giving, as in 2 Cor 9:6-15; Rom 15:28). The book of
D. Paul and Economic Justice and Labour Acts also presents Paul as centrally involved in
1. The "conservative" argument. In matters of charitable relief funds (Acts 11:27-30), and alludes to
economics and labour, Paul is often interpreted as Paul's big Jerusalem-bound collection in Acts 24:17,
fostering a conservative, even a "bourgeois" ethic. where Paul claims that he is in Jerusalem to bring "alms
This opinion is derived from 1 Thes 4:11-12; 5:14 and 2 [Gk, "an act of mercy"] for his nation."
Thes 3:6-13, where Paul argues that every one should [Acts actually leaves us in the dark as to what
work for their own livelihood and should not be a actually happened to this relief fund, but implies
burden on anyone else. That is, Paul seems that it was marked by disaster. We can infer that
simplistically to preach the morality of "hard work" as the leaders in Jerusalem refused to accept it at first
the answer to economic difficulties, communal welfare, because it was thought of by some as "tainted"
and poverty. money. A deal was made by which Paul would
2. The visionary, radical side. That pay a large sum for a sacrificial vow of purification
interpretation, however, is surely in error. The problem in the temple. But following Paul's arrest--for
that Paul is addressing in 1 & 2 Thessalonians is which he himself was anxious (see Rom 15:30-32,
voluntary withdrawal from labour and work, because of written shortly before his arrival)--we have no hint
preoccupation with and enthusiasm (fanaticism) about as to what happened. We might assume, however,
the imminent coming of the Messiah to bring in the new that his companions (e.g. Ac 20:4) were able
age. That is, Paul is not addressing the problem of finally to distribute or hand over what must have
those who are unemployed by circumstances outside been a very sizable amount of coins (physically
their control. In addition, Paul nowhere suggests that and financially). See Acts 21-22.]
certain people are poor because they are lazy--he only Paul calls this collection a "ministry" (Gk,
says that certain lazy people (because of end-time diakonia), a “public service” (Gk. leitourgia, 2 Cor 9:2;
fanaticism) should not be allowed to be a burden on the cf. Rom 15:27; Phil 2:30), a "partnership" (Gk,
community. This is a very important distinction. koinonia) and a "gift" (Gk, charis) as part of a
And when we investigate Paul's other remarks on reciprocal partnership between richer Gentiles of the
economic questions, it is impossible to perceive him as cities and poorer Jews of Palestine (Rom 15:25-27).
promoting the mere acceptance of the unequal And Paul's exhortations as he tries to collect funds are
economic order (as if, according to common belief, it is particularly noteworthy, especially 2 Cor 8-9 (which
ordered by rewards for hard work). It is not well ironically we now use to engender "stewardship" for the
known that Paul spent a large portion of his waking church's building projects, not for collecting money for
energy (for a duration of 6 years!) organizing and re-distribution). While Paul says that contribution is
collecting (among the Greeks and Gentiles) a relief voluntary, it is also an act of obedience to the "good
fund for famine-impoverished people (Jews) of news proclamation (Gk, euangelion, i.e., "legislation")
Palestine. But Paul does not promote just charity and of the Messiah" (2 Cor 9:13). And Paul reminds the
benevolence. More significantly he champions in rich Corithians that Christ is to be their model: "though
concrete terms the goal of "equality" and solidarity with he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, so that
the lowly and poor. Let us look at the texts. by his poverty you might become rich" (2 Cor 8:9).
a. Paul and the relief collection for Judeans. And he argues that the ultimate goal is "equality" (Gk,
Paul's claims that he made a commitment to the isotēs), a legal and philosophical term that was used in
"poor" of Judea during his visit with the leaders of the Paul's day to refer to the ideal society free of disparity
Jerusalem church (Gal 2:10; ca. 48 CE). It almost and extremes of wealth and poverty (2 Cor 8:13-14).
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b. General Exhortations to be in Solidarity with the banquet." What Paul has heard, though, is that these
Poor. rich patrons are hosting the "Lord's banquet" the same
Besides the obvious social commitment illustrated way that they hosted regular social "banquets" in which
in Paul's remarks about the collection, we find more they wined and dined their business partners and
general exhortations on the topic. In 1 Thes 5:14 Paul clients. Such banquets were common, and it was
exhorts believers to "help the weak." And to the customary to leave women, slaves, and others of low
Roman believers, he identifies the "donors" as among status in the back rooms with food of lesser quantity
the significant gifted ones in the church, encouraging and quality. Paul argues that by such a practice they are
them to display "generosity" (Rom 12:8). And he "showing contempt for the church of God and
exhorts them not just to display charity and humiliating those who have nothing" (11:22) and he
benevolence from a distance, but to "be in partnership" considers it to be equivalent to "eating and drinking
(Gk, koinonountes) with the needy, to "extend without discerning the body" (i.e., the community), a
hospitality to strangers" (Rom 12:13), and even to serious taboo for which some are now ill or have died.
"associate with [i.e., be in solidarity with] the lowly" For Paul, this practice is a major affront to the fact that
(Gk, tapeinoi, a common term for those in the lowest in Christ, social distinctions of class, gender, and
class; =Lat. humiliores). And it is in a speech of Paul ethnicity have been cancelled (e.g. Gal 3:28; 1 Cor
in Acts that we read of a saying of Jesus: "it is more 12:13). For Paul, the "Lord's banquet" was the place
blessed to give than to receive" (Ac 20:35, a text which above all where the "equality" of the church was to be
emphasizes giving and does not demean receiving). demonstrated and ritualized.
c. Further Comments by Paul implying Economic Paul also warns the Corinthians about taking fellow
Virtues. believers to the civil courts for lawsuits (1 Cor 6:1-8).
Other statements by Paul also illustrate his belief in While we do not know the precise issues over which
God's special concern for those of low degree. such lawsuits were initiated, many scholars suppose
Repeatedly, Paul reminds his readers of the inversions that it was largely the richer members (who had the
that accompany the arrival of the reign of God. For financial means to do so) were taking weaker members
instance, in 1 Cor 1:26-31 and 4:8-13 Paul ironically before the magistrates to claim what was legally (but
ridicules the complacent rich among the Corinthian not always rightfully) theirs, as was the common
believers: "Not many of you were powerful, not many pattern in such societies. Finally, Paul warns the
were of noble birth. . . . But. . . God chose what is Corinthians twice about the immorality of the "greedy,"
weak in the world to shame the strong; God chose what who will be excluded from the kingdom of God (1 Cor
is low and despised in the world, things that are not, to 5:11; 6:10; on "greed" as a major vice, see also Rom
reduce to nothing things that are (i.e., the status quo), so 1:29; Col 3:5; Eph 5:5).
that no one might boast in the presence of God" (1:27- Finally, we should observe Paul’s remarks about
28). And Paul sarcastically ridicules their rich his own commitments and lifestyle as an apostle,
complacency compared to his own experience as designed to serve as a model for his churches. He
marked by impoverishment and dishonour (4:8-13; cf. 2 claims to follow the pattern established by Jesus
Cor 4:3-12; 6:3-10; 11:7-11, 23-30; 12:7-10). himself, the path of lowliness, weakness, and suffering
Accordingly, Paul exhorts his congregations to “be (Phil 2:5-11; 3:4-21; 1 Cor 4:8-13; 2 Cor 4:3-12; 6:3-
enslaved to one another” (Gal 5:13), that “in humility 10; 11:7-11, 23-30; 12:7-10; Phil 4:11-17, 17), a
each regard the other as superior in rank to oneself” divestment from privilege and former assets. His
(Phil 2:3), and that members “outdo one another in commitment to work with his hands (Acts 18:3; 20:33-
showing honour” (Rom 12:10). And in 1 Cor 12:21-26 34; 1 Thes 2:6, 9; 2 Thes 3:7-9) is both a deliberate
Paul advises his status-preoccupied members that “God statement about lowering himself in status, but also
has so composed the body [of Christ], giving greater designed to preclude any association with those who
honour to the inferior part.” preach only for the money (2 Thes 2:4-5; 2 Cor 2:17)
Some scholars, in fact, have proposed that almost and to avoid any dependency and thus accountability to
every conflict that is referred to in 1 Corinthians stems a patron. The latter explains why Paul refused to accept
in one way or another from economic realities. The any money from the relatively rich Corinthians (2 Cor
most obvious one is referred to in 1 Cor 11:17-34: the 11:7-9; 12:13-18), even though his could claim it as a
Corinthians are making a mockery out of the “right” (1 Cor 9), while accepting financial aid from the
celebration of the "Lord's banquet." The difficulty, it poorer Philippians (Phil 2:25-30; 4:10-20; 2 Cor 11:9).
seems, stems from the fact that in Corinth some of the Even with the Philippians, Paul is careful to emphasize
most wealthy in society joined the Christian movement, that their giving and receiving is a mark of their
including the city treasurer (see e.g. Rom 16:23). These “partnership” (Phil 1:5, 7; 4:14, 15), not a sign of any
wealthier members became the patrons who hosted patron/client relationship. Paul emphasizes that his
worship gatherings, which included the "Lord's
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reward is only that of a “partner” (shareholder) in the replaced at the dawn of the new age (based on the
gospel, not its employee (1 Cor 9:15-18, 23). imagery of Isa 51:6; e.g. Heb 12:26-29; 2 Pet 3:5-13;
Paul’s words in 1 Cor 7:29-31 need to be Rev 21:1), Paul is careful to say that it is the outward
understood as a call to the Christian assemblies (as form (Gk, schēma) of this age that will "pass away" (1
prefigurations of the age to come) for radical Cor 7:31) on the way to full restoration of the cosmos
disengagement with the “structures of the world- (Rom 8:19-23; Phil 3:20-21). The imagery (in Paul and
system,” not as a simple mental detachment, or elsewhere in the NT) is that of refinement and
irrational apocalyptic fanaticism. purification--to rid creation of evil--not that of
[We should also observe that later writers destruction and replacement. [See further my article,
appealing to Paul's legacy also carried on Paul's own "Ecology according to the New Testament," Direction
earlier ideas. For instance, in 1 Tim 6:6-10 the author, 21 (1992) 15-26.]
writing in Paul's name, encourages the lifestyle of
contentment as opposed to acquisitiveness (and the Paul as a Model of the Dynamic Interaction of
desire to be rich), noting that "the love of money is a Gospel and Culture
root of all kinds of evil" (6:9). And in 2 Tim 3:2 the [from lecture on "Bible, Gospel and Culture" from 1996
author warns of "lovers of money" in a list of immoral Church Workers' Convocation, SUDS]
persons.] Most of Paul's advice is very situationally geared
and to apply it indiscriminantly to any situation or
E. Ecology culture is a rather dangerous procedure. This is true
Paul, and other biblical writers, have been despite that fact that his direct exhortations in the letters
presented as being responsible for promoting or give the appearance of translatability to any situation.
allowing disregard for God's creation, the earth. It is The conceptual framework with which Paul's expresses
argued by some on one extreme that Paul would want the gospel is often difficult to translate into a new
believers to focus only on human salvation (narrowly conceptuality, especially to a non-western one.
seen as the individual's justification by faith) and not Nevertheless, having said that, Paul can also be seen as
worry about the earth's plight, since Paul assumed that a model of inculturating the gospel into a new cultural
God would destroy the present earth in the new age form and of bridging cultures.
anyway. Some on the other extreme have berated and Paul is significant in that he sought not only to
blamed Paul for having brought these ideas into bridge the gospel to new cultures but also to bridge
Christian thinking. But this interpretation of Paul is cultures. The environment of his work, cities of the
also mistaken. Greco-Roman world, were culturally and racially
For Paul the restoration of all God's creation is mixed, in addition to the other usual urban dynamics.
inseparably linked to the restoration of humanity. Paul, And so he not only had to negotiate dynamic of gospel
like other NT writers, envisions the coming of full and culture in evangelizing, but was also forced to
salvation as a renewed humanity in a renewed cosmos negotiate different cultural premises of an increasingly
(in which heaven and earth are merged). This idea is cultural diverse church. Paul comes to us as a bridge
expressed especially in Romans 8:18-25. Here Paul builder, himself of mixed heritage, having grown up
describes the coming "glory," which is a central feature within a minority community (Jewish) in a
of the coming reign of God. All creation is restored: predominantly Greek cultural environment; and he has
people are restored to whole, bodily life (resurrection is two names for each of his cultural worlds--Saul
but one small part of the envisioned cosmic renewal) (Hebrew) and Paul (Roman); contrary to popular belief,
and non-human creation is set free from the bondage it he did not receive a name change upon his vision of the
is suffering under the weight of human evil. Other risen Lord. And as a missionary he perhaps appears
passages confirm the importance for him of this more tolerable than colonial missionaries, since he does
comprehensive renewal of creation through the not bring along a dominating culture on the coattails of
Messiah. He speaks of the "new creation," the political expansion. His religious convictions grow out
reconciliation of the "world" (Gk, kosmos), and the of a minority culture. Yet, he fights the resistance when
reconciliation of "all things" (i.e., universe) in Christ-- fellow Jewish believers wanted him to export more
all of which refer to both human and nonhuman culture, which they considered as integral to the faith.
restoration (2 Cor 5:17, 19; Gal 6:15; Col 1:20; 1 Cor But since bridge builders are attacked from both sides,
15:25-28; Eph 1:10, 22; Phil 3:2; Rom 11:36) . Indeed, so too is our estimate of Paul. He is perceived as the
for Paul the Abrahamic promise to his descendants in villain who corrupted and compromised the gospel, by
faith involves the inheritance of the kosmos ("world, introducing a religion of personal redemption that left
universe," Rom 4:13; cf. 8:32). behind Jesus' integral gospel of liberation and social-
While some NT writers seem to suggest that the justice (which is a misreading of Paul). On the other
present order will "pass away" and be destroyed or hand, he is perceived as the hero, who inculturated the
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good news into a new cultural context, thereby ensuring and group, he proclaims the essential unity of all
the success of the Christian movement world wide humanity within its diversity, and he asserts that God is
(which overstates the case). immanent and close to all peoples, in other words that
Let me identify a few key features of his world in the spirit of God is at work in all cultures. Paul does
relation to gospel and culture. (1) First, he sought to not negate their cultural and philosophical perspective
inculturate the gospel. Paul expressed the gospel as bankrupt, but presents the Christian gospel in
through words, images and symbols drawn not only continuity with their pre-Christian understanding. In a
from his own tradition, including scripture and the very similar way, the early Christian theologian Justin
symbolic patterns of his Pharisaic heritage (Jewish Martyr, who further inculturated the gospel into Greek
apocalyptic), but also from his Greco-Roman cultural philosophical language and thought, argued that Plato
environment. His letters are full of words, styles, and and Socrates were Christians 300 years before Christ
concepts that mark an accommodation and assimilation existed on earth. No one raised eyebrows and bothered
to Greek culture (a process that in fact was initiated to wonder whether he was a heretic. But perhaps if an
long before his time). He explicitly affirmed all Asian today were to say the same thing about
cultures, expressed his obligation to all peoples and Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), they might be branded
subcultures, and proclaimed his desire to adapt to as syncretistic.
different cultural environments for the sake of the (3) Besides inculturating the gospel, engospeling
gospel (1 Cor 9:19-23; Rom 1:13-17; Gal 3:26-28; 1 cultures, Paul also sought to bridge cultures. Acts 13
Cor 12:13; Col 3:10-11). already gives us an amazing picture of a racially and
(2) Within this process of inculturating the gospel, culturally diverse group of leaders in the Antioch
Paul also sought to engospel cultures, that is, he church. And his interaction with the Corinthian church
affirmed the ways in which cultures manifested the especially shows that the church was culturally and
gospel even prior to the arrival of the specific gospel socio-economically diverse--in fact, many of the
about Jesus. Engospeling cultures means that no factional disputes that appear on the pages of 1
cultures are completely devoid of God's truth. Two Corinthians can be attributed to social, economic, and
passages in particular present this idea: Romans 2:11- cultural factors, not purely religious factors. There are
15 and Acts 17:22-31. In Romans 2 Paul argues that Jews and Greeks, slaves and free, independent and
when it comes to all human groups answering to God, successful women and patriarchal men, the very poor
God will display complete impartiality. Each cultural and the very rich--a recipe for disaster. And Paul tries
group will be judged according to the revelation that the impossible--to draw them into unity. Perhaps most
was manifested to them--whether they have the worrisome to Paul was the following conflict, which
scriptures or do not have the scriptures. And as a way was being played out in both local churches and in the
to challenge the pious privileging of those with the broader Mediterranean scene: there was on the one
tradition of scriptural revelation, Paul goes on to say hand strong Jewish exclusivism and absolutism among
that having God's revelation is nothing compared to some Jewish Christians, and on the other hand, a
doing it. And then he goes further, saying that some growing anti-Semitism and cultural supremacy among
peoples do what God requires even though they do not many Greco-Roman believers. Addressing this
have the written scriptural revelation. God's revelation problem in Romans 9-11, Paul argues that the mutual
is written for them not on tablets, but in their hearts, in histories of Jew and Greek are in fact interwoven, and
their own moral faculties, which provide a framework that the salvation of all peoples is interconnected--he
for evaluating their behavior. envisioned the salvation of all peoples and of all
In the case of Acts 17, Paul is preaching the gospel creation in an mutually interacting way.
to the intellectual elite of Greek society. It is a (4) And not only did Paul inculturate the gospel,
remarkable example of contextualization. Paul engospel cultures, and bridge cultures; he also
preaches the Christian gospel using concepts and challenged aspects of culture, particularly those
quotations from Stoic philosophy. It would be like aspects which were oppressive and dehumanizing to
presenting the gospel in China by referring to the sacred individuals or to groups. Interestingly, his strongest
texts and concepts of Daoism as reflecting the truth of challenges in this regard were directed to the church in
the gospel. And so Paul cloaks the gospel in the Corinth, a mixed community, but still overall, rich,
language of Stoic pan-en-theism (17:24-28). Now Paul elite, and educated. Not surprisingly, Paul refused to
goes on to stun his audience with the notion of a goal to accept financial contributions from the Corinthian
which all history is leading, characterized by church, although he received financial help gladly from
resurrection and the coming of justice throughout the the more impoverished Philippians. One small case in
world. But on the way some very significant things point is his challenge to their practice of the Lord's
have been said. In accordance with Stoic teaching, he supper. He claims it is an abomination on the true
claims that the religious quest is inherent in each person meaning of the Lord's supper: some go away stuffed
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and drunk and others go away hungry and thirsty. two. When it comes to the reality of gender inequality
Well, the rich patrons who hosted these communal and to the institution of slavery, Paul appears
events in their own homes were doing only what had ambivalent, even though he clearly points the way to
been culturally acceptable. When you hosted a banquet, full liberation in all three categories. His compromises
you served your friends, business partners and business seem to reflect at times his own inability to rise above
clients in the nicer rooms and offered them the best his own cultural boundedness (as a Jew) and at other
wines and the best foods; meanwhile, the slaves, times the tensions of negotiating cultural premises
women, children, and other dependents were relegated among his culturally mixed audiences. Well the later
to crowded rooms and the leftovers. This was common church gave back battle ground won by Paul and others
practice. But Paul claims, this meal celebrating (namely, the affirmation of all cultures and languages,
solidarity within the new community must be different. the fundamental integrity of all peoples) and also gave
And you can imagine the reaction of his readers: "You up on the skirmishes in which Paul in a sense fought a
mean I can treat my slaves as slaves six days of the low level insurgency--compromising, but not
week and on one day I have to treat them as equals? capitulating.
You're asking the impossible." And so Paul is a model for inculturating the gospel,
(5) And this brings us to the last point, Paul engospeling cultures, bridging cultures, and challenging
selected his battles in challenging cultures. We see in cultures. But I would argue, his significance is
Paul a dynamic interaction between challenging culture especially in the method of inculturating, not in the
and accommodating to culture. In the latter case, you particular form or specific results of his theological,
might say that he compromised in the positive sense, ethical, and pastoral work. Paul is a model of
not capitulating to culture, but compromising for wrestling with gospel and culture and with culture
practical reasons. For instance, in Gal 3:26-28, Paul against culture in concrete, pastoral situations. And
says that in the new community, former social and those situations are anything but free of ambiguities
cultural distinctions are to be ended: no Jew or Greek, and tensions, even as they require a solid, direct but
no slave or free, and no male or female. Paul basically sensitive articulation of God's gracious, holistic,
fought only the first battle, compromising on the second inclusive, and liberating gospel.