Manufacturing

Processes – Casting and

Joining
Metal Casting
Dr. Sounak K. Choudhury
Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
[email protected]
2 References
1.Fundamentals of Metal Casting, Richard Flinn

2.Metal Casting by Karl Rundman, link:

http://clock.5u.tripod.com/cgi-bin/Metal_Casting.pdf

3.MSE104 notes by David Dye, links:

https://dyedavid.com/mse104/
https://dyedavid.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/104phases-notes-1314-c.pdf

4.Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Kalpakjian and

Schmid

5.Manufacturing Science, Ghosh and Mallik

3 What is a metal casting?

It is one of the oldest constant volume manufacturing Processes

A metal casting is a shape obtained by pouring liquid metal into a

mold or cavity and allowing it to freeze and thus take the form of
the mold.

Often, the fastest and most economical method for making parts
with desired compositions and properties

Almost everything that can be melted, is cast

 Manufacturing Operation
4

Manufacturing Processes

Prof. S. K. Choudhury, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kanpur

5 Classification of Casting Processes

Modern industrial castings are produced by a wide variety of

processes, processes which are broadly defined in terms of
the following:
1. The type of mold material (sand, permanent, etc.)
2. The manner in which the molten metal is introduced into
the cavity (gravity, pressure, vacuum)
3. The state of the metal (percent which is liquid)
4. The state of the mold cavity itself (air, vacuum, gas)
 Classification of Casting Processes
6
 Casting Processes, Mold and Metal Details
7
 Advantages and disadvantages of Casting
8
ADVANTAGES:

 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including

both external and internal shapes.
 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net
shape. Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some
additional shape processing is required (usually machining) in order
to achieve accurate dimensions and details.
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing
more than 100 tons have been made.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be
heated to the liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Casting
8
ADVANTAGES:

 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including

both external and internal shapes.
 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net
shape. Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some
additional shape processing is required (usually machining) in order
to achieve accurate dimensions and details.
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing
more than 100 tons have been made.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be
heated to the liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Casting
9
DISADVANTAGES:
 limitations on mechanical properties, porosity, poor
dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some casting
processes

 safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten

metals, and environmental problems.
 Historical Background
10  Casting is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years.
 Discovery of casting copper occurred accidentally in Mesopotamia
 Shapes much more intricate could be formed by casting than by hammering. More
sophisticated tools and weapons could be fabricated. More detailed implements and
ornaments could be fashioned. Fine gold jewelry could be made more beautiful and
valuable than by previous methods.
 Egypt ruled the Western civilized world during the Bronze Age (nearly 2000 years)
largely due to its ability to perform the casting process.
 Construction of cathedrals and churches required the casting of bells that were used in
these structures.
 Many of the casting techniques developed for bellfounding were applied to cannon
making. The first cast cannon, made of bronze, was made in Ghent, Belgium, in the
year 1313—by a religious monk.
 The list of parts includes dental crowns, jewelry, statues, wood-burning stoves, engine
blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, machine frames, railway wheels, frying
pans, pipes, and pump housings. All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous.
 Ashok Pillar was made by Casting Process
11
 Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka 268-232 BC
 7.2 metres high
 16 inch dia
 Weighs 3000 kg
 Application of Aluminum die casting in
12
Automobiles
13
Foundry Practice
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqSGTjipFxg

Following areas need attention for a successful

casting operation: VIDEO on Foundry Practice

1.Preparation of Moulds and Patterns

2.Melting and Pouring of the liquefied metal
3.Solidification and further cooling to room
temperature
4.Casting Defects and Inspection
 Casting an iron wheel
14 Video Clip
 Casting an engine block, the BMW way
15

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2hYTdrzujI
 Casting, the Indian way
16

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OM1gJqdqEEE
 Casting, also the Indian way
17

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MK3yIMQnaWM
VIDEO CLIP
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjgccpQRWDw
 Casting a propeller, a really big one!
18

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Di6fu7F2BxQ
 Casting a propeller, a really big one!
18

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Di6fu7F2BxQ
 Casting a mirror
19

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2f4zepwcy8
 Patterns
20

A pattern is the replica of the part to be cast, used

to prepare the mould cavity.
Patterns are made of either wood or metal
Patterns are made somewhat larger than the final
job to be produced. This excess in dimensions is
referred to as the pattern allowance.
Pattern allowances are either SHRINKAGE
allowance or MACHINING allowance.
 Patterns
21
The shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of the
contractions of a casting
The total contraction of a casting takes place in three
stages:
The contraction of the liquid from the pouring
temperature to the freezing temperature
The contraction associated with the change of phase
from liquid to solid
The contraction of the solid casting from the freezing
temperature to the room temperature (taken care of by
the shrinkage allowance)
 PATTERNS
22

Split

Single

Match Plate
23
Single-piece patterns
Simplest, least expensive
Used when only a limited number of castings
required
Split patterns
Permit molding of more complex shapes in
moderate numbers
Match-plate patterns
Obtained by attaching two halves of a split
pattern on opposite sides of a match plate
Can be used for large number of castings
 Cope and drag patterns
24
Two halves of split patterns mounted on two
match plates
Usually preferred for heavy castings
 Shrinkage and Machining Allowances
25
The amount of shrinkage allowance depends on the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion (directly proportional)
Shrinkage Allowance = 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙(𝜃𝜃𝑓𝑓 − 𝜃𝜃0 �
where, 𝛼𝛼𝑙𝑙 is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion of the material
𝜃𝜃𝑓𝑓 is the freezing point of the material
𝜃𝜃0 is the room temperature

𝑙𝑙 is the length of the casting

Machining Allowance
Machining operations are usually performed after casting. The excess in the
dimensions of the casting over those of the final job to take care of the machining
is called the Machining Allowance (depends on the material and the overall
dimension of the job)
DRAFT refers to a taper put on the surface parallel to the direction of withdrawal of
the pattern from the mould cavity (0.5 – 2 degrees)
 Moulds
26

 Moulds can be classified on the basis of either the material:

Green Sand Mould
Plastic Mould
Metal Mould

Or, on the method of making them:

 Shell Mould
 Investment Mould
 Schematic of a typical sand mold
27
 Schematic of a typical sand mold
27
SAND MOLD CROSS-SECTION

Runner

Ingate
29
 Flask: Box that contains molding aggregate

 Cope: Top half of the flask

 Drag: Bottom half of the flask

 Core: Sand shape that is inserted to produce holes,

hollows

 Riser: Extra void filled with metal. Supplies metal to

mold cavity to compensate for shrinkage
solidification
 Gating system: Network of channels used to deliver molten
30
metal to the mold cavity.
Comprises of
Pouring cup
Spruce
Runners
Ingates
 Green Sand Mould
31
Composition:
Sand (70-85%); Clay (10-20%); Water (3-6%); Additives (wood flour, dextrin,
sea coal) (1-6%)
Shape and Size of Sand Grains:
 Vary widely
 The bulk density of a sand-mix is very low if the grains are of equal size
with smooth round shape
 Result in increased voids and higher permeability

 Clay, together with water, acts as a bonding agent. Imparts tensile and
shear strength to the moulding sand.

 The organic additives burn out at high temperatures making room for the
moulding sand to expand and thus save the mould from crumbling.
 Properties of Moulding Sand
32
Properties of the Moulding Sand:
 Strength (Compressive Strength)
 Permeability (Gas flow rate through the specimen under a
specified pressure difference across it)
 Deformation (Change in length of a standard specimen at the
point of failure)
 Flowability (ability of the sand to flow around and over the pattern
when the mould is rammed)
 Refractoriness (ability of the sand to remain solid as a function of
temperature)
 Effect of Water Content on moulding sand properties
33
 Gating Design
34  A good gating design ensures distribution of metal in the mould cavity at a
proper rate without excessive temperature loss, turbulence and entrapping
gases and slags.
 Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of the energies (head, pressure, kinetic,
and friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal
Between points 1 and 3: (In a simple vertical gating)

p1 v 21 p3 v 23
h1 + + + F1 = h3 + + + F3
ρ 2g ρ 2g
where, h is the head, cm, p is pressure on the
liquid, N/cm2; 𝜌𝜌 is the density, g/cm3 ; v is the
flow velocity; cm/s; g is gravitational
acceleration constant, 981 cm/s/s ; and F is head
losses due to friction, cm . Subscripts 1 and 2
indicate any two locations in the liquid flow.
 Gating Design (Contn.)
35
 In the figure, pressure at points 1 and 3 is equal ( p1 = p3 )
 Level 1 is maintained constant. Thus the velocity, 𝑣𝑣1 = 0
 Frictional losses are neglected
The energy balance equation between points 1 and 3 gives:
v 23
=ht = ; or , v3 2 ght
2g

Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity and 𝑣𝑣3 is

the velocity of the liquid metal at the gate.
V
Time taken to fill up the mould is obtained as: tf =
Ag v3

Where, 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 and V are the cross-sectional area of the gate and
the volume of the mould respectively.
 Gating Design (Contn.)
35
 In the figure, pressure at points 1 and 3 is equal ( p1 = p3 )
 Level 1 is maintained constant. Thus the velocity, 𝑣𝑣1 = 0
 Frictional losses are neglected
The energy balance equation between points 1 and 3 gives:
v 23
=ht = ; or , v3 2 ght
2g

Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity and 𝑣𝑣3 is

the velocity of the liquid metal at the gate.
V
Time taken to fill up the mould is obtained as: tf =
Ag v3

Where, 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 and V are the cross-sectional area of the gate and
the volume of the mould respectively.
 Gating Design (Contn.)
36
For the bottom gating system, applying Bernoulli’s
equation between points 1 and 3, we get

In time 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡, the head increases 𝑑𝑑ℎ, and the volume of

metal in the cavity increases 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑ℎ, wherein 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚is
the horizontal cross-sectional area of the casting

• Also, the liquid delivered to the gate in time 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡will be 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡, where 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔and
𝑣𝑣are the area and instantaneous velocity at the gate; 𝑣𝑣=2𝑔𝑔(ℎ𝑡𝑡−ℎ)

• Equating the increase in casting volume in time 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡to the flow through the gate
in 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡:
 Gating Design (Contn.)
37
If 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓is the time required to fill the cavity with height ℎ𝑚𝑚, we can write:
 Vertical gating: aspiration effects (permeable mold)
38 First, for the case of a straight downsprue, for an impermeable mold,
Bernoulli’s equation for points 1 and 3 is:

The stream issues from 3 with 𝑣𝑣3at atmospheric pressure

•However, by law of continuity, 𝑣𝑣2=𝑣𝑣3. This seems to
disprove the principle of conservation of energy, since 2 is
higher than 3, and has greater PE
•The inequality arises from the pressure term:

i.e. the pressure at 2 is less than atmospheric (𝑝𝑝3) , by the factor ℎ2𝜌𝜌
 Aspiration Effect
39
For an impermeable mould,

If the pressure at point 3 is atmospheric, i.e, 𝑝𝑝3 = 0, then 𝑝𝑝2 = −ℎ2 𝜌𝜌 as

𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑣3
Hence the design as given in the figure is not acceptable.
For sand mould, care should be taken to ensure that the pressure
anywhere in the liquid metal stream does not fall below the atmospheric
pressure. Otherwise, the gases originating from baking of the organic
compounds in the mould will enter the molten metal stream, producing
porous castings. This is known as the aspiration effect.
Let us see what should be the best design for the sprue.
 Aspiration Effect
40
Let, in the limiting case, 𝑝𝑝2 = 0. In that case,
v 23 v22
= gh2 +
2 2
From the principle of continuity of flow, A2 v2 = A3v3
A3
Or, =
v2 = v3 Rv3
A2
Ideal shape of a
v 23 R 2 v 23
Or, from the above equation, = h2 + sprue
2 gh2 2g 2g
Or, R = 1− 2
2

v3
Again, Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 3, we get, v 23 = 2 ght ( p=1 p=
3 0 v1 = 0 )

Therefore,
h2 hc A3 hc
R =−
2
1 = , or , R = =
ht ht A2 ht
 Aspiration Effect
40
Let, in the limiting case, 𝑝𝑝2 = 0. In that case,
v 23 v22
= gh2 +
2 2
From the principle of continuity of flow, A2 v2 = A3v3
A3
Or, =
v2 = v3 Rv3
A2
Ideal shape of a
v 23 R 2 v 23
Or, from the above equation, = h2 + sprue
2 gh2 2g 2g
Or, R = 1− 2
2

v3
Again, Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 3, we get, v 23 = 2 ght ( p=1 p=
3 0 v1 = 0 )

Therefore,
h2 hc A3 hc
R =−
2
1 = , or , R = =
ht ht A2 ht
 Vertical gating: aspiration effects (permeable mold)
41
 For an impermeable mould,

• In a permeable mold however, the air or mold gas at

the sand-metal interface is at least at atmospheric
pressure, or usually just higher (since mold gases are
generated by the action of the hot metal, which tends
to increase pressure)
• Gas will, therefore, be aspirated into the metal
stream at 2, and
• The quantity of gas aspirated will depend on:ℎ2𝜌𝜌, the
permeability of the mold, and the pressure of the
mold gas

The mold gas may react with the metal to form oxides; dissolve
in the metal to precipitate later; or remain trapped as bubbles.
All these are not desirable outcomes.
 Filling times with vertical and bottom gatings
42
 Optimum Riser Design
43

The volume of the cylinder,

The surface area of the riser is:

Therefore,

or,

Therefore,

Is constant since, Is fixed

For optimum value of r,

 Optimum Riser Design
44
 HEATING THE METAL
45
The heat energy required = The heat to raise the temperature to the
melting point + the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid + the
heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring.
This can be expressed as:

Where, H is the total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to
the pouring temperature, J ; ρ is the density; g/cm3; Cs is the weight
specific heat for the solid metal, J/g-C ; Tm Is the melting temperature of
the metal, C; To is starting temperature—usually ambient, C; Hf is the
heat of fusion, J/g; Cl is the weight specific heat of the liquid metal, J/g-C ;
Tp is the pouring temperature, C; and V is the volume of metal being
heated, cm3.
46
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point (same as melting point)

Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting

47
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point (same as melting point)

Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting

47
 Solidification of Pure Metals
48

Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of

solid metal is formed at the interface immediately
after pouring
The metal which forms the initial skin has been
rapidly cooled by the extraction of heat through
the mold wall. This cooling action causes the
grains in the skin to be fine and randomly
oriented.
Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the
molten metal as solidification progresses
Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into
mold, as well as thermal properties of the metal
Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal,
showing randomly oriented grains of small size near the
mold wall, and large columnar grains oriented toward
the center of the casting

49
 Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather
than at a single temperature

(a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and (b)

associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu composition
during casting
50
 Solidification of Alloy

• As temperature drops, freezing begins at the temperature indicated by the

liquidus and is completed when the solidus is reached.

• The start of freezing is similar to that of the pure metal. A thin skin is formed
at the mold wall due to the large temperature gradient at this surface.
Freezing then progresses as before through the formation of dendrites that
grow away from the walls.

• However, owing to the temperature spread between the liquidus and

solidus, the nature of the dendritic growth is such that an advancing zone is
formed in which both liquid and solid metal coexist.

51
 Solidification of Alloy
• The solid portions are the dendrite structures that have formed
sufficiently to trap small islands of liquid metal in the matrix. This solid–
liquid region has a soft consistency that has motivated its name as the
mushy zone.

• Depending on the conditions of freezing, the mushy zone can be

relatively narrow, or it can exist throughout most of the casting. The
latter condition is promoted by factors such as slow heat transfer out of
the hot metal and a wide difference between liquidus and solidus
temperatures.

• Gradually, the liquid islands in the dendrite matrix solidify as the

temperature of the casting drops to the solidus for the given alloy
composition.
52
Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing
segregation of alloying components in center of casting

53
54 Solidification Time
Solidification takes time

Total solidification time TST = time required for

casting to solidify after pouring

TST depends on size and shape of casting by

relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
54 Solidification Time
Solidification takes time

Total solidification time TST = time required for

casting to solidify after pouring

TST depends on size and shape of casting by

relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
 Chvorinov's Rule
55

n
V 
TST = Cm  
 A

Where, TST = total solidification time; V = volume

of the casting; A = surface area of casting; n =
exponent usually taken to have a value = 2;
and Cm is mold constant
 Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule
56

Cm depends on mold material, thermal

properties of casting metal, and pouring
temperature relative to melting point

Value of Cm for a given casting operation can

be based on experimental data from previous
operations carried out using same mold
material, metal, and pouring temperature, even
though the shape of the part may be quite
different
57
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us
A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area
ratio cools and solidifies more slowly than one
with a lower ratio
To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for
riser must be greater than TST for main casting
Since riser and casting mold constants will be
equal, design the riser to have a larger
volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting
solidifies first
This minimizes the effects of shrinkage
 Numerical Examples
58 1. A riser in the shape of a sphere is to be designed for a sand
casting mold. The casting is a rectangular plate, with length =
200 mm, width = 100 mm, and thickness = 18 mm. If the total
solidification time of the casting itself is known to be 3.5 min,
determine the diameter of the riser so that it will take 25%
longer for the riser to solidify.
 Numerical Examples
59
2. A cylindrical riser is to be used for a sand casting mold. For a
given cylinder volume, determine the diameter-to- length ratio
that will maximize the time to solidify.
 Numerical Examples
60 3. A cylindrical riser of 6 cm diameter and 6 cm height has to be
designed for a sand casting mould for producing a steel rectangular
plate casting 0f 7 cm x 10 cm x 2 cm dimensions having the total
solidification time of 1.36 min. Determine the total solidification time for
the riser.
SOLUTION:
Vplate = 7x10x2 = 140 cm3
Aplate = 2(7x10 + 7x2 + 10x2) = 2(70+14+20) = 208 cm2
(V/A)casting = (140/208) = 0.673
Mould Constant, Cm = TST/(V/A)2 = 1.36/(140/208)2 = 1.36/0.453 = 3 min/cm2
For Riser: Vriser =( πD2h/4), Ariser = πDh + (2πD2/4)
D/h = 1, V = (πD3/4)
Ariser = πD2 + (2πD2/4) = 1.5 πD2
(V/A)Riser = D/6 = 1 cm
TSTRiser = 3 x (D/6)2 = 3x1 = 3 min
 Numerical Examples
61
4. Two castings of the same metal have the same surface area. One
casting is in the form of a sphere and the other is a cube. What is the ratio
of the solidification time for the sphere to that of the cube?

SOLUTION:
ts = B(V/A)2 ; B – constant
For sphere of radius r, (Vsph/Asph)2 = (4/3π r3)/(4π r2) = r2/9
For cube of side l, (Vcube/Acube)2 = (l3/6l2)2 = l2/36
From Chrovinov’s rule, (tsph/tcube) = (r2/9)/ (l2/36) = 4r2/l2
Since the surface areas are the same, 4π r2 = 6l2
Therefore, (4r2/l2) = (6/π)
So, (tsph/tcube) = (6/π) = 1.91
62
Shrinkage

Shrinkage occurs in three steps:

(1) liquid contraction during cooling prior to
solidification;

(2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to

solid, called solidification shrinkage; and

(3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during

cooling to room temperature.
62
Shrinkage

Shrinkage occurs in three steps:

(1) liquid contraction during cooling prior to
solidification;

(2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to

solid, called solidification shrinkage; and

(3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during

cooling to room temperature.
Figure - Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during
solidification and cooling: (0) starting level of molten
metal immediately after pouring; (1) reduction in level
caused by liquid contraction during cooling (dimensional
reductions are exaggerated for clarity in sketches)
63
Figure - (2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage
cavity caused by solidification shrinkage; (3) further
reduction in height and diameter due to thermal
contraction during cooling of the solid metal (dimensional
reductions are exaggerated for clarity in our sketches)
64
65
Solidification Shrinkage
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid
phase
Thus, solidification causes a reduction in
volume per unit weight of metal
Exception: cast iron with high C content
Graphitization during final stages of freezing causes
expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease
associated with phase change
66
 Categories of Metal Casting Processes
67

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to

remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time
to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and
can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open
mold
68 Overview of Sand Casting

Most widely used casting process, accounting for

a significant majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium
Parts ranging in size from small to very large
Production quantities from one to millions
69
Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical
properties
70
Making the Sand Mold
The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern, then separating the mold
into two halves and removing the pattern
The mold must also contain gating and riser
system
If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must
be included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced
 Desirable Mold Properties and
Characteristics
71

Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion

Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in sand
Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?
 Desirable Mold Properties and
Characteristics
71

Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion

Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in sand
Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?
 Other Expendable Mold
Casting Processes
72

Shell Molding
Vacuum Molding
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Investment Casting
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
 SHELL MOLDING
73

Steps in shell molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and
placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin; (2) box is inverted so that sand and
resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a
hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles drop away; (4) sand shell is heated in
oven for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern; (6) two halves of
the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
The finished casting with sprue removed is shown in (7).
 SHELL-MOLD PATTERN
74

Two halves of a
shell mold pattern

Two shells before

clamping
Final casting with attached
pouring basin, runner and
riser
 SHELL MOLDING CHARACTERISTICS
75

Shell is light and thin (5 mm – 10 mm)

Thermal conductivity different from sand

ADVANTAGES
Complex shapes can be produced with less labour
Better dimensional accuracy (0.008 – 0.01 cm)
Better surface finish (fine sand used for shell)
 Significant reduction in cleaning, machining,
finishing
76

DISADVANTAGE
Lower permeability than sand molds.
Decomposition of shell-sand binder
produces high volume of gas. Need good
venting system.
PRODUCTS
Gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting
rods
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
77

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make mold, after which wax is melted away
prior to pouring molten metal
"Investment" comes from one of the less familiar
definitions of "invest" - "to cover completely," which
refers to coating of refractory material around wax
pattern
It is a precision casting process - capable of castings
of high accuracy and intricate detail
 Steps of Investment Casting

78
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
79 Investment Casting
INVESTMENT CASTING
 Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
Close dimensional control and good surface finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net
shape process
 Disadvantages:
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
79 Investment Casting
INVESTMENT CASTING
 Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
Close dimensional control and good surface finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net
shape process
 Disadvantages:
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
 MULTIPLE MOLD CASTINGS
80

Expendable Mold Castings

Variation in mold strength, moisture content, pattern
removal lead to dimensional and property variation.

Permanent Mold Castings

Machined mold made of cast iron, steel, graphite.
Metal poured under gravity, vacuum, high pressure
 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING
81
 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING
82
Metal molds are commonly made of steel or cast
iron.
The cavity, with gating system included, is machined
into the two halves to provide accurate dimensions
and good surface finish.
Metals commonly cast in permanent molds include
aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast
iron. However, cast iron requires a high pouring
temperature, 1250C to 1500C.
Cores can be used in permanent molds to form
interior surfaces in the cast product. The cores can
be made of metal,
 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING
83
If withdrawal of a metal core would be difficult or
impossible, sand cores can be used, in which case
the casting process is often referred to as semi
permanent-mold casting.

The mold is first preheated and one or more coatings

are sprayed on the cavity

The coatings aid heat dissipation and lubricate the

mold surfaces for easier separation of the cast
product.
 STEPS IN PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

84

Steps in permanent-mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated; (2) cores (if used) are inserted,
and mold is closed; (3) molten metal is poured into the mold; and (4) mold is opened. Finished part is
shown in (5).
 Advantages and Limitations of
85 Permanent Mold Casting
 Advantages:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so stronger
castings are produced
 Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
Simple part geometries compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the mold
High cost of mold
86 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated
accordingly

 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and

certain castings for aircraft and missiles

 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,

copper-base alloys, and cast iron
 Die Casting
87
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure (7 to 350 Mpa)
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
88 Die Casting Machines
 Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while liquid
metal is forced into cavity

 Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
 Die Casting
89

Medium carbon low

alloy tool steel is the
most common die
material.
 Die Casting
89

Medium carbon low

alloy tool steel is the
most common die
material.
90 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure into
the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low melting-point
metals that do not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
91

Figure - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:

(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows
into the chamber
92

Figure - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:

(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification
93 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use
on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
94

Figure - Cycle in cold-chamber casting:

(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal
is poured into the chamber
95

Figure - Cycle in cold-chamber casting:

(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification
 Die Casting
96
97 Advantages and Limitations of
Die Casting
Pressure Die Casting
 Advantages:
Economical for large production quantities
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
 Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal points
Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity
98 Centrifugal Casting
A group of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semi centrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting
99

Figure - Setup for true centrifugal casting

 CONTINUOUS CASTING
100
 Cost Analysis of casting
101
Total cost of casting includes all costs, both the direct and indirect, that result
from the design, production, distribution, use, and salvage of the casting over its
lifetime. Total cost can be calculated on a per unit basis as follows

where:
CT = total tooling cost (Rs.)
N = lifetime number of castings
Cc = cost of coring (Rs./unit)
V = total casting volume (cm3)
Cm = alloy cost (Rs./cm3)
Co = casting equipment and labor cost (Rs./hr)
tcycle = total casting lead time (hr)
Y = yield (useable castings/N)
Cs = cost of secondary processing (Rs./unit)
 Cost Analysis of casting
102 It is important to note that total tooling cost (CT) includes all cost associated with tooling
including the cost of pattern and core box construction, the cost of producing and
inspecting the first article, and the cost of iteratively modifying the tooling to meet
specifications. Also, material volume (V) includes not only the volume of the casting, but
also the volume of the risers, runners, and sprues used to feed the casting.
Total casting cycle time (tcycle) is given by the following,

where:
tnp = non-productive time (hr)
tbuild = mold build time including core placement (hr)
tcast = time to pour the casting (hr)
tcool = time to cool to ambient temperature (hr)
ttrim = time to remove gates, risers, etc. (hr)
 Cost Analysis of casting
103
Since many castings involve more than one core, the per unit cost of coring (CC)
is calculated as,

where:
nc = number of cores
V/ = volume of core material (cm3)
Cm/ = cost of core material (Rs./cm3)
C0/ = core making equipment and labor cost (Rs./hr)
t/cycle = core making cycle time (hr)
Y/c = yield (useable cores/lifetime number of cores)
 Cost Analysis of casting
104
Similarly, secondary processing may involve more than one process such as
machining, heat treating, welding, painting, and plating. In addition, processes such as
machining might involve several different operations (e.g., drilling, milling, grinding,
etc.).
The per unit cost of secondary processing is therefore calculated as

where:
ns = number of secondary processes
CT// = secondary process tooling cost (Rs/unit)
C0// = secondary process equipment and labor cost (Rs/hr)
t//cycle = secondary process cycle time (hr)
Ys// = secondary process yield (useable castings/N)
 Cost Analysis of casting
104
Similarly, secondary processing may involve more than one process such as
machining, heat treating, welding, painting, and plating. In addition, processes such as
machining might involve several different operations (e.g., drilling, milling, grinding,
etc.).
The per unit cost of secondary processing is therefore calculated as

where:
ns = number of secondary processes
CT// = secondary process tooling cost (Rs/unit)
C0// = secondary process equipment and labor cost (Rs/hr)
t//cycle = secondary process cycle time (hr)
Ys// = secondary process yield (useable castings/N)
105
Cost Analysis of casting

Those Equations indicate that the following measures are

to be taken to reduce the per unit production and design
cost:
 Design to minimize tooling cost
 Design to minimize material cost
 Design to minimize process cycle time
 Design to maximize yield
 Minimize the number of cores and secondary
processes
 Economics of casting
106
 Casting Defects
107
Causes of Misrun:
•Fluidity of the molten
metal is insufficient
•Low pouring temperature
Sand blow is caused
Misrun is caused when a •Slow pouring by release of mould
casting solidifies before gases during pouring
completely filling the mould •Thin cross section of the
cavity. mould cavity

Cold Shut occurs

when two portions of Due to splattering,
the metal flow solid globules of
together but there is metal are formed that
a lack of fusion become entrapped in
between them due to the casting known as
premature freezing. cold shots.
 Casting Defects
108

Small voids distributed

throughout the casting caused
Shrinkage cavity is an internal by localised solidification
void in the casting caused by shrinkage are known as
solidification shrinkage that microporosity. Usually happens
restricts the amount of molten in alloys.
metal available in the last region to
freeze.

Hot tears happen

when the casting is Pinholes are similar
restrained from to sand blow involving
contraction by an the formation of many
unyielding mould. small gas cavities.
 Casting Defects

109

Sand wash is the result of erosion of the sand Liquid Metal with high fluidity penetrates
mould during pouring. Scab is caused by portions into the sand mould and after freezing the
of the mould surface flaking off during surface of the casting consists of a mixture
solidification and getting embedded in the casting of sand grains and metal known as
surface. penetration.

Mould with insufficient strength may crack,

into which liquid metal can seep to form a fin.
 Product Design Considerations
110 in Casting

Geometric simplicity: Although casting is a process that can

be used to produce complex part geometries, simplifying the part
design will improve its castability. Avoiding unnecessary complexities
simplifies mold making, reduces the need for cores, and improves the
strength of the casting.

Corners: Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, because

they are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing
and cracks in the casting. Generous fillets should be designed on
inside corners, and sharp edges should be blended.
 Product Design Considerations
111 in Casting

Draft: Part sections that project into the mold should have a
draft or taper. In expendable-mold casting, the purpose of this
draft is to facilitate removal of the pattern from the mold. In
permanent-mold casting, its purpose is to aid in removal of
the part from the mold. Similar tapers should be allowed if
solid cores are used in the casting process. The required draft
need only be about 10 for sand casting and 20 to 30 for
permanent-mold processes.
 Product Design Considerations in Casting
112  Section thicknesses: Section thicknesses should be uniform in
order to avoid shrinkage cavities. Thicker sections create hot
spots in the casting, because greater volume requires more time
for solidification and cooling. These are likely locations of
shrinkage cavities.

FIGURE (a) Thick section at intersection can result in a shrinkage

cavity. Remedies include (b) redesign to reduce thickness and (c)
use of a core.
 Product Design Considerations in Casting
113  Use of cores: Minor changes in part design can reduce the need for
coring

FIGURE Design change to eliminate the need for using a core: (a)
original design and (b) redesign.
 Product Design Considerations in Casting
114
Dimensional Tolerances: There are significant differences in
the dimensional accuracies that can be achieved in castings,
depending on which process is used. Table 11.2 provides a
compilation of typical part tolerances for various casting processes
and metals.

Surface Finish: Typical surface roughness achieved in sand

casting is around 6 µm. Similarly, poor finishes are obtained in shell
molding, while plaster-mold and investment casting produce much
better roughness values: 0.75 µm. Among the permanent-mold
processes, die casting is noted for good surface finishes
at around 1 µm.
 Product Design Considerations
115 in Casting

Machining allowances: Tolerances achievable in many

casting processes are insufficient to meet functional needs in
many applications. Sand casting is the most prominent
example of this deficiency. In these cases, portions of the
casting must be machined to the required dimensions. Almost
all sand castings must be machined to some extent in order for
the part to be made functional. Therefore, additional material,
called the machining allowance, is left on the casting for
machining those surfaces where necessary. Typical machining
allowances for sand castings range between 1.5 mm and 3
mm
116
Manufacturing Processes – Casting
and Joining

JOINING
PROCESSES
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury
Mechanical Engineering Department
IIT Kanpur
 Welding

Joining process in which two (or more) parts are

coalesced at their contacting surfaces by application
of heat and/or pressure
– Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone,
with no pressure applied
– Others by a combination of heat and pressure
– Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
• In some welding processes a filler material is added
to facilitate coalescence

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 2/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding

What is welding?

• As per The Welding Institute: “e duobus, unum” –

which means, from two they become one

• In the broadest sense, welding is a process in which

materials of the same fundamental type or class are
brought together and caused to join (and become
one) through the formation of primary (and,
occasionally, secondary) chemical bonds under the
action of heat and pressure.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 3/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Mechanism of Welding
•As atoms are brought together, a
force of electrostatic or Coulombic
attraction arises between the
positively charged nuclei and
negatively charged electron clouds
• The force of attraction increases
with decreasing separation
• Potential energy of separated atoms
decreases as atoms come closer

•As separation distance decreases to

a few atom diameters, outermost
electrons of the approaching atoms
begin to feel one another’s presence,
and a repulsion force between the
negatively charged electron clouds
increases more rapidly than the
attractive force.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 4/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Mechanism of Welding (Contd.)

•The attractive and repulsive forces

combine to create a net force, which
at some separation distance
(equilibrium interatomic distance)
becomes zero.

• At this equilibrium spacing, the net

potential energy is a minimum, the
aggregate atoms are stable, and the
atoms are said to be bonded

• Tendency of atoms to bond is the

fundamental basis for welding

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 5/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 CLASSIFICATION
• Welding
– Solid-state welding: coalescence results from application of
pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure. No filler metal is
utilised. (Diffusion welding, friction welding, ultrasonic welding)
– Liquid-state welding: (Fusion Welding) Heat is used to melt the
base metals. Filler metal (same as base metal) is added to the molten
pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the
welded joint. (arc welding, resistance welding, gas welding)
– Solid-Liquid state welding: used for joining materials which
can not withstand high temperature. Contamination is removed
partly by mechanical and chemical cleaning and partly by
heating (brazing and soldering).
• Adhesive bonding
• Mechanical fastening
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 6/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Why Welding is Important
• Provides a permanent joint
– Welded components become a single entity

• Usually the most economical way to join components in

terms of material usage and fabrication costs
– Mechanical fastening usually requires additional hardware
components (e.g., screws and nuts) and geometric alterations of
the parts assembled

• Not restricted to a factory environment

– Welding can be accomplished "in the field"

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 7/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Limitations & Drawbacks of Welding

• Most welding operations are performed manually and are

expensive in terms of labor cost

• Most welding processes utilize high energy and are

inherently dangerous

• Welded joints do not allow for convenient disassembly

• Welded joints can have quality defects that are difficult to

detect

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 8/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Physics of Welding
• To accomplish fusion, a source of high-density heat
energy is supplied to the faying surfaces, and the
resulting temperatures are sufficient to cause
localized melting of the base metals

• Heat density is defined as the power transferred to

the work per unit surface area, W/mm^2

• The time to melt the metal is inversely proportional

to the power density

• If power density is too low, the heat is conducted

into the work and melting never occurs
9/90
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Physics of Welding
• It has been found that the minimum power
density required to melt most metals in
welding is about 10 W/mm^2

• If power density is too high—above around

105 W/mm2 — the localized temperatures
vaporize the metal in the affected region.

• Thus, there is a practical range of values for

power density within which welding can be
performed.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 9a/95
Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Power Density in various Welding Processes

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 10/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
JOINTS IN WELDING

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 11/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
JOINTS IN WELDING

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 11/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Principles of fusion welding
A fusion welding process uses heat to melt and fuse the
base metals. The most important factor governing a
fusion welding process are:
─ Characteristics of the heat source.
─ The nature of deposition of filler material in the fusion
zone. known as weld pool.
─ Heat flow characteristics in the joint.
─ Gas metal or slag metal reactions in the fusion zone.
─ Cooling in fusion zone, residual stresses and
metallurgical changes.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 12/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Heat Sources in Fusion Welding
The heat source needs to release heat in a sharply
defined, isolated zone. Further, the heat needs to be
produced at a high rate and maintain a high
temperature.
The most common sources of heat are:
─ The electric arc (as in different arc weldings).
─ The chemical flame (oxy-fule gas welding).
─ An exothermic chemical reaction (thermit welding).
─ An electric resistance heating (resistance welding).

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 13/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Some Fusion Welding Processes
• Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is
accomplished by an electric arc

• Resistance welding (RW) - melting is accomplished by

heat from resistance to an electrical current between
faying surfaces held together under pressure

• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) - melting is accomplished by

an oxyfuel gas such as acetylene

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 14/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Some Solid State Welding Processes

• Diffusion welding (DFW) – coalescence is by solid state

fusion between two surfaces held together under
pressure at elevated temperature

• Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat of friction

between two surfaces

• Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by ultrasonic

oscillating motion in a direction parallel to contacting
surfaces of two parts held together under pressure

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 15/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Heat Density
Power transferred to work per unit surface area (power
density), W/mm2
• If power density is too low, heat is conducted into work,
so melting never occurs

• If power density too high, localized temperatures

vaporize metal in affected region

• There is a practical range of values for heat density

within which welding can be performed

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 16/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Comparisons Among Welding Processes

• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large amounts of

heat, but heat density is relatively low because heat is
spread over a large area
– Oxyacetylene gas, the hottest of the OFW fuels, burns at a top
temperature of around 3500°C

• Arc welding produces high energy over a smaller area,

resulting in local temperatures of 5500° to 6600°C

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 17/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Features of A Fusion Welded Joint

Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has

been added consists of:
• Fusion zone
• Weld interface
• Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Unaffected base metal zone

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur 18/90
 Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Figure - Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint:

(a) principal zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain structure

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 19/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Heat Affected Zone
Metal has experienced temperatures below melting point,
but high enough to cause microstructural changes in the
solid metal

• Chemical composition same as base metal, but this

region has been heat treated so that its properties and
structure have been altered

– Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually negative, and

it is here that welding failures often occur

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 20/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solidification of Weld
Effects related to Cooling:
i) Contraction ii) Residual Stresses
iii) Metallurgical Phase Transformation

Contraction:

• In case of groove weld, solidification front moves

simultaneously from the bottom upwards and from
sides inwards.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 21/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solidification of Weld
• Solidification process is similar to casting
• Contraction leads to piping on the surface layer

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 22/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solidification of Weld
•During welding, a long narrow zone
Residual Stresses: is subjected to elevated
temperatures, while plates are at
room temperature
•During cooling, heat from the weld
zone dissipates laterally into the
plates, while the weld area cools
•Welded length tends to contract,
while the base metal tends to
expand longitudinally
•Weld area in very high residual
tension (as contraction restricted by
base metal) and base metal in
compression
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 23/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solidification of Weld
Metallurgical Changes:

These changes occur due

to the heating and
subsequently cooling of
the weld and the heat
affected zone of the parent
metal.

An increase in strength occurs due to quenching effect or

rapid heat transfer to the cold parent metal.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 24/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solidification of Weld
•During welding, a long narrow zone
Residual Stresses: is subjected to elevated
temperatures, while plates are at
room temperature
•During cooling, heat from the weld
zone dissipates laterally into the
plates, while the weld area cools
•Welded length tends to contract,
while the base metal tends to
expand longitudinally
•Weld area in very high residual
tension (as contraction restricted by
base metal) and base metal in
compression
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 23/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solidification of Weld
Metallurgical Changes:

These changes occur due

to the heating and
subsequently cooling of
the weld and the heat
affected zone of the parent
metal.

An increase in strength occurs due to quenching effect or

rapid heat transfer to the cold parent metal.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 24/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
• HAZ may be the weakest area of the weld
• Size of HAZ increases with
– Lower heat input rate processes
• LBW (HHI); SMAW, GMAW (MHI); Gas welding (LHI)
– Decreased welding speed
– Increased thermal conductivity of the base metal
– Decrease in the base metal thickness
• HAZ can be minimized by
– Heat treatment

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 25/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Various Welding Processes
SOLID-STATE (Phase) WELDING

• Liquid phase is not present

• High temperature promotes bonding
• Pressure promotes bonding by plastic
deformation
• Does not require consumable
electrodes, shielding gases or flux

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 26/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Various Welding Processes
Solid Phase Welding:
1. Forge Welding : Parts to be welded are heated
in a furnace and then hammered together to
form the weld.
2. Butt Welding : •Surfaces are brought into
contact
•Heated by electrical current
•Axially compressed

Compression results in a lateral flow of

the surface layers (oxides) and brings
the clean metals in contact.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 27/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Various Welding Processes
Solid Phase Welding
3. Friction Welding:
The required heat is generated
through friction. One of the members
remains stationary while the other is
rotated at a high speed. The two
members to be joined are then brought
into contact under an axial force.

4. Explosion Welding
Plates’ kinetic energy striking
the mating member produces
a wavy interface. This impact
mechanically interlocks the
two surfaces.
Detonation Speed: 2400-3600 m/s
28/90
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Various Welding Processes
Solid Phase Welding
5. Resistance Welding

•The process uses the electrical resistance

between the two members to be joined as the
heat source.
•Heat Generated, H = I2Rt
•For high heat generation at the junction, w/p-
w/p contact resistances should be kept high,
and the rest should be kept low.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 29/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Various Welding Processes
Solid Phase Welding
Resistance Spot Welding

Projection Welding

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 30/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Various Welding Processes
Solid Phase Welding
Resistance Seam Welding

(a)Wheel electrodes, (b) Overlapping spot welds, ( c) Spot

weld, (d) Resistance welded gasoline tank 31/90
 Various Welding Processes
Solid Phase Welding
Resistance Seam Welding

(a)Wheel electrodes, (b) Overlapping spot welds, ( c) Spot

weld, (d) Resistance welded gasoline tank 31/90
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Ultrasonic Welding Video

USW process in which two components are held together, and

oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency applied to
interface cause coalescence
• Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films to allow
intimate contact and strong metallurgical bonding between
surfaces
• Although heating of surfaces occurs, temperatures are well
below Tm
• No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
• Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such as
aluminum and copper

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 32/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Ultrasonic welding (USW):
(a) general setup for a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area

33/90
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 USW Applications
• Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and
electronics industry (eliminates need for soldering)

• Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels

• Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels

• Small parts assembly tasks in automotive industry

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 34/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 35/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Electron Beam Welding
• The process uses a very high-intensity beam of
electromagnetic energy as the heating source for welding
in the form of electrons.
• The energy density is approximately 1010 to 1013 W/m2
versus 5 x 106 to 5 x 108 W/m2 for typical arc welding
processes.
• Conversion of the kinetic energy of the electrons into heat
occurs as these particles strike the workpiece, leading to
melting and vaporization.
• Penetration can be high, producing deep, narrow, parallel-
sided (high aspect) fusion zones with narrow heat-
affected zones and minimal angular distortion due to
nonuniform weld metal shrinkage or thermal expansion
and contraction.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 36/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Electron Beam Welding
Working Principle
• Electron beams are produced in what is called
a gun by thermionically extracting them from a
heated filament or cathode and accelerating
them across a high potential achieved using
one or more annular anodes along a high-
vacuum column. The stream of accelerated
electrons is focused into a beam of very high
energy density using a series of
electromagnetic coils or lenses. The electrons
then pass from the column to a work chamber
to the workpieces to produce a weld.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 37/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Laser Beam Welding

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 38/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Laser Beam Welding
• The process uses a very high-intensity beam of
electromagnetic energy as the heating source for
welding in the form of photons.
• The energy density is approximately 1010 to 1013 W/m2
versus 5 x 106 to 5 x 108 W/m2 for typical arc welding
processes.
• Conversion of the kinetic energy of the photons into
heat occurs as these particles strike the workpiece,
leading to melting and vaporization.
• Penetration can be high, producing deep, narrow,
parallel-sided (high aspect) fusion zones with narrow
heat-affected zones and minimal angular distortion due
to nonuniform weld metal shrinkage or thermal
expansion and contraction.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 39/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Laser Beam Welding
• Shielding for the LBW process is accomplished with inert
gases, either in dry boxes or from special shrouds over
the vicinity of the weld puddle, although the process
could also be performed in vacuum.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 40/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 41/90
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Plasma Arc Welding
• Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons
and neutral gas molecules
• .
• Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat
generated by a constricted arc struck between a tungsten
non-consumable electrode and the work piece
(transferred arc process)

• Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high

energy density and may be used for high speed welding
and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper
alloys, Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 42/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Plasma Arc Welding
Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

 Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc

to misalignments;
 High welding rate;
 High penetrating capability (keyhole effect);
Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

 Expensive equipment;
 High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat
input (in transferred arc process).

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 43/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Liquid State (Fusion) Welding
1. Arc Welding
• Developed in mid-1800s
• Uses a consumable or
non-consumable
electrode (rod or wire)
• Arc is produced between
the tip of the electrode
and workpiece to be
welded
• Arc is started by
momentarily touching the
electrode to the
workpiece and then
withdrawing it to a short
distance ( a few mm)

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 44/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Basic Principles of Arc Welding

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 45/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Arc Welding

Arc temperature is about 30,000°C!

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 46/90
Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Initiating an Electric arc
There are two common methods for initiating an
electric arc:
In touch start method, the electrode is brought in
contact with the workpiece and then pulled apart to
create a very small gap. Due to direct contact, short
circuiting happens resulting in a large current flow
leading to heating, partial melting and slight
evaporation of workpiece metal at the electrode tip.
Heating of the electrode releases electrons due to
thermal ionization. Vaporization of metal also produces
ions and electrons. Upon withdrawal of the electrode,
flow of current starts through these charged particles
and arc is initiated.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 47/90
Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Initiating an Electric arc (Contn)
In field start method, a very high potential difference (~107 V) is
applied between the electrode (cathode)and workpiece (anode). Due
to high potential difference, electrons are released from the cathode
via field emission. Due to the movement of electrons under the high
potential difference, an arc is set up. Once sufficient number of
electrons are available in the arc gap, the potential difference is
brought back to normal to ensure movement of electrons and
maintenance of the arc. This process is primarily used for automated
welding processes and also where direct contact between workpiece
and electrode is not preferred.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 48/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Initiating an Electric arc (Contn)
(a) (b)

_ _
+ +

Touch start method (a) shot circuiting (b) emission of ions and electrons
on slightly withdrawing the electrode

Field start method

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 49/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Arc Welding: Characteristics

• Process is applicable to all metals and alloys except

pure copper, pure aluminum and some low-melting point
metals.
Use of Electrode Coating:
• Shields weld pool from atmospheric contamination by
creating a suitable gaseous atmosphere and slag. Slag
also refines the molten metal.
• Acts as a carrier of alloying elements, deoxidants and
other elements necessary to produce the desired arc
and metal transfer characteristics.
Arc produces a temperature of 5000 – 300000C
Current – 50 – 300 A (AC or DC); Power < 10 Kw
Polarity – Straight or Reverse; W/P thickness - 3-19 mm
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 50/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes
• Consumable – consumed during welding process
– Source of filler metal in arc welding
• Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding process
– Any filler metal must be added separately

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 51/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Consumable Electrodes
• Forms of Consumable Electrodes
– Welding rods (also called sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and 3/8 inch
or less in diameter and must be changed periodically
– Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools with long lengths
of wire, avoiding frequent interruptions
• In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by arc
and added to weld joint as filler metal

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 52/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Nonconsumable Electrodes

• Made of tungsten which resists melting

• Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is
principal mechanism)
• Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate wire fed
into weld pool

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 53/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Power Source in Arc Welding
• Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)
– AC machines less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to ferrous metals
– DC equipment can be used on all metals and is
generally noted for better arc control

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 54/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 AW Processes that use
Consumable Electrodes
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Flux-Cored Arc Welding
• Electrogas Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 55/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Current voltage characteristic of an arc
─ For a given electrode material, voltage
reduces with increasing current up to 50
Amp and increases thereafter.
─ Until 50 Amps, shape of the arc is almost
cylindrical. Surface/volume ratio decreases

Voltage
with increasing radius.
─ Until 50 Amp, the arc radius increases and
shape remains cylindrical  dissipates less
50 100 200
heat  conductivity increases  resistance
Current
R decreases  voltage V decreases

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 56/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Current voltage characteristic of an arc
─ Beyond 50 Amps, the arc bulges out  the current path
becomes more than the arc gap  resistance to current
flow increased  voltage increases

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 57/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Electrode polarity
Typically, direct current is used , and two different
polarity is considered:
DCEN (Straight polarity): Direct Current Electrode
Negative. Electrode is –ve and workpiece is +ve.
This method produces deep and narrow weld.
DCEP (Reverse polarity): Direct Current Electrode
Positive. Electrode is +ve and workpiece is -ve.
This method produces wider and shallower weld.
Weld penetration is less – used for welding sheet
metals
Using an AC current supply, the current pulsates
rapidly. This method is suitable for welding thick
The effect of polarity and current
sections and for using large diameter electrodes type on weld beads (a) DCEN (b)
at maximum currents. DCEP (c) AC current

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 58/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Current voltage characteristic of an arc
─ For a given electrode material, voltage
reduces with increasing current up to 50
Amp and increases thereafter.
─ Until 50 Amps, shape of the arc is almost
cylindrical. Surface/volume ratio decreases

Voltage
with increasing radius.
─ Until 50 Amp, the arc radius increases and
shape remains cylindrical  dissipates less
50 100 200
heat  conductivity increases  resistance
Current
R decreases  voltage V decreases

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 56/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Current voltage characteristic of an arc
─ Beyond 50 Amps, the arc bulges out  the current path
becomes more than the arc gap  resistance to current
flow increased  voltage increases

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 57/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Electrode polarity
Typically, direct current is used , and two different
polarity is considered:
DCEN (Straight polarity): Direct Current Electrode
Negative. Electrode is –ve and workpiece is +ve.
This method produces deep and narrow weld.
DCEP (Reverse polarity): Direct Current Electrode
Positive. Electrode is +ve and workpiece is -ve.
This method produces wider and shallower weld.
Weld penetration is less – used for welding sheet
metals
Using an AC current supply, the current pulsates
rapidly. This method is suitable for welding thick
The effect of polarity and current
sections and for using large diameter electrodes type on weld beads (a) DCEN (b)
at maximum currents. DCEP (c) AC current

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 58/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal
rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding
• Sometimes called "stick welding“ [VIDEO]

59/90
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding Stick in SMAW
• Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal
• Coating consists of powdered cellulose mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients, held together
by a silicate binder
• Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder connected
to power source
• Disadvantages of stick welding:
– Sticks must be periodically changed
– High current levels may melt coating prematurely

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 60/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 SMAW Applications
• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and
certain nonferrous alloys
• Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its
alloys, copper alloys, and titanium

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 61/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode and
shielding accomplished by flooding arc with a gas
• Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun
• Shielding gases include inert gases such as argon
and helium for aluminum welding, and active gases
such as CO2 for steel welding
• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate
slag covering on weld bead - no need for manual
grinding and cleaning of slag

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 62/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 63/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Liquid State (Fusion) Welding
Metal-Inert Gas Welding (MIG) or
Gas Metal Arc Welding •Weld area shielded by
inert gas: Ar, He, CO2
MIG Video
•Used for welding a
variety of ferrous & non-
ferrous metals

•The coiled electrode wire

is fed by drive rolls as it
melts away at the tip.

•Except for Aluminium, a

DC source is used with
the consumable electrode
as + ive terminal.

Current density – 10,000 amp/cm2; Welding current is 100 – 300 amp.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 63a/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Gas Metal Arc Welding Advantages
over Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode
– Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
• Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
– The end of the stick cannot be used in SMAW
• Higher deposition rates
• Eliminates problem of slag removal
• Can be readily automated

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 64/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Arc Welding Processes that use
Nonconsumable Electrodes
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
• Plasma Arc Welding
• Carbon Arc Welding
• Stud Welding

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 65/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert

gas for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C (6170°F)
• Also called TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas welding)
– In Europe, called "WIG welding"
• Used with or without a filler metal
– When used, filler metal is added to weld pool from separate rod
or wire
• Applications: aluminum and stainless steel most
common

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 66/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert

gas for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C (6170°F)
• Also called TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas welding)
– In Europe, called "WIG welding"
• Used with or without a filler metal
– When used, filler metal is added to weld pool from separate rod
or wire
• Applications: aluminum and stainless steel most
common

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 66/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Liquid State (Fusion) Welding TIG Video

Tungsten-Inert Gas Welding (TIG) •Shielding gas usually Ar,

He or Ar+He
•AC or DC mode of
operation
•AC preferred for Al
and Mg because
cleaning action of AC
removes oxide and
improves weld
quality
•GTAW produces very
clean welds since no flux
is employed
•Particularly attractive for
reactive metals (Al, Mg
and Ti), and high
temperature refractory
metals
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 67/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Advantages and Disadvantages of GTAW
(TIG welding)
• Advantages:
– High quality welds for suitable applications
– No spatter because no filler metal through arc
– Little or no postweld cleaning because no flux
• Disadvantages:
– Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode AW processes

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 68/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Liquid State (Fusion) Welding
2. Submerged Arc Welding:

•Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux

•Flux: Lime, SiO2, MnO2, CaF2
•Flux fed into weld zone by gravity
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 69/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Liquid State (Fusion) Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
•Thick layer of flux covers molten metal, Prevents oxidation,
sparks
•Reduces weld metal spatter.
•Increases deposition efficiency
•Acts as thermal insulator; promotes deep penetration
Electrode wire: 1.5 – 10 mm; Current: 300 – 2000 A

•Limited to welds in a flat or horizontal position because flux

is fed by gravity
•Can weld a wide variety of C, alloy and stainless steel sheet
or plate often at speeds as high as 5 m/min
•Quality of weld is very high, with good toughness, ductility
and uniformity of properties.
Typical applications
Thick plate welding for ship building and pressure vessels
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 70/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Liquid State (Fusion) Welding
GAS WELDING

• Acetylene most common fuel

• Developed in the early 1900s
• Reactions
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + 33% Heat (Primary)
2CO + H2 → 2CO2 + H2O + 67% Heat (Secondary)
• Temperatures up to 3300o C achieved
• Used for structural sheet metal fabrication,
automotive bodies, repair work

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 71/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 72/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Liquid State (Fusion) Welding

GAS WELDING
Types of Flame

Depends on acetylene-oxygen ratio

• Neutral flame
– Used for most operations
• Oxidizing flame
– Harmful for steels. Excess O2 reacts with C
– Used for Cu and Cu-based alloy because it forms
a protective oxide film
• Reducing/Carburizing flame
– Lower temperatures
– Soldering, Brazing, Flame hardening
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 73/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Types of Flame
There are three different flame types depending on the relative proportion of
oxygen and acetylene in the flame.
At a ratio of 1:1 (i.e. there is no excess oxygen) the flame is considered to be
neutral.
With a greater oxygen supply, the flame is known as oxidizing flame. It can
be harmful (especially for steels) because it oxidizes the metal.
If the oxygen is insufficient for combustion, the flame is known as reducing
or curburizing flame (i.e. excess acetylene).

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
• Filler Metals
– Bare
– Flux coated
• Metals at high temperatures tend to
react chemically with elements in the
air - oxygen and nitrogen.
• Oxides and nitrides destroy the
strength and toughness of the weld
joint.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 75/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
• Flux retards oxidation by
– Generating a gaseous shield around the
weld zone
– Dissolves and removes oxides in the form
of “slag”. Slag protects metal against
oxidation as it cools
• Advantages
– Low cost
– Portable
– Versatile
– Economical for low quantities
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 76/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
• An arc is an electric current flowing
between two electrodes through an
ionized column of gas.
• Arc is generated by electrons liberated
from cathode and moving towards the
anode
• About 70% of the heat is liberated at the
anode by the striking electrons
• Anode temperature can reach 5000 –
30000o C
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 78/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Thermit Welding
Thermit is the trademark name of Thermite, a mixture of aluminium powder
and iron oxide that produces an exothermic reaction when ignited.
Thermit welding is a fusion welding process in which the heat for
coalescence is produced by superheated molten metal from the chemical
reaction of Thermit.
Finely mixed powders of aluminium and iron oxide (in a 1:3 mixture), when
ignited at a temperature of 1300°C, produce the following chemical
reaction:
8Al+3Fe3O4  9Fe+4Al2O3+Heat

Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated

metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 79/90
Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Thermit Welding (Contn.)
• Aluminium oxide is a by-product of the reaction which
floats on top of the molten iron as slag and protects it
from oxidation. This process is used to join railroad rails

Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated

metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical 80/90

Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solid-Liquid State Welding
BRAZING AND SOLDERING

• Join materials that cannot withstand high

temperatures
• Join parts that are delicate and intricate
• Join two or more materials with very
different characteristics, properties,
thicknesses, and cross-sections

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 81/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solid-Liquid State Welding
BRAZING AND SOLDERING
• Filler metal is placed at or between the
surfaces to be joined
• Temperature is raised to melt the filler
metal but not the workpiece
• Molten metal fills the closely fitting space
by capillary action
• Upon cooling and solidification of the filler
metal, a strong joint is obtained.
• Temperature of operation differentiates
brazing from soldering
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 81a/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solid-Liquid State Welding
BRAZING AND SOLDERING
Process Capabilities
Brazing
• Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and
distributed by capillary action between faying surfaces of
metal parts being joined
• Filler metal Tm greater than 450°C (840°F) but less than Tm
of base metal(s) to be joined
• Dissimilar metals can be assembled with good joint
strength
– Typical products: carbide drill bits and carbide inserts on
steel shank
– Intricate lightweight shapes can be joined with little
distortion
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 82/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Solid-Liquid State Welding
BRAZING AND SOLDERING

Soldering
• Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm less than or equal to
4500C (8400F) is melted and distributed by capillary action between
faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
• No melting of base metals, but filler metal wets and combines with
base metal to form metallurgical bond
• Used extensively in the electronics industry
• Because solders do not generally have enough strength, they are
not used for load bearing (structural) applications
• Can join various metals and thicknesses
– Cu, Ag, Au are easy to solder
– Al, SS are difficult to solder because of their, strong, thin oxide
film.

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 83/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Advantages of Brazing
Compared to Welding

• Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals

• Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting
high production rates
• Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
• In general, less heat and power required than FW
• Problems with HAZ in base metal near joint are reduced
• Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding
processes can be brazed, since capillary action draws
molten filler metal into joint

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 84/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding Defects
Cracking
Causes: Temperature gradients
that cause thermal stresses in
the weld zone.
Prevention:
•Change the weld design to minimize
stresses from shrinkage during cooling

•Change welding process parameters, procedure and

sequences.
•Preheat components being welded
•Avoid rapid cooling of the components after welding
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 85/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding Defects
Incomplete Fusion or Penetration

Produces poor weld beads due to

insufficient heat input.
Prevention:
•Raise the temperature of the base metal
•Clean the weld area prior to welding
•Adequate shielding gas
•Change the design of joints and type of
electrode

Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 86/90

Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding Defects
Porosity
Caused by trapped gases during
solidification of the weld area, chemical
reactions during welding or
contaminations.
Prevention:
•Proper selection of electrodes and
filler material
•Preheating the weld area
•Proper cleaning and preventing
contaminants from entering the weld
zone.
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 87/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding Defects
Slag Inclusion
Inclusions are compounds such as
oxides, fluxes and electrode coating
materials that are trapped in the
weld zones.

Prevention:
•Clean the weld bead surface before the next layer is
deposited.
•Provide adequate shielding gas
•Change the type of electrode
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury 88/90
Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
 Welding Defects
Bad Profile
Oxide Inclusion

Due to under filling/overfilling and Similar to slag inclusion.

melting away of base metal.
Prevention:
•Improve welding technique.
•Select proper electrode/fillerProf. Sounak K. Choudhury
89/90
material. Mechanical Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur
Prof. Sounak K. Choudhury Mechanical
Engg. Dept., IIT Kanpur