Composting

Composting is the biological decomposition of wastes consisting of organic sub-

stances of plant or animal origin under controlled conditions to a state sufficiently
stable for storage and utilization (Diaz et al., 1993).

From: Soil Microbiology, Ecology and Biochemistry (Fourth Edition), 2015

Related terms:

Municipal Solid Waste, Anaerobic Digestion, Sludge, Biochar, Antibiotic, Compost,

Manure, Micro-Organism, Nitrogen

View all Topics

Source reduction, waste minimization,

and cleaner technologies
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, ... Samiha Nuzhat, in Source Reduction and Waste
Minimization, 2022

2.3 Composting
Composting is an age-old traditional waste minimization strategy. Composting
denotes an aerobic method of decomposing organic solid waste. It is a major type of
recycling organic waste to produce useful fertilizers. Composting produces humus
as an end product which is beneficial for plant growth and effective to minimize
organic waste at small or large scale. Composting process can be applicable for
a wide variety of waste components like solid and liquid waste. Based on the
products which are being composted, suitable ingredients are designed to enhance
composting procedure (Misra et al., 2003). Usually animal feces or plants are used
as composting ingredients. In this process, moisture content of the waste materials
are reduced drastically and in presence of oxygen, the organic parts of the waste
materials are decomposed at certain temperature (Richard et al., 2002). Usually,
warm temperature of tropical regions is more suitable for composting comparing
with the cooler regions (Liang et al., 2003). Some basic steps of composting strategy
have been illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2. Basic steps of composting process.

Composting process occurs in a series of chemical reactions. Based on the primary

sources used in composting, the reaction steps and mechanisms vary. Some of such
major biochemical reactions involved with composting process have been illustrated
in Fig. 2.3 (Peigné and Girardin, 2004).

Figure 2.3. Major biochemical reactions occurred in composting process.

In brief, as an end product of the process, carbon rich humus is produced which
is rich in plant nutrients. Composting process can be of various types considering
several criteria. Some of the common ones are windrow composting, tunnel com-
posting, in-vessel composting, composting toilet, and so on. Currently it is a very
well-known process adopted by many people worldwide. However, it is not fully
ecofriendly as composting plants often release methane and other harmful gases
(Jäckel et al., 2005). But comparing with many other waste minimization strategies,
it is quite effective in terms of its affordability and effectivity.

> Read full chapter

Waste from Nuclear Plants

Mukesh Doble, Anil Kumar, in Biotreatment of Industrial Effluents, 2005

Composting
Composting is generally achieved by converting solid wastes into stable humus-like
materials via biodegradation of putrescible organic matter (Huang et al., 2000).
The composting process consists of microbiological treatment in which aerobic
microorganisms use organic matter as a substrate. The main products of the com-
posting process are fully mineralized materials, such as CO2, H2O,, stabilized organic
matter heavily populated with competitive microbial biomass, and ash. Compost has
the potential of improving soil structure, increasing cation exchange capacity, and
enhancing plant growth. Ipek et al. (2002) showed that beta-radioactivity was greatly
decreased by aerobic composting.

Bioremediation holds the key to radioactive waste management. Chemical ap-

proaches, though effective, are not economical and cannot be applied to larger field
areas. A combination of phytoremediation alongside bioremediation would certainly
contain the hazardous radioactive wastes, thereby providing the much needed safety
cover for the communities living near these contaminated sites.

> Read full chapter

Volume 1
S. Toze, J. Sidhu, in Encyclopedia of Environmental Health (Second Edition), 2011

Composting
Composting is an aerobic thermophilic process, and temperatures up to 70 °C are
usually achieved during this process. Two types of composting processes, in-vessel
and open windrow composting, are the most common methods used for the sta-
bilization and sanitation of biosolids. Composting can effectively reduce pathogen
numbers in wastewater sludge to very low numbers, with removal levels as high
as 4 log being achieved (Table 2). The resulting product can be distributed for
unrestricted use. Complete sterilization is difficult to achieve, however, due to the
difficulty of maintaining a uniform temperature throughout the compost piles.
In-vessel composting is generally a better option for composting of biosolids as
uniform heating can be achieved as a result of proper mixing.

> Read full chapter

Composting and vermicomposting:

Process optimization for the manage-
ment of organic waste
Suryateja Pottipati, ... Ajay S Kalamdhad, in Advanced Organic Waste Management,
2022

3.3.1 Rotary drum composting

Composting by nature is a random process, such as the breakdown of leaf litter
or forest floor and the ageing of cow manure, but the period and natural com-
posting modalities are lengthy and heterogeneous (Singh et al., 2011). But as time
progressed, several improvements occurred in the natural composting process to
optimize the period and now it is appropriate for any form of organic waste and
with the high volume of loads. Pile and agitated pile composting were initially
introduced in the municipal solid waste management system, but the final result
has the least importance or no value at a municipal solid waste management system
due to heterogeneous characteristics of MSW (Block and Goldstein, 1998). Rotary
Drum Composting was one such composting technique that could manage the
huge number of organic fraction loads produced and also the optimized length
of composting achieved. Several batch studies have been done with rotary drum
composting in India but very limited pilot scale studies have been done so far. The
advantages of rotary drum composting characteristics up on traditional composting
was listed in Table 3.2. This technique of composting is so promising that the
total composting process has been reduced to 27–28 days from the traditional
composting of 120 days and also the thermophilic degradation in the initial stages
is one of the specialties of this technique (Kalamdhad et al., 2008; Kalamdhad and
Kazmi, 2009). The benefits of rotary drum composting technics are:

Table 3.2. Composting Characteristics.

Windrow Aerated static pile Rotary drum compost-

ing
Substrates Waste was chosen for Preferable for more ho- All sorts of waste, but
those with reduced mogeneous and con- suitable for readily de-
odor emissions, such as sistent waste, and the graded waste, such as
plant-based waste bulking agent is need- food waste
ed
Accommodating ca- More than 10 ton More than 10 ton Any were from 0.1 to
pacity 10 ton and more num-
bers can be adopted
based on the require-
ment
Composting duration Very long Long Very short
Site requirement Because of pile forma- Same as windrow Very less and easy to
tion, the land require- manage since the reac-
ment is more to man- tor can be established
age higher loads anywhere on site
Additional prerequi- Aeration if the pile ac- Aeration and bulking Increased turning fre-
sites cumulates more mois- agents quency and increased
ture and agitations aeration hours
on regular basis some
times to initiate the
active degradation mi-
crobial inoculum will be
required
Optimized duration Reduced up to 30 per- Lower than windrow More than 50 percent if
with prerequisites cent of the total period the reactor was boosted
with additional prereq-
uisites
Final product quality Poor Medium Good
1. Simple compost volume control.

2. Adoptable in the handling of decentralized waste.

3. The supply air blower, which makes the reactor simple to run, helps in the
proper aeration of the compost material.
4. Simple to install and moveable (if small scale) and easy to feed and extract the
compost content on a small scale, easy to feed and automated recycling of
deteriorated waste on a wide scale.

The major benefit lies in the thermophilic degradation duration using this reactor,
in Fig. 3.2 listed some of the commercial wastes produced in urban areas and
their thermophilic degradation durations which gives a clear idea that the major
degradation happened in the first 7 to 10 days and the compost is ready from day
28 since there are no comparable changes in temperature in the reactor.

Fig. 3.2. The thermophilic temperature profile of various wastes. (A-sewage sludges
mixed with a bulking agent, B-flower waste with cow dung and sawdust, C-sewage
sludges mixed with natural zeolites, and d-vegetable waste with cow dung and
sawdust, the x-axis is the number of composting days.)
Fig. 3.3. The thermophilic temperature profile of various weeds (A-Water hyacinth,
B-Hydrilla verticillata, and C- Mikania micranthakunth, x-axis is the number of com-
posting days in every graph)

In Graph- A the author used sewage sludge and bulking material in different propor-
tions and fed to 100 L capacity reactor and analyzed the temperature, Graph-B is the
temperature profile of flower waste fed to 550 L capacity reactor, Graph-C is sewage
mixed with natural zeolites and Graph-D is the vegetable waste mixed with cow dung
and sawdust and fed in a 550 L capacity reactor. In all the graphs the duration for the
thermophilic degradation took place by the 10th day of the process and for many of
them, it's below 7 days. This reactor is also efficient in managing weeds like Hydrilla
verticillate, (Jain et al., 2018) and Mikania micranthakunth (Kauser et al., 2020), and
also water hyacinth (Singh et al., 2013) which are major problems in northeast India
and also freshwater ecosystems below listed the thermophilic degradation graphs
of the same in Fig. 3.3 and the same trend of composting duration and the peak of
thermophilic degradation follows as explained previously.

One of the major observations in the rotary drum composting technique has been
that the drum is efficient for the first 7–10 days and was used as a storage container
until the compost reaches ambient temperatures rather than a reactor and this can
be avoided by using the rotary drum reactor for the first 7–10 days based on the type
of waste, by this we can efficiently use the reactor to treat more amount of waste.

> Read full chapter

Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
S.K. Dentel, Y. Qi, in Comprehensive Water Quality and Purification, 2014

3.12.6.1 Introduction
Composting is a treatment process in which the organic constituents of biosolids are
biologically decomposed under controlled conditions. The end product, or compost,
is a material rich in organic matter and nutrients that can be marketed as a soil
amendment for agricultural and horticultural uses. The major factors that affect the
composting process include oxygen, moisture, temperature, and nutrients.

The decomposition of organic matter during composting depends on the activities

of aerobic microorganisms and therefore requires oxygen. Sufficient porosity
throughout the matrix is needed to facilitate the penetration of oxygen. Because
biosolids are dense and have high moisture content, bulking agents are usually used
to increase the porosity. Aeration can then provide oxygen to the microorganisms
and maintain rapid decomposition rates.

Moisture is closely related to microbial activity. Low moisture will cease the microbial
activity, whereas too high moisture will fill the pore spaces with water and reduce the
oxygen content. Therefore, composting is normally carried out at moisture contents
between 50% and 55%.

The microbial population in a compost pile changes with temperature, with different
mesophilic and then thermophilic populations effecting biodegradation (Figure 4). A
temperature of at least 55 °C should be reached for good pathogen destruction. The
increase in temperature is a function of operating conditions such as pile structure,
pile volume, oxygen content, and ambient temperature. Sensors for temperature
and oxygen levels within the composting mixture can be used to control the aeration
rate. Common practice is to allow 21 days of composting time plus some passive
storage afterward to insure desirable compost properties and satisfactory pathogen
destruction.
Figure 4. Typical trends of temperature, pH, and coliform bacteria in a compost
windrow. MPN, most probable number.

Carbon and N are the two most important nutrients for microbial growth during
composting. The ideal carbon to N ratio is approximately 27–30:1. The microbial
activity slows down at higher C:N ratios, whereas lower C:N ratios will release
ammonia.

A number of biosolids composting technologies are available. They can be divided

into three principal types: windrow, aerated static pile, and in-vessel systems. These
systems vary primarily in how air is furnished to the compost while assuring an
adequate temperature increase and the necessary odor control.

> Read full chapter

Meat Waste Management: Treatment

Methods and Potential Uses of Treated
Waste
Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis, Demetrios Ladas, in Waste Management for the Food
Industries, 2008

Composting
Composting is a widely used method for organic waste disposal (Cambardella et
al., 2003), while it also has potential as an effective method of treating waste prior
to land application (Imbeah, 1998). It is an aerobic, biological process employing
naturally occurring microorganisms to convert biodegradable organic matter into a
humus-like product (Lau et al., 1992; Liao et al., 1993; Imbeah, 1998).
Mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms are involved in composting and their
succession is important in the effective management of the process (Beffa et al.,
1996; Ishii et al., 2000; Goyal et al., 2005). This process kills pathogens, converts
nitrogen from unstable ammonia to stable organic forms, reduces the volume of
waste and improves the nature of the waste (Imbeah, 1998).

Poultry farms generate organic manure containing significant quantities of pro-

tein and lignocellulosic materials. Direct disposal of these liquid and solid poultry
manures is not allowed because they are pollution agents thus, to reduce adverse
ecological effects, waste treatment prior to landfilling is required (i.e. composting or
anaerobic digestion) (Guerra-Rodriguez et al., 2003). The environmental problems
associated with raw manure application could be mitigated with chemical and bio-
logical stabilization of soluble nutrients to more stable organic forms by composting
before application to agricultural soils (Tiquia and Tam, 2002).

The acceptance of composting, however, depends on how well the operating strate-
gies employed are developed for both product quality and environmental protection
(Tiquia and Tam, 2002). In this way, composting provides an inexpensive alternative
for disposal of all dead animals, butcher wastes and is an alternative for meat
processors who are unable to find someone willing to accept blood and is cost
effective (Mittal, 2006; Bonhotal et al., 2002). Moreover, Mittal (2006) reported that
on-site composting requires know-how, capital investment, sufficient space and
regular maintenance.

Three methods of composting are commonly used: windrows (method used at

Illinois State), aerated static piles (windrows with perforated pipe laid within the pile)
and bins or aerated chambers. Windrows and aerated static piles are typically used
for high volume composting, while bins or aerated chambers are most typical for
small volume or home composting (http://www.cast.ilstu.edu/ksmick/363/363lexre-
port_05.htm).

Several authors investigated the possibility of composting meat wastes. Guerra-Ro-

driguez et al. (2003) examined the co-composting of barley waste with liquid poultry
manure. The materials composted reached thermophilic stage temperatures within
4 days, lasting for more than 10 days; thereafter the temperature decreased rapidly to
ambient levels. The initial pH value was around 9 for both mixtures and, despite an
initial decrease, high values were maintained over the entire co-composting process.
Electrical conductivity increased with composting time, while the opposite behavior
was recorded for total carbon content. Organic matter loss in the co-composting of
barley waste with liquid poultry manure was 35%. The content of NH4-N in the final
products was higher than the value advised for mature composts, while the available
P and K contents ranged from 0.7 to 2.2% and from 3.4 to 3.8%, respectively.
Imbeah (1998) reviewed composting of piggery waste. He investigated ways in
which composting could be used for treating pig manure, pig carcasses and pig
litter as well as factors which influence the composting process. In general, he
concluded that carcass composting can reduce the cost of carcass disposal, while
pig manure, because of its water content, is difficult to compost. Furthermore,
carcass composting converted a waste product, containing potential disease-causing
organisms, into a valuable and pathogen-free fertilizer that can be sold for additional
revenue or used on the same farm to produce feed grain for the piggery.

Goyal et al. (2005) determined changes in organic C, total N, C:N ratio, activities
of cellulase, xylanase and protease and microbial population during composting of
different meat wastes such as cattle dung and poultry waste. There was a loss in N in
poultry waste resulting in an initial increase in the C:N ratio which decreased more,
later on, due to decomposition. The activities of cellulase, xylanase and protease
reached their maximum values within 30 and 60 days of composting.

Insoluble and hard-to-degrade animal proteins are ubiquitously present throughout

animal bodies. Enormous numbers of these proteins are generated in the meat
industry in a mixture of bones, organs and hard tissues, finally being converted
to industrial wastes, the disposal of which is tremendously difficult (Deydier
et al., 2005). Most hard-to-degrade animal proteins are currently disposed of by
incineration (Deydier et al., 2005; Paisley and Hostrup-Pedersen, 2005; Haruta et al.,
2005). This method, however, has ecological disadvantages in terms of an apparent
energy loss and the production of a large amount of carbon dioxide. Thus, an
innovative solution to these problems is urgently required.

In terms of quantity, the major hard-to-degrade animal proteins are extracellular

matrix proteins (EMPs). A large number of keratins (KRTs) are also generated, mainly
from poultry processing and the leather industry (Balint et al., 2005; Barone and
Schmidt, 2006). Compared with these two proteins, prion proteins are produced
in much smaller amounts but pose more serious problems because they have
highly aggregated, hard-to-degrade amyloid isoforms that cause bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE). Prion proteins, not fully characterized, have recently attracted
general attention due to their serious pathogenity in meat. Prion proteins display
extraordinary resistance to most physical and chemical methods used for the inac-
tivation of conventional pathogens (Taylor, 1991; Taylor et al., 1995; Kuczius et al.,
2004).

Thermophilic bacteria are used in the decomposition of these hard-to-degrade

animal proteins because, in the elevated temperature range where thermophilic
bacteria grow, such proteins tend to gain plasticity, resulting in more suscepti-
bility to protease attack (Suriyama et al., 2005). However, the temperature range
(over approximately 80°C) suitable for growing extremely thermophilic bacteria too
rapidly induces thermal denaturation of the proteins (Van der Plancken et al., 2003).
Moreover, moderately thermophilic bacteria that show an optimum temperature for
growing below about 80°C are superior to extremely thermophilic bacteria in terms
of the energy cost required to maintain high temperature for bacterial growth.

> Read full chapter

Composting techniques: utilization of

organic wastes in urban areas of Indian
cities
Krishna Chaitanya Maturi, ... Ajay S. Kalamdhad, in Advanced Organic Waste Man-
agement, 2022

4.6 Conclusion
The composting process is a well-known technique for eliminating soil erosion,
especially in agricultural soils. Globally, composting technology is well known to be
an effective aerobic method for organic waste.

The composting process has been shown to be a highly efficient technology

for turning organic waste into a usable agricultural product. Many hazardous sub-
stances, heavy metals from organic waste during the composting process, can be re-
duced by the composting technique. In agricultural pastures and farms, the compost
produced can be used as a soil conditioner. According to the World Bank, agriculture
is defined as a region shared between cultivated crops and natural farmland. Entry
to chemical fertilizers is inefficient for farmers in certain developing countries.
Instead, against the lethal effects of cultivated crops, bio-fertilizers and natural
fertilizers are promoted. Biological management methods, such as composting,
should be practiced in most developing and industrialized countries for efficient
crop growth without any lethal impact.

The present study based on urban waste composting scenarios in Indian contexts.
According to various literatures, there have been so many studies on composting in
rural areas, but very little literature on composting in urban areas has been identified.
The factors that may have an effect on the composting process in urban areas are
lack of land requirements, mixed waste and no operational maintenance. The major
downside of composting in urban areas is lack of willingness to do so but the
composting process in urban areas can minimize the burden of landfilling and the
compost generated can be used for soil conditioning, street planting, etc.
> Read full chapter

Solid Waste Treatment Processes and

Remedial Solution in the Developing
Countries
O.O. Ayeleru, P.A. Olubambi, in Soft Computing Techniques in Solid Waste and
Wastewater Management, 2021

3.4.3.1 Composting
Composting is like the biological putrefaction of OFMSW. In composting, the
process is controlled via microorganisms where the resulting product obtained is
humus material for solid amendment. The entire process is aimed at fast-tracking
disintegration, enhancing the productivity of compost, and decreasing offensive
smell resulting from the compost (Ayeleru et al., 2016b). Composting process uti-
lizes materials like leaves, grasses, tree pruning, and food waste. Composting of
organic matters is a form of recycling since the organic materials are converted to
composts for soil enrichment. When organic matters are converted into compost,
the amount of SW deposited into LSs is reduced drastically and thus leading to the
extension of the life of landfill facilities (Ayeleru et al., 2016b). Moreover, resources
are recovered via composting process since organic wastes are no longer viewed as
waste anymore (Pathak, Singh, & Kumar, 2011).

> Read full chapter

Military Solid and Hazardous Wastes:

The Army Corps of Engineers Disaster
Debris Management Mission
Victor F. Medina, ... Stephen C. Cosper, in Waste (Second Edition), 2019

3.6 Composting
Composting is described in Medina et al. [9]. It is a biological treatment process
for organic constituents involving the placing of organic material in a pile with
sufficient water and air to stimulate microbial activity. The pile creates insulation,
which causes both a rise in temperatures and an increase in biological activity
(Fig. 29.7). The temperature gradient within the pile stimulates air flow as the
pile becomes a self-sustaining reactor. The end result of a successful composting
treatment is a useful soil amendment that can be used as a fertilizer, to reduce
erosion, as an amendment to degrade organic contaminants, or even as a landfill
cover material.

Fig. 29.7. A forced air compost pile used to treat vegetative, food, and animal wastes.

Composting could be a valuable technology for addressing wastes associated with

disaster debris. Composting typically uses vegetative materials, so it can be a useful
means of recycling vegetative wastes found in debris. In addition, other organic
materials can be addressed in the composting process, including food wastes,
dead animals, manure, sludge, and even human wastes (Fig. 29.8). During the
composting process then volatile organic components are consumed, making the
resultant material much less offensive than many of its components. In addition,
the high temperatures are effective at deactivating pathogenic organisms, so the
disease threat is minimized or eliminated. Composting can also be adapted for treat-
ing chemically contaminated soils, including those contaminated with petroleum
products and explosives, so it could be coupled with soil or sediment remediation
[8]. Composting is useful means of addressing a wide range of waste products.

Fig. 29.8. Comparison of initial (left) and finished compost (right) consisting of
leaves, pine straw, leaves, sludge, and food. Food is clearly visible in the initial
 compost (left), but almost completely degraded so as to be unrecognizable in the
finished compost (right).

Composting can, however, take time, requires maintenance, and can take space as
well. These factors have limited the actual application of composting in disaster
response situations. Still, its ability to address a wide range of waste constituents
makes it worth consideration in a debris management scenario.

> Read full chapter

Resource recovery from organic waste

In Advanced Organic Waste Management, 2022

3 Composting and vermicomposting: Process optimization for the management

of organic waste33
4 Composting techniques: utilization of organic wastes in urban areas of Indian
cities43
5 Challenges and opportunities for disposal of floral waste in developing coun-
tries by using composting method55
6 Valorization of industrial solid waste through novel biological treatment meth-
ods integrating different composting techniques77
7 Vermicomposting of organic wastes by earthworms: Making wealth from
waste by converting ‘garbage into gold’ for farmers93
8 Current problems of vermistabilization as a sustainable strategy for recycling
of excess sludge121
9 Recent advances in composting and vermicomposting techniques in the cold
region: resource recovery, challenges, and way forward131
10 Resource recovery and value addition of terrestrial weeds through vermicom-
posting155
11 Composting and vermicomposting of obnoxious weeds - A novel approach for
the degradation of allelochemicals175
12 Vermicomposting and bioconversion approaches towards the sustainable uti-
lization of palm oil mill waste193

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