CHAPTER 1 to the emitted sounds for signs of

ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY abnormalities such as pockets of

fluid, air or scar tissue.

01: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY Dissection

● Carefully cutting and separating
Anatomy tissues to reveal their relationships.
● The study of body structures.
● The study of form. Additional: (4A)

Physiology Exploratory Surgery

● It is the study of body functions. ● Opening the body and taking a look
● Study of chemistry and physics. inside to see what was wrong and
what could be done about it.

WAYS TO STUDY STRUCTURE OF Medical Imaging Techniques

THE BODY ● Methods of viewing the inside of the
body without surgery.
Inspection
● Physical examination
● Simply looking at the body’s AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION IN
appearance, as in performing a ANATOMY
physical examination or making a
clinical diagnosis from surface Gross Anatomy (Macro Anatomy)
appearance. ● Is the study of larger structures of the
body, those visible without the aid of
Palpitation magnification.
● Taking pulse ● Studies body structure without
● It means feeling a structure with the microscope
hands, such as palpating a swollen ● Systematic and Regional
lymph node or taking a pulse.
Microscopic Anatomy
Auscultation ● Is the study of structures that can be
● is listening to the natural sounds observed only with the use of a
made by the body such as heart and microscope and magnification
lung sounds. devices.

Percussion
● The examiner taps on the body, feels
for abnormal resistance, and listens
 TWO APPROACHES IN ANATOMY 02: STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
OF THE HUMAN BODY
Regional Anatomy
● Is the study of interrelationships of
all the structures in a specific body INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
region. ● Body's outer layer. It consists of your
skin, hair, nails and glands.
Systemic Anatomy
● Is the study of structures that make Parts of Integumentary System
up a discrete body system- that is a
group of structures that work Nails
together to perform a unique body ● Just like the other body parts, nails
function. consists of several segments
including:
Additional: (4A)
The nail plate
Histology ● the part of the nail that is
● an approach used to see tissue visible.
specimens, thinly slice and stain The nail bed
them, and observe them under the ● the skin that lies beneath the
microscope. nail plate.
The cu]ticle
● the thin line of tissue that is
located at the base of the nail
BRANCHES IN PHYSIOLOGY and overlaps the nail plate.
The nail folds
Neurophysiology ● the fold of the skin located on
● Physiology of nervous system. the sides of the nail plate.
The lunula
Endocrinology ● the white-colored
● Physiology of hormones. half-moon-shaped area
located at the base of the nail
Pathophysiology plate.
● Mechanisms of disease. The matrix
● part of the nail that is not
Additional: (4A) visible, located underneath
the cuticle, this is the area
Comparative physiology responsible for the growth of
the fingernail.
 Joints
Skin ● is the part of the body where two or
● The largest and the heaviest organ of more bones meet to allow
the body. To function as a protective movement.
barrier, it must cover the entire
outside of the body from the top of a Bones
person's head to the end of the toes. ● a rigid form of connective tissue that
is part of the skeletal system of
Hair vertebrates and is composed
● Primarily comprised of a fibrous principally of calcium.
protein and contains a very small
amount of lipids and water. Ribs and Sternum
● the sternum or breastbone is a thin
Glands knife-shaped bone located along the
● The integumentary has four types of midline of the anterior side of the
exocrine glands which excrete some thoracic region of the skeleton.
types of substance outside of the
cells and body.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Sensory Nerves ● is an organ system consisting of
● Carry signals to your brain to help skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle.
you touch, taste, smell and see. It permits movement of the body,
maintains posture and circulates
blood throughout the body.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
● The body's central framework. It Parts of Muscular System
consists of bones and connective
tissues including cartilage, tendons Tendons
and ligaments. It is also called the ● a tough, flexible and inelastic band
musculoskeletal system. of fibrous connective tissue that
connects muscles to bones.
Parts of Skeletal System
Ligament
Skull/Cartilage ● a small band of dense, white fibrous,
● a framework of bone or cartilage elastic tissue that connects the ends
enclosing the brain of a vertebrate; of bones together to form a joint or
the skeleton of a person's or animal's assist in holding organs in place.
head.
Skeletal muscle
● are the only muscles that can be Peripheral nerve
consciously controlled. They are ● resides outside your brain and spinal
attached to bones and contracting the cord. They relay information
muscles causes movement of those between your brain and the rest of
bones. your body.

Smooth muscle
● lines the inside of blood vessels and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
organs such as the stomach and is ● the glands and organs that make
also known as visceral muscle. hormones and release them directly
into the blood so they can travel to
Cardiac muscle tissues and organs all over the body.
● located only in the heart. Cardiac
muscle pumps blood around the Parts of Endocrine System
body. Cardiac muscle stimulates its
own contractions that form our Pituitary gland
heartbeat. ● is located below the brain. Usually
no larger than a pea, the gland
controls many functions of the other
NERVOUS SYSTEM endocrine glands.
● is your body's command center.
Originating from your brain, it Thyroid gland
controls your movements, thoughts ● located in front of the neck, below
and automatic responses to the world the larynx(voice box). The thyroid
around you. plays an important role in the body's
metabolism.
Parts of Nervous System
Adrenal gland
Brain ● located on top of each kidney. Like
● controls most of the functions of the many glands the adrenal glands work
body including awareness, hand-in-hand with the hypothalamus
movement, thinking, speech and the and pituitary glands.
five senses; seeing, hearing, feeling,
tasting and smelling. Pancreas
● located across the back of the
Spinal cord abdomen, behind the stomach. The
● carries messages back and forth pancreas plays a role in digestion as
between the brain and the nerves that well as hormone production.
run throughout the body.
Ovaries Heart
● are located on both sides of the ● acts as a pump that makes the
uterus, below the opening of the circulation of blood- and the oxygen
fallopian tubes( tubes that extend and the nutrients blood carries- to all
from the uterus to the ovaries). the tissues of the body possible.

Testes
● located in a pouch that hangs LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
suspended outside the male body. ● is a network of delicate tubes
The testes produce testosterone and throughout the body. It drains fluid
sperm. (called lymph) that has leaked from
the blood vessels into the tissues and
empties it back into the bloodstream
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM via the lymph nodes.
● also known as the circulatory system,
pumps blood from the heart to the Parts of Lymphatic System
lungs to get oxygen. The heart then
sends oxygenated blood through Thymus
arteries to the rest of the body. The ● is a gland located behind the
veins carry oxygen-poor blood back breastbone (sternum). At birth, the
to the heart to start the circulation thymus is the largest organ of the
process over. lymphatic system.

Parts of Circulatory System Spleen

● is the organ in the upper left
Blood abdomen. Its job is to process old
● is the fluid that carries the oxygen and damaged blood cells and
and nutrients vital to the function of microorganisms.
the body, as well as the waste that
needs to be removed. Lymph nodes
● small.lentil or bean-sized organs.
Blood Vessel They serve as filter stations for the
● another essential part of the lymph of a certain body region and
cardiovascular system is the blood contain special cells of the immune
vessels, which are tubes that system, the lymphocytes which fight
transports blood throughout the infection attacking the body.
body.
Lymphatic vessels ● breaks down food into nutrients such
● are the network of capillaries as carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
(microvessels) and a large network They can then be absorbed into the
of tubes located throughout your bloodstream so the body can use
body that transport lymph away from them for energy, growth and repair.
tissues.
Parts of Digestive System

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Mouth

● is the network of organs and tissues ● is the beginning of the digestive
that helps you breathe, it includes tract. In fact, digestion starts before
your airways, lungs and blood you even take a bite.
vessels.
Esophagus
Parts of Respiratory System ● receives food from your mouth when
you swallow.
Lung ● The epiglottis is a small flap that
● take in oxygen. Your body's cells folds over your windpipe as you
need oxygen to live and carry out swallow to prevent you from
their normal functions. The lungs choking (when food goes into your
also get rid of carbon dioxide, a windpipe).
waste product of the cells.
Stomach
Trachea ● is a hollow organ, or 'container' that
● serves as a passage for air, moistens holds food while it is being mixed
and warms it while passing into the with stomach enzymes.
lungs and protects the respiratory
surface from an accumulation of Small intestine
foreign particles. ● is a 22 foot long muscular tube that
breaks down foods using enzymes
Nasal Passage/Nasal Cavity released by the pancreas and bile
● is a humidify, warm, filter and act as from the liver.
a conduit for inspired air and as well
as protect the respiratory tract Liver
through the use of a mucociliary ● has many functions but its main job
system. within the digestive system is to
process the nutrients absorbed from
the small intestine.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Gallbladder
 ● stores and concentrates bile from the ● is the human organ system
liver then releases it into the responsible for the production and
duodenum in the small intestine to fertilization of gametes (sperm or
help absorb and digest fats. eggs) and in females, the carrying of
the fetus. Both male and female
reproductive systems have organs
URINARY SYSTEM called gonads that produce gametes.
● filter blood and create urine as a
waste by-product. The organs and Male Reproductive System
the urinary system includes the
kidneys, pelvis, ureters, bladder and Penis
urethra. ● is the male organ for sexual
intercourse.
Parts of Urinary Bladder
Epididymis
Kidneys ● is a long, coiled tube that rests on the
● remove urea from the blood through backside of each testicle. It carries
tiny filtering units called nephrons. and stores sperm cells that are
created in the testes.
Ureters
● each kidney has a narrow tube called Testes
a ureter, which carries urine from the ● are oval organs about the size of very
kidney to the bladder. large olives that lie in the scrotum,
secured at either end by a structure
Bladder called the spermatic cord (covered
● is a triangle shaped, hollow organ by scrotum).
located in the lower abdomen.
Female Reproductive System
Urethra
● a tube that allows urine to pass Ovaries
outside the body. ● are the home to the female sex cells
called eggs and they also produce
Renal pelvis estrogen, the female sex hormones.
● the area at the center of the kidney.
Urine collects here and is funneled Fallopian tubes
into the ureter, atube that connects ● are narrow tunnels for fertilized eggs
the bladder to the kidney. to make its way down to the uterus.

Uterus
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 ● is a hollow, pear-shaped organ
located in a woman's lower Taken together these two processes
abdomen, between the bladder and are called metabolism. Metabolism is
the rectum. It is also called the the sum of all anabolic and catabolic
'womb' and holds the fetus during the reactions that take place in the body.
pregnancy.
Responsiveness and Movement
Vagina ● The ability of organisms to sense and
● also known as the birth canal, joins react to stimuli (changes in the
the cervix( the lower part of the environment).
uterus) to the outside of the body. ● Responsiveness. The ability of an
organism to adjust to changes in its
internal and external environments.
03: FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN LIFE ● Movement. Action using joints of
the body and motion of individual
Organization organs and even individual cells.
● A human body consists of trillions of
cells organized in a way that Development
maintains a distinct internal ● Development is any change in form
compartment. These compartments or function over the lifetime of an
keep body cells separated from the organism. In most organisms, it
external environment threats and involves two major processes.
keeps the cells moist and nourished. ● Differentiation - in which
unspecialized cells become
Metabolism specialized cells in structure and
● Metabolism is the process by which function to perform certain tasks in
your body converts what you eat and the body; and
drink into energy. ● Growth - an increase in size

Two Types of Reaction Evolution

● Occurs because mutations (changes
Catabolism in DNA structure) are inevitable and
● is the process by which larger more because environmental selection
complex substances are broken down pressures favor the transmission of
into smaller simpler molecules. some genes more than others.

Anabolism Homeostasis
● is the process whereby smaller, ● The body’s ability to detect a change,
simpler, molecules are combined into activate mechanisms that oppose it,
larger, more complex substances.
 and thereby maintain relatively chemical reactions and processes,
stable internal conditions. such as nerve impulses, and some,
such as calcium, also contribute to
the body’s structure.
04: REQUIREMENT FOR HUMAN NARROW RANGE OF
LIFE TEMPERATURE
● Body responses to heat and cold.
OXYGEN ONLY SHORT TERM.
● helps organisms grow, reproduce and
turn food into energy. Humans get NARROW RANGE OF ATMOSPHERIC
the oxygen that they need by PRESSURE
breathing through their nose and ● The pressure exerted by the mixture
mouth into their lungs. of gases (primarily nitrogen and
oxygen) in the Earth’s atmosphere.
NUTRIENTS
● A nutrient is a substance in foods
and beverages that is essential to HOMEOSTASIS
human survival.
● the body’s ability to detect change,
activate mechanisms that oppose it,
3 Basic Classes of Nutrients and thereby maintain relatively
stable internal conditions.
Water
● The most critical nutrient.
● Depending on the environmental Claude Bernard (1813 - 1878)
temperature and our state of health, ● observed that the internal conditions
we may be able to survive for only a of the body remain quite constant
few days without water. even when external conditions vary
greatly.
Energy-yielding and body-building
nutrients Walter Cannon (1871 - 1945)
● The energy-yielding nutrients are ● coined the term homeostasis for this
primarily carbohydrates and lipids, tendency to maintain internal
while proteins mainly supply the stability.
amino acids that are the building
blocks of the body itself. Dynamic Equilibrium
● balance change
Micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) ● Best described as the internal state of
● These elements and compounds the body.
participate in many essential
 ● in which there is a certain set point ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGIES
or average value for a given
variable (such as 37°C for body ANATOMICAL POSITION
temperature) and conditions fluctuate ● Standard anatomical position of the
slightly around this point. human body consists of the body
standing upright and facing forward
2 Types of Homeostasis with the legs parallel to one another.
The upper limbs, or arms, hang at
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK either side and the palms face
● process in which the body senses a forward.
change and activates mechanisms ● Supine position
that negate or reverse it.

Basic Components of Negative Feedback DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Sensor Anterior
● also referred to a receptor, is a ● At or near the front of the body
component of a feedback system that (front view).
monitors a physiological value.
Posterior
Control center ● At or near the front of the body
● is the component in a feedback (front view).
system that compares the value to the
normal range. Midline
● An imaginary vertical line that
Effector divides the body equally (right down
● is the component in a feedback the middle).
system that causes a change to
reverse the situation and return the Lateral
value to the normal range. ● Farther from midline (side view).

Medial
POSITIVE FEEDBACK ● Nearer to midline (side view)
● A self-amplifying cycle in which a
physiological change leads to even Superior
greater change in the same direction, ● Toward the head/upper part of a
rather than producing the corrective structure (bird’s-eye view, looking
effects of negative feedback. down).
Inferior BODY PLANES
● Away from the head/lower part of a
structure (bottom view, looking up) Sagittal Plane
● divides the body into right and left
Superficial half.
● Close to the surface of the body ● Midsagittal Plane. Divides the body
into equal left and right halves.
Deep ● Para sagittal Plane. Divides the
● Away from the surface of the body body into unequal left and right.

Proximal Frontal Plane

● Nearer to the origination of a ● divides the body into asymmetrical
structure anterior and posterior sections.

Distal Transverse Plane

● Farther from the origination of a ● divides the body into upper and
structure lower body sections.

BODY PART REGIONS BODY CAVITIES

Axial Region Ventral Body Cavity

● supports the head, neck, back, and ● Thoracic Cavity
chest and thus forms the vertical axis ● Abdomino-Pelvic Cavity
of the body.
● It consists of the skull, vertebral Dorsal Body Cavity
column (including the sacrum and ● Cranial Cavity
coccyx), and the thoracic cage, ● Spinal Cavity
formed by the ribs and sternum.

Appendicular Region
● includes the bones in your shoulders,
pelvis and limbs, including your
arms, hands, legs and feet.
 CHAPTER 2
THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION ATOMIC STRUCTURE

01: ELEMENTS AND MATTERS

MATTER
● Anything that occupies space and
has mass (weight).
○ solid, liquids, gases
○ physical and chemical
changes

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Inside the Nucleus
Elements ● Protons (p^+)
● Fundamental units of matter - cannot ● Neutrons (n^0)
be broken down into smaller units
● 96% of the body is made from four Outside the Nucleus
elements ● Electrons (e^-)
○ Carbon ( C )
○ Oxygen (O)
○ Hydrogen (H) ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS
○ Nitrogen (N) NUMBER

Compounds Atomic Number

● Is a substance composed of two or ● Equal to the number of protons that
more elements joined by chemical the atoms contain - also equals
bonds. number of electrons

Atomic Mass Number

ATOM ● Sum of the protons and neutrons
● Is the smallest quantity of an element
that retains the unique properties of
that element. ISOTOPES
● made up of subatomic particles ● Have the same number of protons
and electrons so the same atomic
number.
 ● very in number of neutrons so A bond is a weak or strong electrical
different atomic masses. attraction that holds atoms in the same
vicinity.
RADIOACTIVITY

Radioisotope ELECTRONS AND BONDING

● Heavy isotope
● tends to be unstable ● Electrons occupy energy levels
● decomposes to more stable isotope called electron levels or shells.
● Electrons closest to the nucleus are
Radioactivity most strongly attracted.
● Process of spontaneous atomic decay ● Each cell has distinct properties:
● releases particles (alpha, beta, ○ Number of electrons has an
gamma) upper limit.
○ Shells closest to nucleus
usually fill first
THE BEHAVIOR OF ELECTRONS ● Bonding involves interactions
between electrons in the outer shell
Electron Shell (the valence shell).
● is a layer of electrons that encircle ● Full valence shells do not form
the nucleus at a distinct energy level bonds.

Valence Shell CHEMICAL BONDS

● is an atom’s outermost electron shell.
Ionic Bonds
● Form when electrons are completely
02: CHEMICAL BONDS transferred from one atom to another.

Ions
MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS ● Charged particles
○ either donate or accept
Molecule electrons
● Two or more atoms combined ■ Anions are negative
chemically. (have accepted)
■ Cations are positive
Compound (have donated)
● Two or more different atoms ○ Opposite attract so stick
combined chemically. together (mostly from salts)
Covalent Bonds 03: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
● Atoms become stable through shared
electrons CHEMICAL REACTIONS
● single covalent bonds share one ● Chemical reactions occur when
electron atoms combine or dissociate from
● a double covalent bonds share two other atoms
electrons ○ atoms are united by chemical
bonds
POLARITY ○ atoms dissociate from other
atoms when chemical bonds
Covalent bonded molecules are broken
● Some are nonpolar
○ electrically neutral as a ENERGY
molecule ● The ability to do work
● some are polar ○ Kinetic: when energy is
○ have a positive and negative actually doing work.
side ○ Potential: when energy is
○ polar molecules orient inactive or stored.
themselves toward other
polar or charged particles
FORMS OF ENERGY

HYDROGEN BONDS Chemical

● stored in the bonds of chemical
● Weak chemical bonds substances
● hydrogen is attracted to negative
portion of polar molecule Electrical
● provides attraction between ● Results from the movement of
molecules charged particles - ions
○ surface tension: bonds
between water molecules Mechanical
○ intramolecular bonds: ● Directly involved in moving matter -
finding of different parts of muscles
the same molecule to form a
3d shape such as proteins Radiant
● Travels in waves - the
electromagnetic spectrum including
x-rays, infrared, light, radio, and uv
rays
 PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL Digestion is the process of turning
REACTIONS the food we eat into energy.
● Enzymes also help with:
○ breathing
Synthesis Reaction (A+B -> AB) ○ building muscle
● Atoms or molecules combine ○ nerve function
● energy is absorbed for bond ○ ridding our bodies of toxins
formation
● anabolic activities (constructive
activities) Catalysis
● Is the process of increasing the rate
Decomposition Reaction (AB -> A+B) of a chemical reaction by adding a
● Molecule is broken down substance known as a catalyst
● chemical energy is released when ● Catalyst - is a substance that speeds
bonds are broken up a chemical reaction, or lowers the
● catabolic processes ( decomposition temperature or pressure needed to
activities) start one, without itself being
consumed during the reaction.
Exchange Reaction (AB + C -> AC + B)
● Involves both synthesis and
decomposition reactions 04: INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
● switch is made between molecule ESSENTIAL TO HUMAN
parts and different molecules are FUNCTIONING
made
INORGANIC COMPOUND
● a substance that does not contain
ENZYMES AND OTHER CATALYSTS both carbon and hydrogen.
● A great many inorganic compounds
Enzymes do contain hydrogen atoms, such as
● are proteins that help speed up water (H2O) and the hydrochloric
metabolism, or the chemical acid (HCl) produced by your
reactions in our bodies. All living stomach.
things have enzymes. Our bodies ● In contrast, only a handful of
naturally produce enzymes. But inorganic compounds contain carbon
enzymes are also in manufactured atoms. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one
products and food. of the few examples.
● Inorganic compound, any substance
What do enzymes do? in which two or more chemical
● One of the most important roles of elements (usually other than carbon)
enzymes is to aid in digestion.
 are combined, nearly always in Water as a Heat Sink
definite proportions. ● A heat sink is a substance or object
that absorbs and dissipates heat but
EXAMPLES OF INORGANIC does not experience a corresponding
COMPOUNDS: increase in temperature. In the body,
water absorbs the heat generated by
● Water chemical reactions without greatly
● Sodium Chloride (Salt) increasing in temperature. Moreover,
● Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda) when the environmental temperature
● Calcium Carbonate (Dietary Calcium soars, the water stored in the body
Source) helps keep the body cool.
● Muriatic Acid (Industrial-Grade ● This cooling effect happens as warm
Hydrochloric Acid) blood from the body’s core flows to
the blood vessels just under the skin
and is transferred to the environment.
WATER ● At the same time, sweat glands
● Dihydrogen oxide is the most release warm water in sweat. As the
abundant substance on earth. It is water evaporates into the air, it
composed of one oxygen atom carries away heat, and then the
bonded with two hydrogen atoms. cooler blood from the periphery
● As much as 70 percent of an adult’s circulates back to the body core.
body weight is water. This water is
contained both within the cells and Water as a Component of Liquid
between the cells that make up Mixtures
tissues and organs. Its several roles ● For cells in the body to survive, they
make water indispensable to human must be kept moist in a water-based
functioning. liquid called a solution. In chemistry,
a liquid solution consists of a solvent
Water as a Lubricant and Cushion that dissolves a substance called a
● Water is a major component of many solute. An important characteristic of
of the body’s lubricating fluids. solutions is that they are
● Water also protects cells and organs homogeneous; that is, the solute
from physical trauma, cushioning the molecules are distributed evenly
brain within the skull, for example, throughout the solution.
and protecting the delicate nerve ● Water is considered the “universal
tissue of the eyes. Water cushions a solvent” and it is believed that life
developing fetus in the mother’s cannot exist without water because
womb as well. of this.
● Water readily dissolves ionic
compounds and polar covalent
 compounds. Such compounds are THE ROLE OF WATER IN CHEMICAL
referred to as hydrophilic, or REACTIONS
“water-loving.”
● Nonpolar molecules, which do not Two types of chemical reactions involve the
readily dissolve in water, are called creation or the consumption of water:
hydrophobic, or “water-fearing.”
Dehydration Synthesis
● one reactant gives up an atom of
CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTES hydrogen and another reactant gives
up a hydroxyl group (OH) in the
● The concentration of a solution is a synthesis of a new product. In the
measure of the amount of solute that formation of their covalent bond, a
has been dissolved in a given amount molecule of water is released as a
of solvent or solution. byproduct. This is also sometimes
● A concentrated solution is one that referred to as a condensation
has a relatively large amount of reaction.
dissolved solute. A dilute solution is ● two monomers are covalently
one that has a relatively small bonded in a reaction in which one
amount of dissolved solute gives up a hydroxyl group and the
other a hydrogen atom. A molecule
of water is released as a byproduct
Concentrations of Solutions: during dehydration reactions
● Percent Composition (by mass)
● Molarity. Hydrolysis
● Molality. ● a molecule of water disrupts a
● Mole Fraction. compound, breaking its bonds. The
water is itself split into H and OH.
One portion of the severed
SUSPENSION
compound then bonds with the
● a liquid mixture in which a heavier
hydrogen atom, and the other portion
substance is suspended temporarily
bonds with the hydroxyl group.
in a liquid, but over time, settles out.
● the covalent bond between two
● This separation of particles from a
monomers is split by the addition of
suspension is called sedimentation.
a hydrogen atom to one and a
hydroxyl group to the other, which
requires the contribution of one
molecule of water.
 SALT accepts H+ already present in
● are compounds that are produced by solution . The hydroxyl ions or other
the reaction of acids and bases, such base combine with H+ present to
reactions are labeled as form a water molecule, thereby
neutralization reactions. removing H+ and reducing the
solution’s acidity.

ACIDS
● are electron acceptors and proton THE CONCEPT OF PH
donators. They donate hydrogen ions
upon dissociation. ● The relative acidity or
● They are composed of at least one alkalinity of a solution can be
hydrogen atom bonded to an acid indicated by its pH.
radical (e.g. sulfate ion HSO−4 ) ● A solution’s pH is the
Inorganic acids are usually labelled negative, base-10 logarithm
as mineral acids, they are hydrogens of the hydrogen ion (H+)
bonded with conjugate bases. concentration of the solution.
● An acid is a substance that releases As an example, a pH 4
hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. solution has an H+
● Strong acids are compounds that concentration that is ten times
release all of their H+ in solution; greater than that of a pH 5
that is, they ionize completely. solution.
● Hydrochloric acid (HCl), which is ● That is, a solution with a pH
released from cells in the lining of of 4 is ten times more acidic
the stomach, is a strong acid because than a solution with a pH of
it releases all of its H+ in the 5.
stomach’s watery environment. This ● Human urine, for example, is
strong acid aids in digestion and kills ten times more acidic than
ingested microbes. pure water, and HCl is
10,000,000 times more acidic
BASES than water.
● are chemicals that neutralize acids by
donating their electrons, releasing
the hydroxide ions (OH−OH−), or BUFFERS
accepting protons. Such substances ● The pH of human blood normally
are composed of metals bonded with ranges from 7.35 to 7.45, although it
a hydroxyl group (XOH−XOH−), is typically identified as pH 7.4.
where X is any metal. ● A buffer is a solution of a weak acid
● a substance that releases hydroxyl and its conjugate base.
ions (OH–) in solution, or one that
 ● A buffer can neutralize small function in chemical reactions as a
amounts of acids or bases in body single unit.
fluids. ● You can think of functional groups
as tightly knit “cliques” whose
05: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS members are unlikely to be parted.
ESSENTIAL TO HUMAN ● Five functional groups are important
FUNCTIONING in human physiology; these are the
hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, methyl
and phosphate groups.
ORGANIC COMPOUND
● is a substance that contains both Hydroxyl
carbon and hydrogen. ● Hydroxyl groups are polar.
● are synthesized via covalent bonds ● They are components of all four
within living organisms, including types of organic compounds
the human body. discussed in this chapter.
● They are involved in dehydration
synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.
THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON
Carboxyl
● What makes organic compounds ● are found within fatty acids, amino
ubiquitous is the chemistry of their acids, and many other acids.
carbon core
● Commonly, carbon atoms share with Amino
other carbon atoms, often forming a ● are found within amino acids
long carbon chain referred to as a ● the building blocks of proteins.
carbon skeleton.
● When they do share, however, they Methyl
do not share all their electrons ● are found within amino acids
exclusively with each other. Rather,
carbon atoms tend to share electrons Phosphate
with a variety of other elements, one ● are found within phospholipids and
of which is always hydrogen. nucleotides.
● Carbon and hydrogen groupings are
called hydrocarbons.
MACROMOLECULE
FUNCTIONAL GROUP ● refers to any large molecule
● macro = large
● a group of atoms linked by strong ● some macromolecules are made up
covalent bonds and tending to of several “copies” of single units
 called monomer (mono = one; mer hundreds to thousands of
= part) monomers.

MONOMERS MONOSACCHARIDES
● form polymers by engaging in ● is a monomer of carbohydrates.
dehydration synthesis.
DISACCHARIDES
POLYMERS ● is a pair of monosaccharides.
● are split into monomers by
hydrolysis (-lysis = “rupture”). POLYSACCHARIDES
● The bonds between their monomers ● can contain a few to a thousand or
are broken, via the donation of a more monosaccharides. Three are
molecule of water, which contributes important to the body.
a hydrogen atom to one monomer
and a hydroxyl group to the other.
LIPIDS
CARBOHYDRATES ● is one of a highly diverse group of
● The term carbohydrate means compounds made up mostly of
“hydrated carbon.” hydrocarbons.
● Recall that the root hydro-
indicates water. TRIGLYCERIDES
● A carbohydrate is a molecule ● is one of the most common dietary
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and lipid groups, and the type found most
oxygen; in most carbohydrates, abundantly in body tissues.
hydrogen and oxygen are found in ● This compound, which is commonly
the same two-to-one relative referred to as a fat, is formed from
proportions they have in water. the synthesis of two types of
● Carbohydrates are referred to as molecules .
saccharides, a word meaning
“sugars.” LIPOPROTEINS
● Three forms are important in the ● Are compounds in which the
body. hydrophobic triglycerides are
○ Monosaccharides are the packaged in protein envelopes for
monomers of carbohydrates. transport in body fluids.
○ Disaccharides (di- = “two”)
are made up of two PHOSPHOLIPIDS
monomers. ● is a bond between the glycerol
○ Polysaccharides are the component of a lipid and a
polymers, and can consist of phosphorus molecule.
STEROIDS SHAPE OF PROTEINS
● (referred to as a sterol) has as its
foundation a set of four hydrocarbon (a) The primary structure is the
rings bonded to a variety of other sequence of amino acids that make
atoms and molecules. up the polypeptide chain.
(b) The secondary structure, which can
PROSTAGLANDINS take the form of an alpha-helix or a
● is one of a group of signaling beta-pleated sheet, is maintained by
molecules, but prostaglandins are hydrogen bonds between amino
derived from unsaturated fatty acids. acids in different regions of the
● Prostaglandins also sensitize nerves original polypeptide strand.
to pain. (c) The tertiary structure occurs as a
result of further folding and bonding
of the secondary structure.
PROTEINS (d) The quaternary structure occurs as a
● critical components of all tissues and result of interactions between two or
organs. more tertiary subunits.
● A protein is an organic molecule
composed of amino acids linked by PROTEINS FUNCTION AS ENZYMES
peptide bonds.
Enzymatic Reactions
● reactions—chemical reactions
MICROSTRUCTURE OF PROTEINS catalyzed by enzymes—begin when
substrates bind to the enzyme.
Amino Acid
● is a molecule composed of an amino Substrate
group and a carboxyl group, together ● a reactant in an enzymatic reaction.
with a variable side chain. This occurs on regions of the enzyme
● All consist of a central carbon atom known as active sites
to which the following are bonded:
○ a hydrogen atom Specificity
○ an alkaline (basic) amino ● Any given enzyme catalyzes just one
group NH2 type of chemical reaction.
○ an acidic carboxyl group
COOH
○ a variable group
NUCLEOTIDES
● The fourth type of organic
compound important to human
structure and function.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
● composed of a ribose sugar, an
adenine base, and three phosphate
groups.
 CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF
THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
ORGANIZATION

Cell membrane (Plasma Membrane)

THE CELL MEMBRANE
● The barrier between internal/external
CELL environments.
● is an extremely pliable structure
● Basic unit of life composed primarily of two layers of
phospholipids (a “bilayer”).
CYTOLOGY

● Study of cell
Hydrophilic

● “water loving”
ROBERT HOOKE ● repels and is repelled by water.
● one that is attracted to water
● coined the term “cell” based on the
resemblance of the small
subdivisions in the cork to the rooms
that monks inhabited Hydrophobic

ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK ● “water fearing”

● repels and is repelled by water.
● First person to observe living and
moving cells under a microscope

Amphipathic

CELL COMPONENTS ● a molecule is one that contains both

a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic
region.
● Plasma Membrane
● Cytoplasm
● Neuleus
Intracellular fluid (ICF) chemical reaction within the
cell.
● is the fluid interior of the cell.
Glycoprotein
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
● is a protein that has carbohydrate
● is the fluid environment outside the molecules attached
enclosure of the cell membrane. ○ Glycocalyx - is a
fuzzy-appearing coating
Interstitial fluid (IF)
around the cell formed from
● is the term given to extracellular glycoproteins and other
fluid not contained within blood carbohydrates attached to the
vessels. Because the lipid tails are cell membrane.
hydrophobic, they meet in the inner
region of the membrane, excluding
watery intracellular and extracellular
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL
fluid from this space.
MEMBRANE

MEMBRANE PROTEINS
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY

● allows only substances meeting

Integral Protein certain criteria to pass through it
unaided.
● is a protein that is embedded in the
membrane.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

integral proteins serve as: ● is the movement of substances across

the membrane without the
Cell Recognition expenditure of cellular energy.
○ concentration gradient - the
● mark a cell’s identity so that it can be difference in concentration of
recognized by other cells. a substance across a space.
○ receptor - a type of ○ Diffusion - the movement of
recognition protein that can particles from an area of
selectively bind a specific higher concentration to an
molecule outside the cell, and area of lower concentration.
this binding induces a
 Types of Passive transport Types of Active Transport

Simple diffusion Exocytosis

● molecules move from an area of
● “out of the cell”
higher concentration (amount) to an
● materials exit the cell
area of lower concentration Time

Facilitated Diffusion
● diffusion with the help of membrane Endocytosis
proteins (channel & carrier)
○ carrier protein - the ● “into the cell”
movement of glucose into the ● materials enter the cell
cell, where it is used to make ● the process of a cell ingesting
ATP material by enveloping it in a portion
of its cell membrane, and then
pinching off that portion of
OSMOSIS membrane
○ vesicle - membranous sac—a
● Diffusion of water molecules across spherical and hollow
a selectively permeable membrane. organelle bounded by a lipid
○ Isotonic - Two solutions that bilayer membrane.
have the same concentration
of solutes.
○ Hypertonic - A solution that ● PINOcytosis (“cell drinking” -
has a higher concentration of small materials ENTER the cell (cell
solutes than another solution drinking)
○ Hypotonic - a solution that ● PHAGOcytosis (“cell eating”) -
has a lower concentration of larger materials ENTER the cell (cell
solutes than another solution eating)

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

● is the movement of substances across

the membrane using energy from
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 THE CYTOPLASM AND CELLULAR ORGANELLES OF THE
ORGANELLES ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

Cytoplasm ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

● Area between plasma membrane and ● A set of three major organelles

nucleus together form a system within the
cell.
Cytosol ● Producing - Packaging - Exporting
● Fluid portion of the cytoplasm
necessary for biochemical reactions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Organelles ("little organ" )
● a system of channels that is
● Cell structures that perform specific continuous with the nuclear
functions membrane (or “envelope”) covering
the nucleus and composed of the
Nucleus
same lipid bilayer material.
● a cell’s central organelle, which
contains the cell’s DNA
TYPES OF ER

Rough ER
Typically membrane-bound

Nucleus ● Contain ribosomes on its surface for

protein synthesis
● Is the controls center; Involved in Smooth ER
mitosis (somatic cell division) and ● Contains no ribosomes
other cellular activities such as ○ Ribosome - an organelle that
transcription and translation (protein serves as the site of protein
synthesis) synthesis.

"Cytoplasm contains cytosol which bathes

various organelles that perform specific
tasks" The Golgi Apparatus

● Responsible for sorting, modifying,

and shipping off the products that
come from the rough ER.
 ○ flagellum - is an appendage
larger than a cilium and
Lysosome specialized for cell
locomotion.
● organelle that contains enzymes that
○ centriole - can serve as the
break down and digest unneeded
cellular origin point for
cellular components, such as a
microtubules extending
damaged organelle.
outward as cilia or flagella or
○ Autophagy (“self-eating”) -
can assist with the separation
is the process of a cell
of DNA during cell division.
digesting its own structures.
○ microfilament - is a thinner
Lysosomes are also important
type of cytoskeletal filament.
for breaking down foreign
○ intermediate filament - is a
material.
filament intermediate in
thickness between the
microtubules and
microfilaments

MITOCHONDRIA

● “energy transformer” of the cell.

THE NUCLEUS AND DNA

REPLICATION
PEROXISOMES

● a membrane-bound cellular organelle

that contains mostly enzymes Nucleus

● The nucleus is the control center of

the cell.
THE CYTOSKELETON

● a group of fibrous proteins that

provide structural support for cells, Organization of the Nucleus and its DNA
but this is only one of the functions
of the cytoskeleton.
○ Cilia - are found on many
Nuclear Envelope
cells of the body, including
the epithelial cells that line ● a membrane surrounded in nucleus
the airways of the respiratory
system.
Nuclear Pore DNA replication

● a tiny passageway for the passage of ● process by which a double-stranded

proteins, RNA, and solutes between DNA molecule is duplicated into two
the nucleus and the cytoplasm. identical DNA molecules.

Nucleolus

● a region of the nucleus that is Enzymes that participate in the

responsible for manufacturing the eukaryotic DNA replication process
RNA necessary for construction of include:
ribosomes.
DNA helicase

● unwinds and separates double

Organization of the Nucleus and Its DNA stranded DNA as it moves along the
DNA. It forms the replication fork
by breaking hydrogen bonds between
nucleotide pairs in DNA.
Chromatin
DNA primase
● composed of DNA and associated
proteins ● a type of RNA polymerase that
generates RNA primers. Primers are
Histone
short RNA molecules that act as
● a protein that provides structural templates for the starting point of
support for a chromosome. DNA replication.

Nucleosome DNA polymerase

● the basic repeating subunit of ● synthesize new DNA molecules by

chromatin packaged inside the cell’s adding nucleotides to leading and
nucleus. lagging DNA strands.

Chromosome DNA ligase

● composed of DNA and proteins; it is ● joins DNA fragments together by

the condensed form of chromatin. forming phosphodiester bonds
between nucleotides.
 Process of DNA replication ● a sequence of 3 DNA nucleotides
that stands for 1 amino acid.

1: Initiation.- The two complementary

strands are separated, much like unzipping a Transcription. the step from DNA to
zipper. Special enzymes, including helicase, mRNA.
untwist and separate the two strands of
DNA. Translation. the step from mRNA to
protein.
2: Elongation- A process in which DNA
polymerases create a new strand.

3: Termination.- occurs when two UAG, UGA, and UAA—are called stop
replication forks meet on the same stretch of codons; they signal “end of message,” like
DNA the period at the end of a sentence.

TRANSCRIPTION
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Transcription
Protein synthesis
● process of copying genetic
● is the creation of proteins by cells instructions from DNA to RNA.
that use DNA, RNA, and various
RNA polymerase
enzymes.
● an enzyme that binds to the DNA
Proteome
and assembles the RNA.
● millions of different proteins.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Gene
● is a type of single-stranded RNA
● provides the genetic information involved in protein synthesis.
necessary to build a protein.
Codon
Gene expression
● is a three-base sequence of Mrna.
● transforms the information coded in
a gene to a final gene product.

triplet
 3 Stages of Transcription This job is carried out by the following
participants:
Stage 1: Initiation
1. mRNA
● A region at the beginning of the gene ● carries the genetic code from the
– promoter. nucleus to the cytoplasm.
2. tRNA
Stage 2: Elongation
● small RNA whose bind a free amino
● Transcription starts when RNA acid and deliver it to the ribosome to
polymerase unwinds the DNA be added to a growing protein chain.
segment. RNA polymerase is an
3. Ribosomes
enzyme that adds new nucleotides to
a growing strand of RNA. ● exist in the cytoplasm as two distinct
components, a small and a large
Stage 3: Termination
subunit.
● When the polymerase has reached
the end of the gene, one of three
specific triplets (UAA, UAG, or rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
UGA) codes a “stop” signal, which
triggers the enzymes to terminate ● type of RNA together with proteins
transcription and release the mRNA composes of ribosome.
transcript.

3 Stages of Translation.
TRANSLATION
Initiation
Translation
● An initiator tRNA with the anticodon
● process translating from nucleotides UAC pairs with the start codon
to amino acids. AUG.

anticodon Elongation

● three bases on the tRNA molecule. ● The next tRNA arrives, carrying
another amino acid; it binds to the
ribosome and its anticodon pairs
with the second codon of the mRNA.
Termination Mitosis
● division of genetic material, during
● the process continues until the final which the cell nucleus breaks down
codon on the mRNA is reached and two new, fully functional, nuclei
which provides a “stop” message. are formed.

Cytokinesis
● divides the cytoplasm into two
distinctive cells.
CELLULAR GROWTH AND DIVISION

Somatic cell INTERPHASE

● is a general term for a body cell, and

all human cells, except germ cells. G1 phase
● growth phase in the cell cycle.
Homologous
S phase
● pair of chromosomes are the two
● period during which a cell replicates
copies of a single chromosome found
its DNA.
in each somatic cell.
G2 phase
● cell continues to grow and makes the
The human is a diploid organism, having 23 necessary preparations for mitosis.
homologous pairs of chromosomes in each
of the somatic cells. G0 phase
● resting phase of the cell cycle.

THE CELL CYCLE

MITOTIC PHASE
A series of events that takes place in a cell
as it grows and divides.
Prophase
● loosely packed chromatin coils and
condenses into visible chromosomes.
Three general phases:
○ centrosome is a pair of
centrioles together.
Interphase
○ mitotic spindle is the
● period of the cell cycle during which
structure composed of the
the cell is not dividing.
centrosomes and their
emerging microtubules.
 ○ kinetochore is a protein Meiosis
structure on the centromere.
● a type of cell division in sexually
Metaphase reproducing organisms that reduces
● the sister chromatids, with their the number of chromosomes in
attached microtubules, line up along gametes
a linear plane in the middle of the
Meiosis I
cell.
○ metaphase plate forms ● homologous pairs separate during a
between the centrosomes that first round of cell division.
are now located at either end
of the cell. Meiosis II

Anaphase ● Sister chromatids separate.

● chromosomes are pulled to opposite
ends of the cell by their
kinetochores, as the microtubules Phases of Meiosis I
shorten. ✔ Prophase I
✔ Metaphase I
Telophase (Cytokinesis) ✔ Anaphase I
● formation of two new daughter ✔ Telophase I
nuclei at either end of the dividing
cell. Phases of Meiosis II
✔ Prophase II
✔ Metaphase II
✔ Anaphase II
Checkpoints
✔ Telophase II
✔ G1/S
✔ G2/M
✔ M
CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION

Cell differentiation
sister chromatid
● is the process of cells becoming
● two identical halves of a specialized as their body develops.
chromosome

centromere

● is the structure that attaches one

sister chromatid to another.
stem cell Transcription factors are proteins that
affect the binding of RNA polymerase to a
● is an unspecialized cell that can particular gene on the DNA molecule.
divide without limit as needed and
can, under specific conditions,
differentiate into specialized cells.

Categories of stem cells:

✔ Totipotent. they have the potential to
differentiate into any of the cells needed to
enable an organism to grow and develop.

✔ Pluripotent. has the potential to

differentiate into any type of human tissue
but cannot support the full development of
an organism.

✔ Multipotent. has the potential to

differentiate into different types of cells
within a given cell lineage or small number
of lineages.

✔ Oligopotent. stem cell is limited to

becoming one of a few different cell types.

✔ Unipotent. cell is fully specialized

and can only reproduce to generate more of
its own specific cell type.

The primary mechanism by which genes are

turned “on” or “off” is through
transcription factors.