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Geol 4111– Fundamentals of soil and rock mechanics

Shear Strength of Soils

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CONCEPT OF EFFECTIVE STRESS

PERMEABILITY

SEEPAGE AND FLOW NETS

SHEAR CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

COULOMB’S EQUATION FOR SHEAR STRENGTH

DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRENGTHS OF SOILS

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 Shear Strength of Soils
When you complete this unit, you should be able to:

 Determine the shear strength of soils.

 Understand the differences between drained and
undrained shear strength.
 Determine the type of shear test that best simulates
field conditions.
 Interpret laboratory test results to obtain shear
strength parameters.

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 Strength of different
materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Tensile Compressive Shear

strength strength strength

Presence of pore water

Complex
behavior
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Shear Strength in Soils
 The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses.
 It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation by continuous
displacement of its individual soil particles
 Shear strength in soils depends primarily on interactions between
particles
 Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles are
such that they slide or roll past each other

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Shear Strength in Soils

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 Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear

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Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

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 Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear

Mobilized
Retaining
shear
wall
resistance

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized shear

resistance) reaches the shear strength.
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Shear failure mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.

No crushing of
individual grains.

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Shear failure mechanism




At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength (f).
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Coulomb’s frictional law

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Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)


f  c   tan


Cohesion Friction angle

f
c


f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal stress of . 17
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of effective stresses)


 f  c'' tan'
'    u
'

’
u = pore water
Effective pressure
cohesion Effective
f friction angle
c’
’ ’

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal effective stress of ’.
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 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

Shear strength consists of two components: cohesive and

frictional.


 f  c' ' f tan '

f
’f tan ’ frictional
’ component

c’ c’
’f '

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Typical Values of Drained Angle of Friction for Sands
and Silts

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Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear

The failure plane EF makes an angle q with the major principal plane

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However =

and

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Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c,  or c’ ’

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Most common laboratory tests 1. Vane shear test

to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
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laboratory fall cone test
Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
vc vc + 

hc hc hc hc

vc vc + 

Before construction After and during

construction 28
 vc + 
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions hc hc
in the laboratory
0 vc vc + 

vc
0 0 hc hc


0 vc 

Representative Step 1 vc

soil sample Step 2 Apply the
taken from the Set the specimen in
site the apparatus and Corresponding field
apply the initial stress conditions
stress condition 29
1. Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear
apparatus

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Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

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Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface Specimen preparation

of specimen completed

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Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

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Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

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Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to

apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement

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 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

σ  Normal stress
Area of cross section of the sample

  Shear stress  Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

displacement

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Plot of shear stress and change in
height of specimen against shear
displacement for
loose and dense dry sand (direct
shear test)

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Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and 

Normal stress =  3
Normal stress =  2
Normal stress =  1
 f2
stress 

 f1
Shear

 f3
Shear displacement

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope


f
stress 
shear

Normal stress,  38
Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and  of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore
hence c = 0 water pressures are
dissipated, hence u =
0
Therefore,
 ’ =  and c’ = c = 0

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Direct shear tests on clays
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Overconsolidated clay (c’ ≠ 0)

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

Shear stress 

’
f

Normal force, 

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 Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it is
required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil and the
structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
Normal Force = N P

Shear Resistance
Soil
Soil S

Shearing Force = T Foundation material

 f  ca   ' tan 
Where,
ca= adhesion,
 = angle of internal friction 41
Advantages of Direct Shear Tests
1. The direct shear machine is simple and fast to operate.
2. A thinner soil sample is used in the direct shear test thus facilitating
drainage of the pore water quickly from a saturated specimen.
3. Direct shear requirement is much less expensive as compared to Triaxial
equipment.
Disadvantages, which limit its application
1. The failure plane is predetermined and this may not be the weakest plane.
This is the most important limitation of the direct shear test.
2. The stress conditions are complex primarily because of the non-uniform
distribution of normal and shear stresses on the plane.
3. There is virtually no control of the drainage of the soil specimen as the
water content of a saturated soil changes rapidly with stress.
4. The area of the sliding surface at failure will be less than the original area
of the soil specimen (this should be accounted for).
5. The ridges of the metal gratings embedded on the top and bottom of the
specimen, causes distortion of the specimen to some degree.
6. The effect of lateral restraint by the side walls of the shear box is likely to
affect the results.
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 Triaxial Shear Test-General
 The tri-axial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for determining
shear strength parameters. It is used widely for research and conventional
testing.
The specimen is subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the
chamber. (Note: Air is sometimes used as a compression medium).
 To cause shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress (sometimes
called deviator stress) through a vertical loading ram.
 This stress can be applied in one of two ways:
1) Application of dead weights or hydraulic pressure in equal increments until the
specimen fails. (Axial deformation of the specimen resulting from the load applied
through the ram is measured by a dial gauge.)
2) Application of axial deformation at a constant rate by means of a geared or hydraulic
loading press. This is a strain-controlled test.
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 Triaxial Shear Test

Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure
plane
O-ring

Soil sample at impervious

membrane
failure Soil
sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

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Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

Sample extruder
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Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell

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Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
membrane and sealed filled with water
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Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

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Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
(  = q)
Step 1
c Step 2

c c
c c

c c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
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Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all-around cell pressure  c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
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Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
 VC ’VC =  VC

 hC 0 ’hC =  hC
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase ’V =  VC + 

VC +   =  ’1

 hC 0 ’h =  hC = ’3
Drainage

Step 3: At failure
VC +  f ’Vf =  VC +  f = ’1f

 hC 0 ’hf =  hC = ’3f
Drainage 53
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

 1 = VC + 

 3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or  d ) =  1 –  3

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Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Dense sand
Loose sand

volume change in loose sand and normally consolidated clay and volume change in dense
sand and over-consolidated clay during deviator stress application

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Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand
or OC clay

d
Deviator stress ,  d)f
Loose sand
 d)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
Volume change

Dense sand
of the sample

or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression

Loose sand
or NC clay 56
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CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope
Shear stress, 

 Or 
 3a  1a
( d)f

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine  d

of sand or NC clay
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CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

 OC NC


c
3 1  Or ’
c
( d)f

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CD tests
Strength parameters c and  obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests,  =  ’ and  = ’

cd and d are used

to denote them

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Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

  = in situ drained
shear strength

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Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage


Core

 = drained shear
strength of clay core

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Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

 = In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.

Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils
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Consolidated – Undrained Test (CU)

Test Behavior

• Sample is first consolidated under desired stresses

• After consolidation complete, drainage valves closed

• Typically, pore water pressures are measured calculate

total and effective stresses

• Excess pore water pressure (Δu) can either:

- Increase (+ve): specimen contracts or consolidates

- Decrease (‐ ve): specimen expands or swells

• Axial stress increased incrementally or at constant rate of 64

 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
 VC ’VC =  VC

 hC 0 ’hC =  hC
Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +  ’V =  VC +  ± u
=  ’1
No
drainage  hC ±Δu ’ h =  hC ± u
=  ’3
Step 3: At failure
VC +  f ’Vf =  VC +  f ± uf
=  ’1f
No
drainage  hC ±uf ’ hf =  hC ±uf
=  ’3f 65
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

, Deviator stress,  d

Dense sand
or OC clay

d
 d)f
Loose sand
 d)f or NC Clay

Axial strain

Loose
sand /NC
u

Clay
Axial strain
-

Dense sand
or OC clay
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CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
 d)f
 1 =  3 + ( d)f
b Confining stress =  3b
d

Confining stress =  3a
3
 d)f
Total stresses at failure
a
Axial strain

Mohr – Coulomb  cu
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
Shear stress, 

ccu  Or ’
 3a  3b  1a  1b
( d)fa 67
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
’1 =  3 + ( d)f - uf

 ’  =  3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure

Mohr – Coulomb ’
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
 cu
 Shear stress,

ufb
C’ ufa
ccu
 3a
 Or ’
’ 3a ’3b  3b ’1a  1a  1b
( d)af)fa
( ’ 1b
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CU tests
Strength parameters c and  obtained from CD tests

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and ’
ccu and cu
c’ = cd and ’ =d

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CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb ’  cu
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
Shear stress,

 Or ’
 3a  3a  1a  1a
( d)f
Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine
 cu and ’= d) of sand or NC clay 70
 Use of CU Strength in Engineering Practice

Embankment raised (2)

subsequent to consolidation
under its original height (1)

Rapid drawdown
behind an earth dam

Rapid construction of an
embankment on a natural
slope

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 Unconsolidated – Undrained (UU)
In unconsolidated-undrained tests, drainage from the soil specimen is not

permitted during the application of chamber pressure σ.3 The test

specimen is sheared to failure by the application of deviator stress, Δσd,

and drainage is prevented. Because drainage is not allowed at any stage,
the test can be performed quickly. Because of the application of chamber
confining pressure σ3, the pore water pressure in the soil specimen will

increase by uc. A further increase in the pore water pressure (Δu ) will
d

occur because of the deviator stress application. Hence, the total pore
water pressure u in the specimen at any stage of deviator stress
application can be given as
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UU test

Realisation of UU test

1) application of confining stress

Since - soil grains and water are incompressible

- saturated soil

- no drainage  DV=0, no consolidation

After application of confining

stress

State of stress
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 State of stress at failure

In total stress

u is the new pore water pressure of the system (unknown)

In effective stress

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 Use of UU Strength in Engineering Practice

Embankment constructed
rapidly over a soft clay
deposit

Large earth dam constructed

rapidly with no change in water
content of clay core

Footing placed rapidly on

clay deposit

UU test simulates the short term condition in the field. 76

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

 1 =  VC +

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

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Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

 1 =  VC +  f

Shear stress, 
3 = 0

qu

Normal stress, 

τf = σ1/2 = qu/2 = cu
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Selection of shear strength parameter

lecture 6- compaction & consolidation.pptx 79