Table 5.

7 Ultimate shear stress iRd1, N/mm2

100 As Effective depth, mm
bwd 150 175 200 225 250 300 400 500 >600
< 0.15 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.45 0.42 0.38
0.25 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.53 0.51 0.47 0.43 0.39
0.50 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.42
0.75 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.50 0.45
1.00 0.70 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.53 0.48
1.50 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54
2.00 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.72 0.66 0.60
> 3.00 1.04 1.03 1.01 0.99 0.97 0.94 0.86 0.79 0.72

Notes to Table 5.7

1. The tabulated values apply for fck = 25N/mm2
For fck = 20N/mm2 the tabulated values should be multiplied by 0.87
For fck = 30N/mm32 the tabulated values should be multiplied by 1.13
For fck = 35N/mm2 the tabulated values should be multiplied by 1.23
For fck = 40N/mm2 the tabulated values should be multiplied by 1.36
2. The Table does not allow for any contribution from axial loads. For an axial compression where stress of
mcp = (N/Ac) (N/mm2), the Table values should be increased by 0.15mcp, where N is the design axial load
and Ac is the area of concrete section.

The shear is now checked on perimeter (c). If reinforcement is required then this is
provided between perimeter (a) and (c) in an analogous way to that used for the check on
the critical perimeter.
5.2.4.3 Openings
When openings in floors or roofs are required such openings should be trimmed where nec-
essary by special beams or reinforcement so that the designed strength of the surrounding
floor is not unduly impaired by the opening. Due regard should be paid to the possibility
of diagonal cracks developing at the corners of openings. The area of reinforcement inter-
rupted by such openings should be replaced by an equivalent amount, half of which should
be placed along each edge of the opening.
For flat slabs, openings in the column strips should be avoided.

5.2.5 Span/effective depth ratios

The span/effective depth ratio should not exceed the appropriate value in Table 5.8.

5.2.6 Section design – ribbed and coffered slabs

5.2.6.1 Bending
The bending moments per metre width obtained for solid slabs from clause 5.2.3 should be
multiplied by the spacing of the ribs to obtain the bending moments per rib.
The rib section should be checked to ensure that the moment of resistance is not
exceeded by using the methods for beams described in subsection 5.4. The area of tension
reinforcement should be obtained from the same subsection. Structural topping should con-
tain the minimum reinforcement indicated for solid slabs.
5.2.6.2 Span/effective depth ratios
The span/effective depth ratio should not exceed the appropriate value from Table 5.8.

42 IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual

 Fig. 5.10 Zones for punching shear reinforcement

Table 5.8 Span/effective depth ratios for slabs

Location As/bd • 1.5% As/bd = 0.5% As/bd 0.15%
One-or two-way
spanning slab:
Simply supported 16 22 30
End span 20 28 38
Interior span 22 30 33
Flat slab 18 26 36
Cantilever 6 9 12
Notes to Table 5.8
1. Values may be interpolated.
2. For flanged sections where the ratio of the flange to the rib width exceeds 3, the values should be multi-
plied by 0.8.
3. For spans exceeding 7m, other than for flat slabs, supporting partitions liable to be damaged by excessive
deflections, the value should be multiplied by 7/span (in metres).
4. The above assumes ƒyk = 460N/mm2. If other values of ƒyk are used then multiply the above by 460/ƒyk.
5. As/bd is calculated at the location of maximum span moment.
6. For flat slabs where the greater span exceeds 8.5m, the value should be multiplied by 8.5/span.

IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual 43

5.2.6.3 Shear
The shear force per metre width obtained from clause 5.2.3 should be multiplied by the
spacing of the ribs to obtain the shear force per rib.
The shear stress should be calculated from
1000 VSd
iSd =
bwd

where: VSd = design shear stress in N/mm2

VSd = design shear force arising from design ultimate loads per rib in kN
bw = average width of the rib in mm
d = effective depth in mm.
If the shear stress vSd exceeds the permissible shear stress vRd1 in Table 5.7 then one of the
following should be adopted:
• Increase width of rib
• Reduce spacing of ribs
• Provide solid concrete at supports
• Provide shear reinforcement only if none of the above is possible.
For ribbed and coffered flat slabs, solid areas should be provided at columns, and the
punching shear stress should be checked in a similar manner to the shear around columns
in solid flat slabs.

5.2.6.4 Beam strips in ribbed and coffered slabs

Beam strips may be used to support ribbed and coffered slabs. The slabs should be
designed as continuous, and the beam strips should be designed as beams spanning
between the columns. The shear around the columns should be checked in a similar man-
ner to the shear around columns in solid flat slabs. The shear in the ribs should be checked
at the interface between the solid areas and the ribbed areas. If shear reinforcement is
required in the ribs, these should be extended into the solid areas for a minimum distance
equal to the effective depth.

5.2.7 Notes on the use of precast floors

Use of precast or semi-precast construction in an otherwise in situ reinforced concrete
building is not uncommon. There are various proprietary precast and prestressed concrete
floors on the market. Precast floors can be designed to act compositely with an in situ struc-
tural topping, although the precast element can carry loads without reliance on the topping.
Design using proprietary products should be carried out closely in conjunction with the
particular manufacturer and in accordance with ENV 1992–1–3: 199422. The following
notes may be helpful to the designer:
1. The use of a structural topping should be considered, particularly to reduce the risk of
cracking in the screed and finishes:
(a) when floors are required to resist heavy concentrated loads such as those due to
storage racking and heavy machinery
(b) when resistance to moving loads such as forklift trucks is required or to provide
diaphragm action when a floor is used which would otherwise have insufficient
capacity for transmitting in-plane shear.
When used a structural topping should always incorporate light fabric reinforcement.
2. In selecting a floor, fire rating, durability and acoustic insulation need to be considered
as well as structural strength

44 IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual

3. Precast components should be detailed to give a minimum bearing (after allowing for
tolerances) of 75mm on concrete beams and walls, but in cases where this bearing can-
not be achieved reference should be made to ENV 1992-1-322 for more detailed guid-
ance. Mechanical anchorage at the ends should be considered. The design should cater
for the tying requirements for accidental loading (see subsection 5.11)
4. Precast floor units, particularly those that are prestressed, have cambers that should be
allowed for in the thickness of finishes. When two adjoining units have different spans,
any differential camber could also be critical, and this has to be allowed for in the
applied finishes (both top and bottom)
5. A ceiling to mask steps between adjoining units may be necessary
6. Holes required for services need to be planned
7. An in situ make-up strip should be provided to take up the tolerances between precast
units and in situ construction.

5.3 Structural frames

5.3.1 Division into subframes
The moments, loads and shear forces to be used in the design of individual columns and
beams of a frame supporting vertical loads only may be derived from an elastic analysis of
a series of subframes. Each subframe may be taken to consist of the beams at one level,
together with the columns above and below. The ends of the columns remote from the
beams may generally be assumed to be fixed unless the assumption of a pinned end is
clearly more reasonable. Normally a maximum of only five beam spans need be considered
at a time. For larger buildings, several overlapping subframes should be used. Other than
for end spans of a frame, subframes should be arranged so that there is at least one beam
span beyond that beam for which bending moments and shear forces are sought.
The relative stiffness of members may be based on the gross concrete section ignoring
reinforcement. For the purpose of calculating the stiffness of flanged beams the flange
width of T- and L-beams may be taken from Table 5.9, in which l = length of the span or
cantilever and bw = width of the web.

5.3.2 Elastic analysis

Frames should be analysed for the most unfavourable arrangements of design loads.
For frames subjected to predominantly uniformly distributed loads it will be sufficient
to consider the following arrangements of loads only for ultimate limit state verification:
(a) Alternate spans carrying the maximum design dead and imposed load, i.e. (1.35Gk +
1.5Qk), other spans carrying the maximum design dead load, i.e. 1.35Gk.
(b) Any two adjacent spans carrying the maximum design dead and imposed load, i.e.
(1.35Gk + 1.5Qk), other spans carrying the maximum design dead load, i.e. 1.35Gk.
Maximum column moments should be obtained using the following arrangements of loads:
alternate spans carrying 1.1Gk + 1.5Qk, all other spans carrying 0.9Gk.

5.3.3 Redistribution of moments

The moments obtained from elastic analysis may be redistributed up to a maximum of 30%
to produce members that are convenient to detail and construct, noting that:
(a) the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with the applied load
(b) the design redistribution moment at any section should not be less than 70% of the
elastic moment

IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual 45

Table 5.9 Effective widths of flanged beams
T-beam L-beam
End span bw + 0.7l bw + 0.085l
Interior spans bw + 0.14l bw + 0.07l
Cantilever bw + 0.20l bw + 0.10l
Notes to Table 5.9
1. The ratio of the adjacent spans should be between 1 and 1.5.
2. The length of the cantilever should be less than half the adjacent span.
3. The actual flange width should be used where it is less than the value obtained from the Table.

(c) there are limitations on the depth of the neutral axis of the section depending on the
percentage of redistribution (see subclause 5.4.4.1), and
(d) the design moment for the columns should be the greater of the redistributed moment
or the elastic moment prior to redistribution.
A simple procedure may be adopted that will satisfy the above criteria:

1. Alternate spans loaded

Move the moment diagram of the loaded span up or down by the percentage redistribution
required; do not move moment diagram of the unloaded span (see Fig. 5.11).

2. Adjacent spans loaded

Reduce the common support moment to not less than the support obtained from the alter-
nate spans loaded case (1 above).

5.3.4 Design shear forces

Shear calculations at the ultimate limit state may be based on the shear forces compatible
with the bending moments arising from the load combinations noted in clause 5.3.2 and
any redistribution carried out in accordance with clause 5.3.3.

5.4 Beams
5.4.1 Introduction
This subsection describes the final design of beams of normal proportions and spans. Deep
beams with a clear span less than twice the effective depth are not considered.
The general procedure to be adopted is as follows:
1. Check that the section complies with the requirements for fire resistance
2. Check that cover and concrete quality comply with durability requirements
3. Calculate bending moments and shear forces according to clause 5.4.3
4. Calculate reinforcement required for bending and shear
5. Check span/depth ratio.
The effective span of a simply supported beam should normally be taken as the clear
distance between the faces of supports plus one-third of their width. However, where a
bearing pad is provided between the slab and the support, the effective span should be
taken as the distance between the centres of the bearing pads.
The effective span of a beam continuous over its supports should normally be taken as
the distance between the centres of the supports.

46 IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual

 Fig. 5.11 Redistribution procedures for frames

The effective length of a cantilever beam where this forms the end of a continuous beam
is the length of the cantilever from the centre of the support. Where the beam is an isolat-
ed cantilever the effective length is is the length of the cantilever from the face of the sup-
port.
To prevent lateral buckling, the length of the compression flange measured between
adequate lateral restraints to the beam should not exceed 50b, where b is the width of the
compression flange, and the overall depth of the beam should not exceed 4b.
In normal slab-and-beam or framed construction specific calculations for torsion are not
usually necessary, torsional cracking being adequately controlled by shear reinforcement.
Where torsion is essential for the equilibrium of the structure, e.g. the arrangement of the
structure is such that loads are imposed mainly on one face of a beam without corre-
sponding rotational restraints being provided, EC2 should be consulted.

5.4.2 Fire resistance and durability

5.4.2.1 Fire resistance
The member sizes and reinforcement covers required to provide fire resistance are shown
in Table 5.10.
If the width of the beam is more than the minimum in Table 5.10 the cover may be
decreased as follows:

IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual 47

 Increase in width, mm Decrease in cover, mm
25 5
50 10
100 15
150 15

Where the cover to the outermost reinforcement exceeds 40mm special precautions against
spalling may be required, e.g. partial replacement by plaster, lightweight aggregate or the
use of fabric as supplementary reinforcement. For beams with sloping sides, the width in
Table 5.10 should be measured at the centroid of the tensile reinforcement. Table 5.10
applies to all beams that can be exposed to fire on three sides only, i.e. the upper side is
insulated by a slab.
5.4.2.2 Durability
The requirements for durability in any given environment are:
(a) an upper limit to the water/cement ratio
(b) a lower limit to the cement content
(c) a lower limit to the thickness of the cover to the reinforcement
(d) good compaction
(e) adequate curing, and
(f) good detailing.
Values for (a), (b) and (c) which, in combination, will give adequate durability are given
in Table 5.11 for various environments.
As (a) and (b) at present cannot be checked by methods that are practical for use during
construction, Table 5.11 gives, in addition, the characteristic strengths that have to be spec-
ified in the UK to ensure that requirements (a) and (b) are satisfied.
The concrete class strengths quoted in Table 5.11 will often require cement contents
that are higher than those given in the Table. The potential problems of increased
shrinkage arising from high cement and water contents should be considered in the
design.
For frost resistance the use of air entrainment of the concrete should be considered; how-
ever the effects of air entrainment on the concrete properties should be taken into account.

5.4.3 Bending moments and shear forces

The maximum values of the bending moments and shear forces at any section of a contin-
uous beam may be obtained by either:
(a) consideration of the beam as part of a structural frame as described in subsection 5.3,
or
(b) as a beam that is continuous over its supports and capable of free rotation about them.
Table 5.10 Fire resistance and cover for beams
Minimum width, mm Nominal cover to main steel, mm
Fire resistance Simply Continuous Simply Continuous
hours supported supported
1 120 120 30 20
1.5 150 120 40 35
2 200 150 50 50
3 240 200 70 60
4 280 240 80 70

48 IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual

 For beams with (a) substantially uniform loading, (b) one type of imposed load, and (c)
three or more spans that do not differ by more than 15%, the bending moments and shear
forces may be calculated using the coefficients given in Table 5.12 for ultimate limit state
verification.

5.4.4 Section design

5.4.4.1 Bending
The most common beams have flanges at the top. At the supports they are designed as rec-
tangular beams and in the spans as flanged beams. For upstand beams, the reverse applies.
If the applied moment M is less than the limiting moment Mu for the concrete, com-
pression steel will not be needed.
The resistance moments of concrete sections that are required to resist flexure only can
be determined from the formulas that are based on the stress diagram in Fig. 5.12.
The effect of any small axial load on the beam can be ignored if the design ultimate axial
force is less than 0.08fckbh, where h is the overall depth of the section.

Table 5.11 Durability requirements for beams

Conditions of exposure Nominal cover to all reinforcement
(For definitions see Appendix C) mm mm mm mm mm
1. Dry environment 20 20 20 20 20
2. Humid environment
(a) without frost – 35 35 30 30
(b) with frost – – 35 30 30
3. Humid with frost and
de-icing salts – – 40 35 35
4. Seawater environment
(a) without frost – – 40 35 35
(b) with frost – – 40 35 35

The following classes may

occur alone or in combination
with above:
5. Aggressive chemical
environment
(a) slightly aggressive – – 35 30 30
(b) moderately aggressive – – – 30 30
(c) highly aggressive* – – – – 45
Maximum free water/cement ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum cement content, kg/m3 260 280 300† 300 300
Concrete class strength C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55
N/mm2 (cylinder/cube) or better
Notes to Table 5.11
1 Cover is expressed in terms of nominal values which have been obtained from the minimum values by allow-
ing for a negative tolerance of 5mm.
2 The cover in mm to the main reinforcement should not be less than the bar diameter.

*Protective barrier to prevent direct contact with highly aggressive media should be provided.
†280kg/m3 for exposure classes 2b and 5a.

IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual 49

Table 5.12 Bending moments and shear forces for beams
At outer Near middle At first At middle of At interior
support of end span interior interior supports
support spans
Moment 0* 0.09Fl –0.11Fl 0.07Fl –0.1Fl
Shear 0.45F –– 0.6F –– 0.55F
*See clause 5.4.4.2
F is the total design ultimate load (1.35Gk + 1.5Qk) for each span, and l is the length of the span.
No redistribution of moments should be made when using values obtained from this Table.

Rectangular beams
The procedure for the design of rectangular beams is as follows:
(a) Calculate Mu = Klim ƒckbd2 where Klim is obtained from Fig. 5.13 for the amount of
redistribution carried out.
(b) If M < Mu , the area of tension reinforcement As is calculated from:
As = M/(0.87fyk)z

where z is obtained from Fig. 5.13 for different values of

K = M2
bd ƒck

(c) If M > Mu then compression reinforcement is needed. The area of compression rein-
forcement A's is calculated from:
A's = (M – Mu)/0.87fyk (d –d')
where d' is the depth to the centre of the compression reinforcement from the com
pression face.
If d' > (1–fyk/800)x, use 700 (l –d'/x) in lieu of 0.87fyk.
The area of tension reinforcement As is calculated from:
As = (Mu/0.87 fykz) + A's

Fig 5.12 Stress diagram

50 IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual

 Fig. 5.13 (a) Values of lever arm and N.A. depth for fck = ) 35N/mm2
(b) Values of lever arm and N.A. depth for fck > 35N/mm2

IStructE EC2 (Concrete) Design Manual 51