Formal Lab Report Writing Guidelines

Introduction

This document details the nature of an acceptable formal lab report, lists the sections required,
and explains the need for each of them. In addition, it notes some standard conventions for
writing reports of professional quality.

Rationale for Formal Lab Reports

Even though we might typically think about writing as being central to the humanities or social
sciences, natural scientists and medical professionals spend considerable time and effort writing
reports. The quality of reports written by professionals is one criterion in performance
evaluations, thus the ability to write a polished report is an essential job skill for many of you.
For these reasons, training and practice in report writing are important parts of your education.

The format of reports is similar in many fields, and includes sections similar to the ones found
here. This format has evolved over time and – by using it – you can ensure that the final report is
complete and that readers with different interests or backgrounds can readily find needed
information. An advantage for the student is that the use of a standard format reduces the time
required to construct a report.

Word processing software incorporates features that produce a professional-quality report.

These features include formatting, graphing, drawing, and spell/grammar check tools as well as
an equation editor for producing equations. All of your formal lab reports for this course should
be prepared with computer-based word processing so that you learn to employ the software
features. If you do not have a computer, PCs and Macs – as well as printers – are available for
use throughout the campus.

While report writing requires time, that time is well spent providing you the opportunity to
develop a skill useful in your career. Several strategies can reduce the time spent. First, plan
enough time to write the report. For most of us, it is usually best to work on a report in more
than one session. A rough draft is written first and set aside. The rough draft is later edited and
polished into the final version. The final version should be proofread carefully before
submission. One of the clever things a lab group can do is set up a formatted document in Word
(or another word processing program) that has all the parts and pieces with appropriate format
for the text, titles, and tables. It will also include the names of the group members ahead of time.
This document can be passed among the members as a starting place for the lab report of the
week.

Report Structure

The laboratory report is written for the convenience of the reader! Thus, each section of the
report should be headlined and the sections should be arranged in a logical sequence. The lab
report serves to describe what you did during the laboratory session, how you manipulated the
raw data, and what you conclude as a result. Think of the report as a document communicating
these ideas to your reader. The sections in a physics lab report should be arranged in the order
listed below:

1. Title and Abstract

2. Introduction
3. Theory/Background
4. Experimental Setup
5. Procedure
6. Data
7. Data Analysis
8. Results/Discussion
9. Conclusions
10. Appendix and References (if necessary)

The content of each section is described below. Most of the descriptions are general enough to
be useful for reports in other classes, though some details will almost certainly vary by
discipline.

1. Title / Abstract

The following information should begin the document:

A brief but informative title.

The name(s) of the author(s) of the lab report (with primary author first)

Date the experiment was performed.

Course name and section.

Your instructor’s name.

Following this information, you should present a brief abstract. A scientific abstract can
sometimes be a difficult thing to write, but its goal is very simple – an abstract sets out to
(briefly) outline what you did, and what you found. Think of it as an extremely abridged version
of the whole report; it should be no more than 150 words or so – and sometimes substantially
shorter than even that. Someone who reads just your abstract should have a pretty good idea of
what happened, but they shouldn’t be clear on the details yet. Note: if the final goal of your
report was to identify some specific value/quantity, it is expected that this final value (and
its associated uncertainty) is given in your abstract. Most early science writers try fitting too
much into the abstract; try to avoid this pitfall.
2. Introduction

A successful introduction to a science report is able to contextualize what will be presented in the
paper to follow. Introductions are often quite challenging to write, so keeping the big-picture
goal in mind can be quite helpful. In the context of a lab report, the “introduction” can be a mere
statement of the basic objective(s) of the work to follow. Note that, if you use this method, the
objective is seldom “to familiarize students with the use of equipment” or “to learn how to
perform some task”. Rather, the objective should identify some critical idea that your procedure,
data, and analysis attempt to address. Some key verbs that may appear in the objective include
“to investigate,” “to measure,” or “to compare”. The section should inform the reader precisely
why the project was undertaken (other than trying to pass a class and graduate). This often can
be done in a few sentences. This should not, however, just be a sentence copied from the lab
manual.

3. Theory/Background

This section is a concise description of the relevant background information necessary for the
reader to have in order to understand the rest of the paper. Sometimes, this section can be
combined together with the introduction.

The introduction section and/or the theory section will often have references and/or equations.
Any statement of fact that is not obvious or explicitly follows from another given fact should be
referenced; when in doubt, cite a source. When possible, stick to peer-reviewed sources
(textbooks, journal articles, etc.); web sources should be used as infrequently as possible.

The equations that are necessary for understanding the scientific analysis that follows should be
introduced and defined in this section. Each equation is placed on a line without any other text
and is identified by a sequential number in the right margin for ease in referencing the equation
elsewhere in the report. You will find examples throughout your lecture textbook and any book
presenting equations.

The length of this section can vary greatly depending on the experiment in question.

It is possible that you will need to start from a basic equation found in your text and then
“derive” a more applied form of an equation that will be used later in your data analysis. If such
a derivation is necessary, it is important to explain what is being done at each step in the process
so the reader can understand the steps taken to go from the “reference equation” (out of the
textbook) to the “functional equation” actually used in the experiment.

This section should not just be a list of equations!!! The theory section is meant to
contextualize the steps taken in the experimental procedure within the perspective developed by
the introduction. In other words, the introduction tells us what we hope to find out; the theory
section identifies how the scientific ideas fit together; and the following sections explain in detail
what was done.

Note that any variable used in an equation should be identified in the main text. For example:

The Kinetic Energy (K) can be readily computed by utilizing the

following relationship:

(1)

where m corresponds to the mass of the object (in kg), v the speed of
the object (in m/s) and K is measured in Joules.

4. Experimental Setup

If appropriate, provide a clear schematic drawing of the experimental set-up, along with
explanatory text. Include a description of the set-up to accompany the drawing. Where there is
no need for a drawing, this section would have a full description of the instruments used. The
reader should find all the information needed to duplicate the experimental setup. This can
usually be done in a few paragraphs.

Note that every figure/drawing/graph/plot/table must be numbered and have a stand-alone

caption. Each figure should also be referenced directly in the main text. For example:

This experiment involved placing a block on an inclined plane (see

Figure 1). The block was measured to be 5.13 kg +/- 0.02 kg with a triple
beam balance and the angle of the incline was measured to be 32˚ +/- 0.5˚
with a protractor.

Figure 1: A cartoon of the experimental setup, with additional indicators showing the associated forces present as the
block slides down the inclined plane.
5. Procedure

This section contains a detailed step-by-step procedure for the experiment. After studying the
section a reader should be able to repeat the experiment in an identical manner. Special
procedures used to ensure specific experimental conditions, or to maintain a desired accuracy,
should be noted. As with all sections of the report, the procedure describes what was done in the
lab and should, therefore, be written in the past tense. While the lab manual may be helpful
here, copying the procedure from the lab manual would almost certainly provide an
inadequate procedure section (not to mention that copying a previously published document
written by someone else is plagiarism).

You always make additional choices and procedural decisions above and beyond the actual
written procedure in the lab. Including this material in your report is very important. This
section may be several paragraphs long, and a common mistake is to omit too much detail in this
section. Remember, you are trying to convey enough detail that someone else could adequately
replicate your experiment.

6. Data

The raw data obtained during the experiment are presented in this section. Usually this section
contains only measured information, not results from manipulation of data. If the results beg to
be included in the same table as the raw data in the interests of space or presentation style, the
raw data should be identified clearly as such. The units of every number should be made
obvious to the reader.

The type of data may vary according to the experiment. In addition to numbers, data might
include sketches, images, or photographs. All numerical data should be presented in a standard
table, and the reader should be able to identify the measurement error/uncertainty associated
with each measurement without having to guess. As discussed above, each table, figure, and
graph in the report must have a caption or label and a number that is referenced in the
written text. (For example: Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.) Variables tabulated or
plotted should be clearly identified by a symbol or name. Make sure all figures have axes, and
make sure all quantities have units.

It is important to include text in this section! It is not acceptable to just write a section
heading of “Data”, give a chart, and then move on to analysis!!! Even though it might be self-
evident to you, a reader would need some sentences putting this data in context. For example:

Table 1 (below) includes the raw data acquired from Mary’s trial of the experiment. The first
column indicates the time of the trial, the second column indicates the duration of the fall (in
seconds), and the third column displays any comments associated with the trial.
Note that the information in the narrative part of the Data section may not be very detailed, but it
must be there.

7. Analysis of Data

Here the data is manipulated and interpreted. The information presented should allow anyone to
perform the same manipulations and obtain the same result. The results of the data analysis are
reported in this section, using (most often) graphs, figures, tables, or other convenient forms.
The end result should be information, usually in the form of tables, charts, or graphs that can
help facilitate discussion in the next section.

Much like the procedure section, a common mistake is to omit too much information here. Your
raw data are the facts, the introduction and theory sections give us the context, but this section
needs to naturally lead us to the conclusions and discussions in the sections below. As in the
data section, some text is necessary here – the section should not be graphs/charts and captions
alone.

8. Results/Discussion

Present your interpretation of the outcome of the experiment. You should describe, analyze, and
explain (not just restate) your results. Think in terms of answering the question “What does the
analyzed data tell me?” Compare your results with expected behavior (calculating a percent
discrepancy – remember that in the physics laboratory error is the same as uncertainty of the
measured or calculated number), if such a comparison is useful or necessary. Comment on any
unexpected behavior – giving possible explanations when able.

This section is really the “meat” of your lab report. You have now established all the factual
information relevant; now it is time to discuss, argue, speculate, adjust for mitigating factors,
consider the effects of error, and basically fully engage in the scientific process.

Some of the best science writing has almost half of the text in this section, and speculation here
is ok – so long as you are careful to frame the context and limitations of your results,
conclusions, and inferences. If your experiment did not go as planned, there should be a
discussion as to why. If it did go as planned, what else did you learn?

The results/discussion section is often the difference between a low B and a high A; demonstrate
you are actually thinking about this experiment!

9. Conclusions

Often in introductory labs the conclusions section is combined with the previous one. In any
case they are closely related. Base all conclusions on your actual results. Explain the meaning
of the experiment and the implications of your results. Examine the outcome in light of the
stated objectives. This section should answer the question “So what?” Seek to make
conclusions in a broader context in light of the results. (Try to say things more substantial than
“This lab showed that X’s law holds using this apparatus.”)

Note; if you ended up coming up with any quantitative conclusions about something, those
numerical results should be clearly recapitulated here.

10. Appendix and References (when necessary)

Using any standard (but self-consistent!) bibliographic format, cite all the published sources you
consulted during the conduct of the experiment and preparation of your laboratory report.
Sometimes, depending on the experiment, references are not necessary for a student report. If
there is any doubt, ask your instructor.

An appendix should include details of analysis, sample computations, etc. that were referenced in
the main body of the report but too bulky or lengthy to put in the main body in full. If the
appendix contains more than one type of item, each one is designated by a specific letter (e.g.
Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.).

General Formatting and Language Information

Laboratory reports are most effective if the language and style are selected to suit the
background of the reader. Reports are judged not only on technical content, but also on clarity,
ease of understanding, word usage, and grammatical correctness. Some typical trouble-spots are
outlined below.

A. Tables, Graphs, Drawings

All tables, graphs, and drawings should be explicitly mentioned in the text and referenced
by an appropriate label (Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2, etc). (Note that the label
should also accompany the appropriate figure or table in the report as part of its caption).
All figures and tables need captions! Don’t expect figures or equations alone to serve
where sentences and paragraphs should accompany them. Visual and verbal descriptions
should complement each other.

B. Verb Tense and Usage

Verb tense should be consistent (as past tense) throughout. Examples of usage:

Poor: The TA set up the equipment before the experiment was begun.

Better: The equipment was set up before the experiment was begun.

Poor: We calculated distance using the data from Table 2.

Better: Distance was calculated using the data from Table 2.

The above examples also highlight another important aspect of scientific writing;
scientific reports often embrace the passive voice. Although many writing instructors
urge you to write in an “active voice”, this practice is frequently discouraged in scientific
discourse. The reason for this is that the text is intended to be as impersonal as possible.
The experiments, observations, and results reported are (hopefully) reflections on aspects
of the world we live in and not a consequence of who conducted the experiment. As
scientific writers, we embrace this point of view not only in how we conduct our work,
but in the word choices we make in reporting our work to others as well. Examples are
included below:

Poor: John warmed up and started the death ray.

Better: The death ray was initialized by John.

Poor: We each took 5 paces to determine our average stride length.

Better: Stride length was determined through a procedure of having each group
member take 5 steps and using the total travelled distance via

Average Stride Length = Total Distance / (5 n), (2)

where n was the number of people in the group.

C. Text Formatting

The text should be single-spaced in an easy to read font. Include a blank line between
paragraphs.

D. Section Heading Formatting

The headings should be in bold type. The format used for the headings should be
consistent throughout the report and this document is a model for appropriate heading
format.

Use a heading for each section and number the headings. Any sub-sections would be
numbered the same as the section followed by a period and then a sequential number.
For example, section 8 Results might be followed by a paragraph introducing the results
and then by sections 8.1 Free-Fall Results, 8.2 Linear Acceleration Results, and 8.3
Non-Linear Accelerations Results. Note that subsections are not required but may be
appropriate in some cases.

E. Editing

By starting early, writing a rough draft and letting the report sit for a day or two, you can
approach it fresh when it is time to edit. As you edit your report, delete unnecessary
 words, rewrite unclear phrases and clean up grammatical errors. Don’t rely only on a
spell-checker. Doing so can have unfortunate results. An incorrect word but one spelled
correctly will go right past the spell-checker and can turn a simple statement into an
embarrassing one. Also beware the current word processing programs that warn you
against the use of the passive voice; remember that in scientific writing the use of the
passive voice is an asset and not something to be avoided.

These guidelines run long and are longer than some of your lab reports might be. They are
intended to make your work easier by giving you a specific plan. The idea behind a scientific
report is to say what you did in the clearest, shortest way possible. A lab report should answer
questions, not create them in a reader.

Much of the text presented here has been taken almost verbatim from a document created by Dr. Terry Richardson, who constructed this material
based on years of teaching at various levels and listening to student needs. The guidelines are also derivative of those used at the Illinois
Institute of Technology in their writing lab.