48 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

Estimate a limit using a numerical or graphical approach.
Learn different ways that a limit can fail to exist.
Study and use a formal definition of limit.

An Introduction to Limits
To sketch the graph of the function
x3  1
f 共x兲 
x1
lim f (x) = 3
x→1 (1, 3)
for values other than x  1, you can use standard curve-sketching techniques. At x  1,
however, it is not clear what to expect. To get an idea of the behavior of the graph of f
near x  1, you can use two sets of x-values—one set that approaches 1 from the left
y
and one set that approaches 1 from the right, as shown in the table.

3
x approaches 1 from the left. x approaches 1 from the right.

2
x 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25
f 共x兲 2.313 2.710 2.970 2.997 ? 3.003 3.030 3.310 3.813
f(x) = x3−1
x −1
f 共x兲 approaches 3. f 共x兲 approaches 3.
x
−2 −1 1

The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1 is 3. The graph of f is a parabola that has a gap at the point 共1, 3兲, as shown in
Figure 1.5 Figure 1.5. Although x cannot equal 1, you can move arbitrarily close to 1, and as a
result f 共x兲 moves arbitrarily close to 3. Using limit notation, you can write
lim f 共x兲  3. This is read as “the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1 is 3.”
x→1

This discussion leads to an informal definition of limit. If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close
to a single number L as x approaches c from either side, then the limit of f 共x兲, as x
approaches c, is L. This limit is written as

lim f 共x兲  L.
x→c

Exploration
The discussion above gives an example of how you can estimate a limit
numerically by constructing a table and graphically by drawing a graph.
Estimate the following limit numerically by completing the table.
x2  3x  2
lim
x→2 x2

x 1.75 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.25

f 共x兲 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Then use a graphing utility to estimate the limit graphically.

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 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 49

Estimating a Limit Numerically

Evaluate the function f 共x兲  x兾共冪x  1  1兲 at several x-values near 0 and use the
results to estimate the limit
x
lim .
x→ 0 冪x  1  1
y Solution The table lists the values of f 共x兲 for several x-values near 0.
f is undefined
at x = 0.
x approaches 0 from the left. x approaches 0 from the right.
f(x) = x
x+1−1
x 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
1
f 共x兲 1.99499 1.99950 1.99995 ? 2.00005 2.00050 2.00499

x f 共x兲 approaches 2. f 共x兲 approaches 2.

−1 1

The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 0 is 2. From the results shown in the table, you can estimate the limit to be 2. This limit is
Figure 1.6 reinforced by the graph of f (see Figure 1.6).

In Example 1, note that the function is undefined at x  0, and yet f (x) appears to
be approaching a limit as x approaches 0. This often happens, and it is important to
realize that the existence or nonexistence of f 共x兲 at x  c has no bearing on the
existence of the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches c.

Finding a Limit
y
Find the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2, where

冦1,0, x2
1, x ≠ 2
2 f (x) = f 共x兲  .
0, x = 2 x2
Solution Because f 共x兲  1 for all x other than x  2, you can estimate that the limit
is 1, as shown in Figure 1.7. So, you can write
x
1 2 3 lim f 共x兲  1.
x→2
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 is 1.
The fact that f 共2兲  0 has no bearing on the existence or value of the limit as x
Figure 1.7
approaches 2. For instance, as x approaches 2, the function

冦2,
1, x  2
g 共x兲 
x2
has the same limit as f.

So far in this section, you have been estimating limits numerically and graphically.
Each of these approaches produces an estimate of the limit. In Section 1.3, you will
study analytic techniques for evaluating limits. Throughout the course, try to develop a
habit of using this three-pronged approach to problem solving.
1. Numerical approach Construct a table of values.
2. Graphical approach Draw a graph by hand or using technology.
3. Analytic approach Use algebra or calculus.

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50 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

Limits That Fail to Exist

In the next three examples, you will examine some limits that fail to exist.

Different Right and Left Behavior

Show that the limit lim ⱍxⱍ does not exist.

x→0 x
y
⎪x⎪ Solution Consider the graph of the function
f (x) = x

f 共x兲  ⱍxⱍ.
1 x
f (x) = 1
In Figure 1.8 and from the definition of absolute value,

ⱍxⱍ  冦x,
x, x  0
x Definition of absolute value
−1 1 x < 0
−δ δ
you can see that
ⱍxⱍ 
f (x) = − 1 x 冦1,1, x > 0
x < 0
.

lim f 共x兲 does not exist. So, no matter how close x gets to 0, there will be both positive and negative x-values
x→0 that yield f 共x兲  1 or f 共x兲  1. Specifically, if  (the lowercase Greek letter delta) is
Figure 1.8
a positive number, then for x-values satisfying the inequality 0 < x < , you can ⱍⱍ
classify the values of x 兾x as ⱍⱍ
共 , 0兲 or 共0, 兲.

Negative x-values Positive x-values

ⱍⱍ
yield x 兾x  1. ⱍⱍ
yield x 兾x  1.

ⱍⱍ
Because x 兾x approaches a different number from the right side of 0 than it approaches
from the left side, the limit lim 共 x 兾x兲 does not exist.
x→0
ⱍⱍ
Unbounded Behavior
1
Discuss the existence of the limit lim .
x→0 x2
Solution Consider the graph of the function
1
f 共x兲  .
x2
y In Figure 1.9, you can see that as x approaches 0 from either the right or the left, f 共x兲
increases without bound. This means that by choosing x close enough to 0, you can
4 force f 共x兲 to be as large as you want. For instance, f 共x) will be greater than 100 when you
1 1
f(x) = choose x within 10 of 0. That is,
x2 3
1 1
2
0 < x < ⱍⱍ 10
f 共x兲 
x2
> 100.

1 Similarly, you can force f 共x兲 to be greater than 1,000,000, as shown.

1 1
−2 −1 1 2
x 0 < x < ⱍⱍ 1000
f 共x兲 
x2
> 1,000,000

lim f 共x兲 does not exist.

x→0 Because f 共x兲 does not become arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches 0,
Figure 1.9 you can conclude that the limit does not exist.

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 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 51

Oscillating Behavior
See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.

1
Discuss the existence of the limit lim sin .
x→0 x
y Solution Let f 共x兲  sin共1兾x兲. In Figure 1.10, you can see that as x approaches 0,
f 共x兲 oscillates between 1 and 1. So, the limit does not exist because no matter how
f (x) = sin
1 small you choose , it is possible to choose x1 and x2 within  units of 0 such that
x
1 sin共1兾x1兲  1 and sin共1兾x2 兲  1, as shown in the table.

2 2 2 2 2 2
x x→0
x  3 5 7 9 11
−1 1
1
sin 1 1 1 1 1 1 Limit does not exist.
x
−1

lim f 共x兲 does not exist.

x→0
Figure 1.10 Common Types of Behavior Associated with Nonexistence
of a Limit
1. f 共x兲 approaches a different number from the right side of c than it approaches
from the left side.
2. f 共x兲 increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.
3. f 共x兲 oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches c.

There are many other interesting functions that have unusual limit behavior. An
often cited one is the Dirichlet function

冦0,1, if x is rational
f 共x兲  .
if x is irrational
Because this function has no limit at any real number c, it is not continuous at any real
number c. You will study continuity more closely in Section 1.4.

TECHNOLOGY PITFALL When you use a graphing utility to investigate the

behavior of a function near the x-value at which you are trying to evaluate a limit,
remember that you can’t always trust the pictures that graphing utilities draw. When
you use a graphing utility to graph the function in Example 5 over an interval
containing 0, you will most likely obtain an incorrect graph such as that shown in
Figure 1.11. The reason that a graphing utility can’t show the correct graph is that the
PETER GUSTAV DIRICHLET graph has infinitely many oscillations over any interval that contains 0.
(1805–1859)
In the early development of 1.2
calculus, the definition of a function
was much more restricted than it
is today, and “functions” such as
the Dirichlet function would not −0.25 0.25
have been considered.The modern
definition of function is attributed
to the German mathematician
Peter Gustav Dirichlet. −1.2
See LarsonCalculus.com to read
more of this biography. Incorrect graph of f 共x兲  sin共1兾x兲
Figure 1.11
INTERFOTO/Alamy

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
52 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION A Formal Definition of Limit

For more on the introduction of
Consider again the informal definition of limit. If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to a
rigor to calculus, see “Who Gave
single number L as x approaches c from either side, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
You the Epsilon? Cauchy and the
c is L, written as
Origins of Rigorous Calculus”
by Judith V. Grabiner in The lim f 共x兲  L.
x→c
American Mathematical Monthly.
To view this article, go to At first glance, this definition looks fairly technical. Even so, it is informal because
MathArticles.com. exact meanings have not yet been given to the two phrases
“f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to L”
and
“x approaches c.”
The first person to assign mathematically rigorous meanings to these two phrases was
Augustin-Louis Cauchy. His ␧-␦ definition of limit is the standard used today.
In Figure 1.12, let (the lowercase Greek letter epsilon) represent a (small)
L+ε
positive number. Then the phrase “f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to L” means that f 共x兲
lies in the interval 共L  , L  兲. Using absolute value, you can write this as
(c, L)
ⱍ f 共x兲  Lⱍ < .
L

L−ε
Similarly, the phrase “x approaches c” means that there exists a positive number  such
that x lies in either the interval 共c  , c兲 or the interval 共c, c  兲. This fact can be
concisely expressed by the double inequality

c+δ
ⱍ
0 < x  c < . ⱍ
c The first inequality
c−δ
The - definition of the limit of f 共x兲
0 < xc ⱍ ⱍ The distance between x and c is more than 0.

as x approaches c expresses the fact that x  c. The second inequality

Figure 1.12
ⱍx  cⱍ <  x is within  units of c.

says that x is within a distance  of c.

Definition of Limit
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing c (except possibly
at c), and let L be a real number. The statement
lim f 共x兲  L
x→c

means that for each > 0 there exists a  > 0 such that if

ⱍ
0 < xc <  ⱍ
then

ⱍ f 共x兲  Lⱍ < .

REMARK Throughout this text, the expression

lim f 共x兲  L
x→c

implies two statements—the limit exists and the limit is L.

Some functions do not have limits as x approaches c, but those that do cannot have
two different limits as x approaches c. That is, if the limit of a function exists, then the
limit is unique (see Exercise 75).

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 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 53

The next three examples should help you develop a better understanding of the
- definition of limit.

Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧

Given the limit
lim 共2x  5兲  1
x→3

find  such that

ⱍ共2x  5兲  1ⱍ < 0.01

whenever

ⱍ
0 < x  3 < . ⱍ
REMARK In Example 6, Solution In this problem, you are working with a given value of —namely,
note that 0.005 is the largest  0.01. To find an appropriate , try to establish a connection between the absolute
value of  that will guarantee values

ⱍ共2x  5兲  1ⱍ < 0.01 ⱍ共2x  5兲  1ⱍ and ⱍx  3ⱍ.

whenever Notice that

ⱍ
0 < x  3 < . ⱍ ⱍ共2x  5兲  1ⱍ  ⱍ2x  6ⱍ  2ⱍx  3ⱍ.
Any smaller positive value of Because the inequality ⱍ共2x  5兲  1ⱍ < 0.01 is equivalent to 2ⱍx  3ⱍ < 0.01,
 would also work. you can choose
  12共0.01兲  0.005.
This choice works because

ⱍ
0 < x  3 < 0.005 ⱍ
implies that

ⱍ共2x  5兲  1ⱍ  2ⱍx  3ⱍ < 2共0.005兲  0.01.

As you can see in Figure 1.13, for x-values within 0.005 of 3 共x  3兲, the values of f 共x兲
are within 0.01 of 1.

1.01
1
0.99

2.995
y
3
3.005
2

x
1 2 3 4

−1

f (x) = 2x − 5
−2

The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 3 is 1.

Figure 1.13

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
54 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

In Example 6, you found a -value for a given . This does not prove the
existence of the limit. To do that, you must prove that you can find a  for any , as
shown in the next example.

Using the ␧-␦ Definition of Limit

Use the - definition of limit to prove that
4+ε
lim 共3x  2兲  4.
x→2
4
Solution You must show that for each > 0, there exists a  > 0 such that
4−ε
ⱍ共3x  2兲  4ⱍ <
2+δ
whenever
2
y 2−δ
ⱍ
0 < x  2 < . ⱍ
4 Because your choice of  depends on , you need to establish a connection between the
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
absolute values 共3x  2兲  4 and x  2 . ⱍ
3
ⱍ共3x  2兲  4ⱍ  ⱍ3x  6ⱍ  3ⱍx  2ⱍ
So, for a given > 0, you can choose   兾3. This choice works because
2

1
ⱍ
0 < x2 <  ⱍ 3
f (x) = 3x − 2
implies that
x

ⱍ共3x  2兲  4ⱍ  3ⱍx  2ⱍ < 3冢3冣  .
1 2 3 4

The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 is 4.

Figure 1.14 As you can see in Figure 1.14, for x-values within  of 2 共x  2兲, the values of f 共x兲 are
within of 4.

Using the ␧-␦ Definition of Limit

Use the - definition of limit to prove that
lim x 2  4.
x→2

f (x) = x 2 Solution You must show that for each > 0, there exists a  > 0 such that
4+ε ⱍx 2  4ⱍ <
(2 + δ )2 whenever

ⱍ ⱍ
4
0 < x  2 < .
(2 − δ )2
4−ε
To find an appropriate , begin by writing x2  4  x  2 x  2 . For all x in the ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍⱍ ⱍ
ⱍ
interval 共1, 3兲, x  2 < 5 and thus x  2 < 5. So, letting  be the minimum of 兾5 ⱍ
and 1, it follows that, whenever 0 < x  2 < , you have ⱍ ⱍ
2+δ
2
2−δ
ⱍx2  4ⱍ  ⱍx  2ⱍⱍx  2ⱍ < 冢5冣共5兲  .
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 is 4. As you can see in Figure 1.15, for x-values within  of 2 共x  2兲, the values of f 共x兲 are
Figure 1.15 within of 4.

Throughout this chapter, you will use the - definition of limit primarily to prove
theorems about limits and to establish the existence or nonexistence of particular types
of limits. For finding limits, you will learn techniques that are easier to use than the -
definition of limit.

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 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 55

1.2 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 1–6, 冪10  x  4 关x兾共x  1兲兴  共2兾3兲

11. lim 12. lim
complete the table and use the result to estimate the limit. Use x→6 x6 x→2 x2
a graphing utility to graph the function to confirm your result.
sin 2x tan x
13. lim 14. lim
x4 x→0 x x→0 tan 2x
1. lim
x→4 x 2  3x  4
Finding a Limit Graphically In Exercises 15–22, use the
graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist,
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 4 4.001 4.01 4.1
explain why.
f 共x兲 ?
15. lim 共4  x兲 16. lim sec x
x→3 x→0
y y
x3
2. lim
x→3 x2  9 4 2
3
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 2

f 共x兲 ? 1
x
x −π π
1 2 3 4 2 2
冪x  1  1
3. lim
x→0 x 17. lim f 共x兲 18. lim f 共x兲
x→2 x→1
4  x,
冦 x2
冦x2,  3, x1
2
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 f 共x兲  f 共x兲 
0, x2 x1
f 共x兲 ? y y

4
关1兾共x  1兲兴  共1兾4兲 6
4. lim 3
x→3 x3
2
2
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 1
x x
f 共x兲 ? 1 2 3 4 −2 2 4

sin x 19. lim ⱍx  2ⱍ 20. lim

2
5. lim x→2 x2 x→5 x5
x→0 x
y y

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 3 6

2 4
f 共x兲 ? 1 2
x x
3 4 5 −2 6 8 10
cos x  1
6. lim −2 −4
x→0 x
−3 −6

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

21. lim cos 22. lim tan x
f 共x兲 ? x→0 x x→ 兾2
y y

1
Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 7–14, 2
create a table of values for the function and use the result to 1
estimate the limit. Use a graphing utility to graph the function x x
to confirm your result. −1 1 −π π π 3π
2 2 2
x2 x4
7. lim 8. lim −1
x→1 x2  x  6 x→4 x2  9x  20
x4  1 x3  27
9. lim 10. lim
x→1 x6  1 x→3 x  3

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
56 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

Graphical Reasoning In Exercises 23 and 24, use the 30. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of
graph of the function f to decide whether the value of the given
1
quantity exists. If it does, find it. If not, explain why. f 共x兲 
x1
23. (a) f 共1兲 y

(b) lim f 共x兲 6

is shown in the figure. Find  such that if 0 < x  2 <  , ⱍ ⱍ
x→1 5 ⱍ
then f 共x兲  1 < 0.01. ⱍ
(c) f 共4兲 y
3
(d) lim f 共x兲 2
2.0 f
x→4 1 1.01
1.00
x 1.5 0.99
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.0 201 2 199
101 99
0.5
24. (a) f 共2兲 y
x
(b) lim f 共x兲 4 1 2 3 4
x→2 3
(c) f 共0兲 2 31. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of
(d) lim f 共x兲 1
x
x→0
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 f 共x兲  2 
(e) f 共2兲 x
−2
(f) lim f 共x兲 is shown in the figure. Find  such that if 0 < x  1 < , ⱍ ⱍ
ⱍ ⱍ
x→2
then f 共x兲  1 < 0.1.
(g) f 共4兲
y y
(h) lim f 共x兲 1.1
x→4 1
4 f
2 0.9
Limits of a Piecewise Function In Exercises 25 and 26, 3
sketch the graph of f. Then identify the values of c for which f 2
1 3.2
lim f 冇x冈 exists. 3
x→c 1
2.8

冦
x
x2, x
2 1 2
x
1 2 3 4
25. f 共x兲  8  2x, 2 < x < 4
4, x  4 Figure for 31 Figure for 32

32. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of

冦
sin x, x < 0
26. f 共x兲  1  cos x, 0
x
 f 共x兲  x 2  1
cos x, x > 
is shown in the figure. Find  such that if 0 < x  2 <  , ⱍ ⱍ
Sketching a Graph In Exercises 27 and 28, sketch a graph ⱍ
then f 共x兲  3 < 0.2. ⱍ
of a function f that satisfies the given values. (There are many
correct answers.)
Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ In Exercises 33–36, find the
limit L. Then find ␦ > 0 such that f 冇x冈 ⴚ L < 0.01 ⱍ ⱍ
27. f 共0兲 is undefined. 28. f 共2兲  0 whenever 0 < x ⴚ c < ␦. ⱍ ⱍ
lim f 共x兲  4 f 共2兲  0
冢 冣
x
x→0 33. lim 共3x  2兲 34. lim 6 
f 共2兲  6 lim f 共x兲  0 x→2 x→6 3
x→2
35. lim 共x 2  3兲 36. lim 共x 2  6兲
lim f 共x兲  3 lim f 共x兲 does not exist. x→2 x→4
x→2 x→2
Using the ␧ -␦ Definition of Limit In Exercises 37–48,
29. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of f 共x兲  x  1 is find the limit L. Then use the ␧ -␦ definition to prove that the
shown in the figure. Find  such that if 0 < x  2 < , then ⱍ ⱍ limit is L.
ⱍ
f 共x兲  3 < 0.4. ⱍ 37. lim 共x  2兲 38. lim 共4x  5兲
y x→4 x→2

5
39. lim
x→4
共12 x  1兲 40. lim
x→3
共34 x  1兲
f
3.4
4 41. lim 3 42. lim 共1兲
x→6 x→2
3
3
43. lim 冪 44. lim 冪x
2.6
2
x
x→0 x→4

x
45. lim x  5
x→5
ⱍ ⱍ 46. lim x  3
x→3
ⱍ ⱍ
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 47. lim 共x  1兲 2 48. lim 共x  4x兲 2
1.6 2.4 x→1 x→4

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 57

49. Finding a Limit What is the limit of f 共x兲  4 as x

approaches ? WRITING ABOUT CONCEPTS
57. Describing Notation Write a brief description of the
50. Finding a Limit What is the limit of g共x兲  x as x
meaning of the notation
approaches ?
lim f 共x兲  25.
Writing In Exercises 51–54, use a graphing utility to graph x→8

the function and estimate the limit (if it exists). What is the 58. Using the Definition of Limit The definition of
domain of the function? Can you detect a possible error in limit on page 52 requires that f is a function defined on an
determining the domain of a function solely by analyzing the open interval containing c, except possibly at c. Why is this
graph generated by a graphing utility? Write a short paragraph requirement necessary?
about the importance of examining a function analytically as
59. Limits That Fail to Exist Identify three types of
well as graphically.
behavior associated with the nonexistence of a limit.
冪x  5  3 x3 Illustrate each type with a graph of a function.
51. f 共x兲  52. f 共x兲 
x4 x 2  4x  3 60. Comparing Functions and Limits
lim f 共x) lim f 共x兲 (a) If f 共2兲  4, can you conclude anything about the limit
x→4 x→3
x9 of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2? Explain your reasoning.
53. f 共x兲 
冪x  3 (b) If the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 is 4, can you
lim f 共x兲 conclude anything about f 共2兲? Explain your reasoning.
x→9
x3
54. f 共x兲 
x2  9 61. Jewelry A jeweler resizes a ring so that its inner circumfer-
lim f 共x兲 ence is 6 centimeters.
x→3
(a) What is the radius of the ring?
55. Modeling Data For a long distance phone call, a hotel (b) The inner circumference of the ring varies between
charges $9.99 for the first minute and $0.79 for each additional 5.5 centimeters and 6.5 centimeters. How does the radius
minute or fraction thereof. A formula for the cost is given by vary?
C共t兲  9.99  0.79 冀 共t  1兲冁 (c) Use the - definition of limit to describe this situation.
Identify and .
where t is the time in minutes.
共Note: 冀x冁  greatest integer n such that n
x. For example, 62. Sports
冀3.2冁  3 and 冀1.6冁  2.兲 A sporting goods manufacturer designs a golf ball having a
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the cost function for volume of 2.48 cubic inches.
0 < t
6. (a) What is the radius
(b) Use the graph to complete the table and observe the of the golf ball?
behavior of the function as t approaches 3.5. Use the graph (b) The volume of the
and the table to find lim C 共t兲. golf ball varies
t→3.5
between 2.45 cubic
t 3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4 inches and 2.51 cubic
inches. How does the
C ? radius vary?
(c) Use the - definition of limit to describe this situation.
(c) Use the graph to complete the table and observe the Identify and .
behavior of the function as t approaches 3.

t 2 2.5 2.9 3 3.1 3.5 4 63. Estimating a Limit Consider the function

C ? f 共x兲  共1  x兲1兾x.
Estimate
Does the limit of C共t兲 as t approaches 3 exist? Explain.
lim 共1  x兲1兾x
56. Repeat Exercise 55 for x→0

C共t兲  5.79  0.99冀 共t  1兲冁. by evaluating f at x-values near 0. Sketch the graph of f.

The symbol indicates an exercise in which you are instructed to use graphing
technology or a symbolic computer algebra system. The solutions of other exercises may
also be facilitated by the use of appropriate technology.
Tony Bowler/Shutterstock.com

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
58 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties

64. Estimating a Limit Consider the function 73. Evaluating Limits Use a graphing utility to evaluate

f 共x兲  ⱍx  1ⱍ  ⱍx  1ⱍ. lim

sin nx
x x→0 x
Estimate for several values of n. What do you notice?

lim ⱍx  1ⱍ  ⱍx  1ⱍ 74. Evaluating Limits Use a graphing utility to evaluate

x→0 x tan nx
lim
by evaluating f at x-values near 0. Sketch the graph of f. x→0 x
65. Graphical Analysis The statement for several values of n. What do you notice?
x2  4 75. Proof Prove that if the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches c exists,
lim 4 then the limit must be unique. 关Hint: Let lim f 共x兲  L1 and
x→2 x  2
x→c
lim f 共x兲  L 2 and prove that L1  L2.兴
means that for each > 0 there corresponds a  > 0 such that x→c

76. Proof Consider the line f 共x兲  mx  b, where m  0. Use

ⱍ
if 0 < x  2 < , then ⱍ the - definition of limit to prove that lim f 共x兲  mc  b.

ⱍ x2  4
ⱍ
x→c
 4 < . 77. Proof Prove that
x2
If  0.001, then lim f 共x兲  L
x→c

ⱍ x2  4
x2
 4 < 0.001.
ⱍ is equivalent to

lim 关 f 共x兲  L兴  0.
x→c
Use a graphing utility to graph each side of this inequality. Use
the zoom feature to find an interval 共2  , 2  兲 such that 78. Proof
the graph of the left side is below the graph of the right side of (a) Given that
the inequality.
lim 共3x  1兲共3x  1兲x2  0.01  0.01
x→0

prove that there exists an open interval 共a, b兲 containing 0

66. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Use the graph of f to such that 共3x  1兲共3x  1兲x2  0.01 > 0 for all x  0 in
identify the values of c for which lim f 共x兲 exists. 共a, b兲.
x→c
(a) y (b) y
(b) Given that lim g 共x兲  L, where L > 0, prove that there
x→c
6
6 exists an open interval 共a, b兲 containing c such that g共x兲 > 0
4
4 for all x  c in 共a, b兲.
2
x
−4 2 4 6 PUTNAM EXAM CHALLENGE
x
−2 2 4 79. Inscribe a rectangle of base b and height h in a circle of
−2 radius one, and inscribe an isosceles triangle in a region of
the circle cut off by one base of the rectangle (with that
side as the base of the triangle). For what value of h do the
True or False? In Exercises 67–70, determine whether the rectangle and triangle have the same area?
statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why or give an
example that shows it is false.
67. If f is undefined at x  c, then the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
c does not exist.
h
68. If the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches c is 0, then there must exist
a number k such that f 共k兲 < 0.001. b
69. If f 共c兲  L, then lim f 共x兲  L.
x→c

70. If lim f 共x兲  L, then f 共c兲  L.

x→c
80. A right circular cone has base of radius 1 and height 3. A
Determining a Limit In Exercises 71 and 72, consider the cube is inscribed in the cone so that one face of the cube is
function f 冇x冈 ⴝ 冪x. contained in the base of the cone. What is the side-length
of the cube?
71. Is lim 冪x  0.5 a true statement? Explain.
x→0.25 These problems were composed by the Committee on the Putnam Prize Competition.
© The Mathematical Association of America. All rights reserved.
72. Is lim 冪x  0 a true statement? Explain.
x→0

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
A12 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

3. y
13. (a) x ⬇ 1.2426, ⫺7.2426
4
(b) 共x ⫹ 3兲2 ⫹ y2 ⫽ 18
3
y
2
1 8
x 6
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2 2
−3
x
−4 −8 −4 −2 2 4
−2

(a) y
(b) y

4 4 −6

3 3
2 2 15. Proof
1 1 y
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 2
−1 −1
−2
1
−3 −3 (− 2 , 0) ( 2 , 0)
−4 −4 x
−2 2
(c) y
(d) y
−1 (0, 0)
4 4
3 3 −2

2 2
1
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 Chapter 1
−2 −2
−3 −3 Section 1.1 (page 47)
−4 −4
1. Precalculus: 300 ft
(e) y
(f) y
3. Calculus: Slope of the tangent line at x ⫽ 2 is 0.16.
4 4
3 3 5. (a) Precalculus: 10 square units
2 (b) Calculus: 5 square units
(b) 1; 32; 52
1 1
x x
7. (a) y

−4 −3 −2 −1 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4
−1
1 2 3 4 10
(c) 2. Use points closer to P.
−2
P
−2 8
−3 −3
6
−4 −4

5. (a) A共x兲 ⫽ x 关共100 ⫺ x兲兾2兴; Domain: 共0, 100兲

(b) 1600 Dimensions 50 m ⫻ 25 m x
yield maximum area of −2 2 4 8

1250 m2.
9. Area ⬇ 10.417; Area ⬇ 9.145; Use more rectangles.
0
0
110
Section 1.2 (page 55)
(c) 50 m ⫻ 25 m; Area ⫽ 1250 m2 1.
3.9 3.99 3.999 4
7. T共x兲 ⫽ 关2冪4 ⫹ x2 ⫹ 冪共3 ⫺ x兲2 ⫹ 1兴兾4
x
9. (a) 5, less (b) 3, greater (c) 4.1, less f 共x兲 0.2041 0.2004 0.2000 ?
(d) 4 ⫹ h (e) 4; Answers will vary.
11. (a) Domain: 共⫺ ⬁, 1兲 傼 共1, ⬁兲; Range: 共⫺ ⬁, 0兲 傼 共0, ⬁兲 x 4.001 4.01 4.1
x⫺1
(b) f 共 f 共x兲兲 ⫽ f 共x兲 0.2000 0.1996 0.1961
x
Domain: 共⫺ ⬁, 0兲 傼 共0, 1兲 傼 共1, ⬁兲 x⫺4
(c) f 共 f 共 f 共x兲兲兲 ⫽ x lim
x→4 x2 ⫺ 3x ⫺ 4
1
⬇ 0.2000 Actual limit is .
5 冢 冣
Domain: 共⫺ ⬁, 0兲 傼 共0, 1兲 傼 共1, ⬁兲 3.
(d) y
The graph is not a line x ⫺0.1 ⫺0.01 ⫺0.001 0
2 because there are holes at f 共x兲 0.5132 0.5013 0.5001 ?
x ⫽ 0 and x ⫽ 1.
1
x 0.001 0.01 0.1
x
−2 1 2
f 共x兲 0.4999 0.4988 0.4881

冪x ⫹ 1 ⫺ 1
冢Actual limit is 12.冣
−2
lim ⬇ 0.5000
x→0 x

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A13
y
5. 25. y 27.
x ⫺0.1 ⫺0.01 ⫺0.001 0
6 6

f 共x兲 0.9983 0.99998 1.0000 ? 5

4
5
4
3
f
f
x 0.001 0.01 0.1 2
2
1
1
f 共x兲
x
1.0000 0.99998 0.9983 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 −1
sin x
lim ⬇ 1.0000 (Actual limit is 1.) lim f 共x兲 exists for all points
x→0 x x→c
7. on the graph except where
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 c ⫽ 4.
1
f 共x兲 0.2564 0.2506 0.2501 ? 29. ␦ ⫽ 0.4 31. ␦ ⫽ 11 ⬇ 0.091
33. L ⫽ 8. Let ␦ ⫽ 0.01兾3 ⬇ 0.0033.
x 1.001 1.01 1.1 35. L ⫽ 1. Let ␦ ⫽ 0.01兾5 ⫽ 0.002. 37. 6 39. ⫺3
41. 3 43. 0 45. 10 47. 2 49. 4
f 共x兲 0.2499 0.2494 0.2439
51. 0.5
53. 10
x⫺2
lim
x→1 x2 ⫹ x ⫺ 6
1
⬇ 0.2500 Actual limit is .
4 冢 冣
9. −6 6
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1
0 10
− 0.1667 0
f 共x兲 0.7340 0.6733 0.6673 ?
lim f 共x兲 ⫽ 16 lim f 共x兲 ⫽ 6
x→4 x→9
x 1.001 1.01 1.1 Domain: 关⫺5, 4兲 傼 共4, ⬁兲 Domain: 关0, 9兲 傼 共9, ⬁兲
The graph has a hole The graph has a hole
f 共x兲 0.6660 0.6600 0.6015 at x ⫽ 4. at x ⫽ 9.
x4 ⫺ 1 55. (a) 16
lim
x→1 x6 ⫺ 1
2
3冢
⬇ 0.6666 Actual limit is . 冣
11.
x ⫺6.1 ⫺6.01 ⫺6.001 ⫺6
0 6
f 共x兲 ⫺0.1248 ⫺0.1250 ⫺0.1250 ? 8

(b)
t 3 3.3 3.4 3.5
x ⫺5.999 ⫺5.99 ⫺5.9
C 11.57 12.36 12.36 12.36
f 共x兲 ⫺0.1250 ⫺0.1250 ⫺0.1252

冪10 ⫺ x ⫺ 4 3.6 3.7 4

冢Actual limit is ⫺ 81.冣
t
lim ⬇ ⫺0.1250
x→⫺6 x⫹6
C 12.36 12.36 12.36
13.
x ⫺0.1 ⫺0.01 ⫺0.001 0 lim C共t兲 ⫽ 12.36
t→3.5
f 共x兲 1.9867 1.9999 2.0000 ?
(c)
t 2 2.5 2.9 3
x 0.001 0.01 0.1
C 10.78 11.57 11.57 11.57
f 共x兲 2.0000 1.9999 1.9867
t 3.1 3.5 4
sin 2x
lim ⬇ 2.0000 (Actual limit is 2.) C 12.36 12.36 12.36
x→0 x
15. 1 17. 2
The limit does not exist because the limits from the right
19. Limit does not exist. The function approaches 1 from the right and left are not equal.
side of 2, but it approaches ⫺1 from the left side of 2.
57. Answers will vary. Sample answer: As x approaches 8 from
21. Limit does not exist. The function oscillates between 1 and ⫺1 either side, f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close to 25.
as x approaches 0.
23. (a) 2
(b) Limit does not exist. The function approaches 1 from the
right side of 1, but it approaches 3.5 from the left side of 1.
(c) Value does not exist. The function is undefined at x ⫽ 4.
(d) 2

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
A14 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

59. (i) The values of f approach (ii) The values of f increase Section 1.3 (page 67)
different numbers as x or decrease without
6
approaches c from different bound as x 1. 3. 4

sides of c. approaches c.
y y −4 8 −␲ ␲

4 6
3 5
2 −6 −4
4
1 3 (a) 0 (b) ⫺5 (a) 0 (b) About 0.52 or ␲兾6
x 2
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 1 5. 8 7. ⫺1 9. 0 11. 7 13. 2 15. 1
−3 −2 −1 2 3 4 5
x 17. 1兾2 19. 1兾5 21. 7 23. (a) 4 (b) 64 (c) 64
−3 −1
−2
25. (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 2 27. 1 29. 1兾2 31. 1
−4
33. 1兾2 35. ⫺1 37. (a) 10 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 3兾2
(iii) The values of f oscillate between two fixed numbers as x 39. (a) 64 (b) 2 (c) 12 (d) 8
approaches c. x2 ⫹ 3x
41. f 共x兲 ⫽ and g共x兲 ⫽ x ⫹ 3 agree except at x ⫽ 0.
y x
4 lim f 共x兲 ⫽ lim g共x兲 ⫽ 3
3 x→0 x→0

x2 ⫺ 1
43. f 共x兲 ⫽ and g共x兲 ⫽ x ⫺ 1 agree except at x ⫽ ⫺1.
x
x⫹1
−4 −3 −2 2 3 4 lim f 共x兲 ⫽ lim g共x兲 ⫽ ⫺2
x→⫺1 x→⫺1

−3 x3 ⫺ 8
45. f 共x兲 ⫽ and g共x兲 ⫽ x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫹ 4 agree except at x ⫽ 2.
−4 x⫺2
lim f 共x兲 ⫽ lim g共x兲 ⫽ 12
3 x→2 x→2
61. (a) r ⫽ ⬇ 0.9549 cm
␲ 47. ⫺1 49. 1兾8 51. 5兾6 53. 1兾6 55. 冪5兾10
5.5 6.5 57. ⫺1兾9 59. 2 61. 2x ⫺ 2 63. 1兾5 65. 0
(b) ⱕr ⱕ , or approximately 0.8754 < r < 1.0345
2␲ 2␲ 67. 0 69. 0 71. 1 73. 3兾2
(c) lim 2␲ r ⫽ 6; ␧ ⫽ 0.5; ␦ ⬇ 0.0796 75. 2
r → 3兾␲
63. The graph has a hole at x ⫽ 0.
x ⫺0.001 ⫺0.0001 ⫺0.00001 −3 3

f 共x兲 2.7196 2.7184 2.7183

−2

x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001

Answers will vary. Sample answer:
f 共x兲 2.7183 2.7181 2.7169 x ⫺0.1 ⫺0.01 ⫺0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
lim f 共x兲 ⬇ 2.7183 f 共x兲 0.358 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.353 0.349
x→0
y

7 冪x ⫹ 2 ⫺ 冪2 1 冪2
lim ⬇ 0.354; Actual limit is ⫽ .
x→0 x 2冪2 4
77. 3

3 (0, 2.7183)
2 The graph has a hole at x ⫽ 0.
1
−5 1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2
65. 0.002
67. False. The existence or
(1.999, 0.001)
nonexistence of f 共x兲 at Answers will vary. Sample answer:
(2.001, 0.001)
x ⫽ c has no bearing on
the existence of the x ⫺0.1 ⫺0.01 ⫺0.001
limit of f 共x兲 as x → c. f 共x兲
1.998 2.002 ⫺0.263 ⫺0.251 ⫺0.250
0

␦ ⫽ 0.001, 共1.999, 2.001兲 x 0.001 0.01 0.1

69. False. See Exercise 17.
71. Yes. As x approaches 0.25 from either side, 冪x becomes f 共x兲 ⫺0.250 ⫺0.249 ⫺0.238
arbitrarily close to 0.5.
sin nx 关1兾共2 ⫹ x兲兴 ⫺ 共1兾2兲 1
73. lim ⫽n 75–77. Proofs lim ⬇ ⫺0.250; Actual limit is ⫺ .
x→0 x x→0 x 4
79. Putnam Problem B1, 1986

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.