COMMUNICATION IN

THE REAL WORLD - AN

INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
STUDIES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies overviews the time-tested conceptual foundations of the
field, while incorporating the latest research and cutting-edge applications of these basics. Each chapter will include timely, concrete,
and real-life examples of communication concepts in action.

1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION STUDIES

1.1 : COMMUNICATION - HISTORY AND FORMS
1.2 : THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1.3 : COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
1.4 : COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

2: COMMUNICATION AND PERCEPTION

2.1 : PERCEPTION PROCESS
2.2 : PERCEIVING OTHERS
2.3 : PERCEIVING AND PRESENTING SELF
2.4 : IMPROVING PERCEPTION

3: VERBAL COMMUNICATION
3.1 : LANGUAGE AND MEANING
3.2 : FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
3.3 : USING WORDS WELL
3.4 : LANGUAGE, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE

4: NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
4.1 : PRINCIPLES AND FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
4.2 : TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
4.3 : NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
4.4 : NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT

5: LISTENING
5.1 : UNDERSTANDING HOW AND WHY WE LISTEN
5.2 : BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING
5.3 : IMPROVING LISTENING COMPETENCE
5.4 : LISTENABLE MESSAGES AND EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK

6: INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES

6.1 : PRINCIPLES OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
6.2 : CONFLICT AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
6.3 : EMOTIONS AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
6.4 : SELF-DISCLOSURE AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

7: COMMUNICATION IN RELATIONSHIPS
7.1 : FOUNDATIONS OF RELATIONSHIPS
7.2 : COMMUNICATION AND FRIENDS
7.3 : COMMUNICATION AND FAMILIES
7.4 : ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS
7.5 : RELATIONSHIPS AT WORK
7.6 : THE DARK SIDE OF RELATIONSHIPS

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8: CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
8.1 : FOUNDATIONS OF CULTURE AND IDENTITY
8.2 : EXPLORING SPECIFIC CULTURAL IDENTITIES
8.3 : INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
8.4 : INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

9: PREPARING A SPEECH
9.1 : SELECTING AND NARROWING A TOPIC
9.2 : RESEARCHING AND SUPPORTING YOUR SPEECH
9.3 : ORGANIZING
9.4 : OUTLINING
9.5 : INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

10: DELIVERING A SPEECH

10.1 : MANAGING PUBLIC SPEAKING ANXIETY
10.2 : DELIVERY METHODS AND PRACTICE SESSIONS
10.3 : VOCAL DELIVERY
10.4 : PHYSICAL DELIVERY

11: PUBLIC SPEAKING IN VARIOUS CONTEXTS

11.1: SPEAKING IN PERSONAL AND CIVIC CONTEXTS
11.2: SPEAKING IN ACADEMIC SETTINGS
11.3: SPEAKING IN BUSINESS SETTINGS
11.4: SPEAKING VIA ELECTRONIC MEDIA

12: SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

12.1: UNDERSTANDING SMALL GROUPS
12.2: SMALL GROUP DEVELOPMENT
12.3: SMALL GROUP DYNAMICS

13: LEADERSHIP, ROLES, AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN GROUPS

13.1: LEADERSHIP AND SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
13.2: GROUP MEMBER ROLES
13.3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION MAKING IN GROUPS

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION STUDIES

: COMMUNICATION - HISTORY AND FORMS

1.1

We will define communication as the process of generating

meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal
symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.
This definition builds on other definitions of communication
that have been rephrased and refined over many years. In fact,
there have been more than 126 published definitions of
communication. In order to get a context for how
communication has been conceptualized and studied, this
chapter looks at a history of the field.
1.2: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of
the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain
communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still
doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter.
Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they
allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the communication process.
1.3 : COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
1.4 : COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

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1.1 : Communication - History and Forms
Learning Objectives
Define communication.
Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern times.
List the five forms of communication.
Distinguish among the five forms of communication.
Review the various career options for students who study communication.

Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared understanding of what we mean by the
word communication. For our purposes in this book, we will define communication as the process of generating meaning by
sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts. This definition builds
on other definitions of communication that have been rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic
study of communication began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have been more than 126
published definitions of communication (Dance & Larson, 1976). In order to get a context for how communication has been
conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the field.

From Aristotle to Obama: A Brief History of Communication

While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies communication, our focus in this book is on
human communication. Even though all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to
communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality (Dance & Larson). For example, we have the
capacity to use abstract symbols, like the word education, to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of teaching and
learning. We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what
allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign
words like food and baby, but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours. However,
humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do today.
Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from your English classes that
onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. Just
think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use
gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this
primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate,
share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were
also more predisposed to communicate (Poe, 2011). This eventually led to the development of a “Talking Culture” during the
“Talking Era.” During this 150,000 year period of human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the
only medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had (Poe, 2011).
The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in
communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life (Poe, 2011). As hunter-gatherers settled into
small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting
systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual
objects that symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely carved
into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain.
During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned businessmen prospered and took
leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were
needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise
of armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and
philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential
place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the ability to read
and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that widespread literacy
existed in the world.

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The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in communication technologies. The “Print Era”
extended from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts.
This 400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual Era,” which only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by
the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted from 1990
until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new method of communication, as the spread of the
Internet and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.
The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also influenced the field of communication
studies. To better understand how this field of study developed, we must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the
production of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever found were written about
communication (McCroskey, 1984). Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when
tracing the development of the communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the
most complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric,
which refers to speaking well and persuasively. Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician, for
example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to
misleading, false, or unethical communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient or
contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to persuasive communication messages, much of
the writing and teaching about rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor, or communicator. So when a
communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or dishonest ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is
being an unethical speaker.
The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and
policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The connections among rhetoric,
policy making, and legal proceedings show that communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of
communication began. Throughout this book, we will continue to make connections between communication, ethics, and civic
engagement.

Much of the public speaking in ancient Greece took place in courtrooms or in political contexts.

Karen Neoh – Courtroom – CC BY 2.0.

Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle were followed by Roman orators like Cicero. Cicero contributed to the field of
rhetoric by expanding theories regarding the five canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and
memory. Invention refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways and is the most studied of the
five canons. Arrangement refers to the organization of speech, style refers to the use of language, and delivery refers to the
vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker. Memory is the least studied of the five canons and refers to the techniques
employed by speakers of that era to retain and then repeat large amounts of information. The Age of Enlightenment in the

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1700s marked a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge, which led to an explosion of
philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of human existence. This focus on academic development continued into
the 1900s and the establishment of distinct communication studies departments.
Communication studies as a distinct academic discipline with departments at universities and colleges has only existed for a
little over one hundred years (Keith, 2008). Although rhetoric has long been a key part of higher education, and colleges and
universities have long recognized the importance of speaking, communication departments did not exist. In the early 1900s,
professors with training and expertise in communication were often housed in rhetoric or English departments and were
sometimes called “professors of speech.” During this time, tension began to build between professors of English who studied
rhetoric as the written word and professors of speech who studied rhetoric as the spoken word. In 1914, a group of ten speech
teachers who were members of the National Council of Teachers of English broke off from the organization and started the
National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, which eventually evolved into today’s National
Communication Association. There was also a distinction of focus and interest among professors of speech. While some
focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization, others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects
of public speaking (Keith, 2008). Instruction in the latter stressed the importance of “oratory” or “elocution,” and this interest in
reading and speaking aloud is sustained today in theatre and performance studies and also in oral interpretation classes, which
are still taught in many communication departments.
The formalization of speech departments led to an expanded view of the role of communication. Even though Aristotle and
other ancient rhetoricians and philosophers had theorized the connection between rhetoric and citizenship, the role of the
communicator became the focus instead of solely focusing on the message. James A. Winans, one of the first modern speech
teachers and an advocate for teaching communication in higher education, said there were “two motives for learning to speak.
Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to serve” (Keith, 2008). Later, as social psychology began to
expand in academic institutions, speech communication scholars saw places for connection to further expand definitions of
communication to include social and psychological contexts.
Today, you can find elements of all these various aspects of communication being studied in communication departments. If
we use President Obama as a case study, we can see the breadth of the communication field. Within one department, you may
have fairly traditional rhetoricians who study the speeches of President Obama in comparison with other presidential rhetoric.
Others may study debates between presidential candidates, dissecting the rhetorical strategies used, for example, by Mitt
Romney and Barack Obama. Expanding from messages to channels of communication, scholars may study how different media
outlets cover presidential politics. At an interpersonal level, scholars may study what sorts of conflicts emerge within families
that have liberal and conservative individuals. At a cultural level, communication scholars could study how the election of an
African American president creates a narrative of post racial politics. Our tour from Aristotle to Obama was quick, but
hopefully instructive. Now let’s turn to a discussion of the five major forms of communication.

Forms of Communication
Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The five main forms of communication,
all of which will be explored in much more detail in this book, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass
communication. This book is designed to introduce you to all these forms of communication. If you find one of these forms
particularly interesting, you may be able to take additional courses that focus specifically on it. You may even be able to devise
a course of study around one of these forms as a communication major. In the following we will discuss the similarities and
differences among each form of communication, including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other
forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example,
communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to
an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The
other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication. So what is the point of
intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

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Intrapersonal communication is communication with ourselves that takes place in our heads.
Sarah – Pondering – CC BY 2.0.
Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve
or maintain social adjustment (Dance & Larson, 1972). For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a
stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps
build and maintain our self-concept. We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us
and how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the earlier example probably internalized shyness as
a part of her self-concept because other people associated her communication behaviors with shyness and may have even
labeled her “shy” before she had a firm grasp on what that meant. We will discuss self-concept much more in Chapter 2
“Communication and Perception”, which focuses on perception. We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let
off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. As with the other
forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-
being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness
(Dance & Larson, 1972).

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Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. I’m sure we have all had the experience of laughing aloud because
we thought of something funny. We also communicate intrapersonally to pass time. I bet there is a lot of intrapersonal
communication going on in waiting rooms all over the world right now. In both of these cases, intrapersonal communication is
usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal (Dance & Larson, 1972). We can, however, engage in more
intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become more competent communicators
as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. For example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a thought
or action.
Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study. It is rare to find
courses devoted to the topic, and it is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication. The main distinction
is that intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that another person will perceive it. In all the other levels,
the fact that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal
communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication
than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of
study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health
communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.
Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually more structured and
influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented
than intrapersonal communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may
be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed
relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific
relationship. Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most common form
of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson,
1972). Couples, bosses and employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal communication, and it
doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and
listening skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.

Group Communication
Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely
worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be
frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional
settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an
integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group communication is valuable in many contexts.

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Since many businesses and organizations are embracing team models, learning about group communication can help these
groups be more effective.
RSNY – Team – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships,
which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group
communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that
affects each member of the group. Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person; for
example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-oriented communication at the group level usually focuses
on a task assigned to the whole group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business
from one office to another.
You know from previous experience working in groups that having more communicators usually leads to more complicated
interactions. Some of the challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will
complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group
members. Since group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting
relationships or develop them during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within
group communication too. Chapter 13 “Small Group Communication” and Chapter 14 “Leadership, Roles, and Problem
Solving in Groups” of this book, which deal with group communication, will help you learn how to be a more effective group
communicator by learning about group theories and processes as well as the various roles that contribute to and detract from the
functioning of a group.

Public Communication
Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying
information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group
communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to
interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented
form of communication we have discussed so far.
Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than interpersonal or group communication. It
is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the
thought of facing an audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see connections
between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being
formal, public speaking is very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example, although
public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being

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face-to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback. Later in this chapter, you will learn some strategies
for managing speaking anxiety, since presentations are undoubtedly a requirement in the course for which you are reading this
book. Then, in Chapter 9 “Preparing a Speech”, Chapter 10 “Delivering a Speech”, Chapter 11 “Informative and Persuasive
Speaking”, and Chapter 12 “Public Speaking in Various Contexts”, you will learn how to choose an appropriate topic, research
and organize your speech, effectively deliver your speech, and evaluate your speeches in order to improve.

Mass Communication
Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media.
Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they
have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media
are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of
mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of
communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually
requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a Facebook message or
involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show. Even though
the messages must be intentionally transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating
the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s State of the Union address is a
mass communication message that is very formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news
interview is not.
Figure: Technological advances such as the printing press, television, and the more recent digital revolution have made mass
communication a prominent feature of our daily lives.. Savannah River Site – Atmospheric Technology – CC BY 2.0.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the personal connection between participants.
Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication messages,
the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t inherent within this form of communication. Unlike
interpersonal, group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass
communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or send an e-mail to a television or radio
broadcaster in response to a story, but the immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new
media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate. Individuals can now tweet
directly “at” (@) someone and use hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television
hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via social media and may even share the
feedback on the air.
The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the power for one voice or a series of
voices to reach and affect many people. This power makes mass communication different from the other levels of
communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other levels, the potential consequences of

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unethical mass communication are important to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and
media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and who is included and excluded in
various mediated messages. We will discuss the intersection of media and communication more in Chapter 15 “Media,
Technology, and Communication” and Chapter 16 “New Media and Communication”.

“Getting Real”

What Can You Do with a Degree in Communication Studies?

You’re hopefully already beginning to see that communication studies is a diverse and vibrant field of study. The multiple
subfields and concentrations within the field allow for exciting opportunities for study in academic contexts but can create
confusion and uncertainty when a person considers what they might do for their career after studying communication. It’s
important to remember that not every college or university will have courses or concentrations in all the areas discussed
next. Look at the communication courses offered at your school to get an idea of where the communication department on
your campus fits into the overall field of study. Some departments are more general, offering students a range of courses to
provide a well-rounded understanding of communication. Many departments offer concentrations or specializations within
the major such as public relations, rhetoric, interpersonal communication, electronic media production, corporate
communication. If you are at a community college and plan on transferring to another school, your choice of school may be
determined by the course offerings in the department and expertise of the school’s communication faculty. It would be
unfortunate for a student interested in public relations to end up in a department that focuses more on rhetoric or
broadcasting, so doing your research ahead of time is key.
Since communication studies is a broad field, many students strategically choose a concentration and/or a minor that will
give them an advantage in the job market. Specialization can definitely be an advantage, but don’t forget about the general
skills you gain as a communication major. This book, for example, should help you build communication competence and
skills in interpersonal communication, intercultural communication, group communication, and public speaking, among
others. You can also use your school’s career services office to help you learn how to “sell” yourself as a communication
major and how to translate what you’ve learned in your classes into useful information to include on your resume or in a
job interview.
The main career areas that communication majors go into are business, public relations / advertising, media, nonprofit,
government/law, and education.[1] Within each of these areas there are multiple career paths, potential employers, and
useful strategies for success. For more detailed information: http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-
studies.
Business. Sales, customer service, management, real estate, human resources, training and development.
Public relations / advertising. Public relations, advertising/marketing, public opinion research, development, event
coordination.
Media. Editing, copywriting, publishing, producing, directing, media sales, broadcasting.
Nonprofit. Administration, grant writing, fund-raising, public relations, volunteer coordination.
Government/law. City or town management, community affairs, lobbying, conflict negotiation / mediation.
Education. High school speech teacher, forensics/debate coach, administration and student support services, graduate
school to further communication study.
1. Which of the areas listed above are you most interested in studying in school or pursuing as a career? Why?
2. What aspect(s) of communication studies does/do the department at your school specialize in? What
concentrations/courses are offered?
3. Whether or not you are or plan to become a communication major, how do you think you could use what you have
learned and will learn in this class to “sell” yourself on the job market?

Key Takeaways
Getting integrated: Communication is a broad field that draws from many academic disciplines. This interdisciplinary
perspective provides useful training and experience for students that can translate into many career fields.
Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving symbolic cues that are influenced by
multiple contexts.

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 Ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Plato started a rich tradition of the study of rhetoric in the Western world more than two
thousand years ago. Communication did not become a distinct field of study with academic departments until the 1900s,
but it is now a thriving discipline with many subfields of study.
There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside our heads.
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another and
typically occurs in dyads, which means in pairs.
Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a shared goal.
Public communication is sender focused and typically occurs when one person conveys information to an audience.
Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using print or electronic media.
Exercises
1. Getting integrated: Review the section on the history of communication. Have you learned any of this history or heard of
any of these historical figures in previous classes? If so, how was this history relevant to what you were studying in that
class?
2. Come up with your own definition of communication. How does it differ from the definition in the book? Why did you
choose to define communication the way you did?
3. Over the course of a day, keep track of the forms of communication that you use. Make a pie chart of how much time you
think you spend, on an average day, engaging in each form of communication (intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public,
and mass).

References
Dance, F. E. X. and Carl E. Larson, The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach (New York, NY: Holt,
Reinhart, and Winston, 1976), 23.
Keith, W., “On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A. Winans and Public Speaking as Practical Democracy,”
Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2008): 239–58.
McCroskey, J. C., “Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A
Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 260.
Poe, M. T., A History of Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), 27.

1. What Can I Do with This Major? “Communication Studies,” accessed May 18, 2012,
http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies↵

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1.2 : The Communication Process
Learning Objectives
Identify and define the components of the transmission model of communication.
Identify and define the components of the interaction model of communication.
Identify and define the components of the transaction model of communication.
Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter.

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a communication encounter starts
and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a
communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model
still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable
purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of
communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication
functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for
future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will discuss are
the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.
Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models we will discuss,
the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and
channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication
encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say
“Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

Although models of communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works, they are not
complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced.
Chris Searle – Blueprint – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

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The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the encoding and decoding
process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought
that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you
may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get
pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in
order to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for
communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver
for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most
communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is
engrossed in a video game, you may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender
intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message
within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or
end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and
understands the message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle
centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new
communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences
within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you
listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower
through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in
order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive his or her message or not, but if the equipment is
working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.
Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help ensure the message is successfully
conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective
communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter.
Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message being accurately received and decoded. The
transmission model of communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noise is any physical
noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could interfere with your ability to
transmit a message and have it successfully decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the
message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand
a symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice versa. Likewise, most French

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speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between people speaking
the same language because many words have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.
Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed
scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of
communication that we will discuss more later. This model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions,
but there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially computer-mediated communication (CMC).
As the following “Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up
new ways of communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example. The transmission model
of communication is well suited for describing the act of text messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was
effectively conveyed or that the message was received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use
an abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something completely different than you meant, then
semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission. I enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just recently sent a text
to a friend asking if she wanted to go thrifting over the weekend. After she replied with “What?!?” I reviewed my text and saw
that my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to thrusting! You have likely experienced similar problems with text
messaging, and a quick Google search for examples of text messages made funny or embarrassing by the autocorrect feature
proves that many others do, too.

“Getting Plugged In”

Computer-Mediated Communication
When the first computers were created around World War II and the first e-mails exchanged in the early 1960s, we took the
first steps toward a future filled with computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic, 2004). Those
early steps turned into huge strides in the late 1980s and early 1990s when personal computers started becoming regular
features in offices, classrooms, and homes. I remember getting our first home computer, a Tandy from Radio Shack, in the
early 1990s and then getting our first Internet connection at home in about 1995. I set up my first e-mail account in 1996 and
remember how novel and exciting it was to send and receive e-mails. I wasn’t imagining a time when I would get dozens of
e-mails a day, much less be able to check them on my cell phone! Many of you reading this book probably can’t remember a
time without CMC. If that’s the case, then you’re what some scholars have called “digital natives.” When you take a moment
to think about how, over the past twenty years, CMC has changed the way we teach and learn, communicate at work, stay in
touch with friends, initiate romantic relationships, search for jobs, manage our money, get our news, and participate in our
democracy, it really is amazing to think that all that used to take place without computers. But the increasing use of CMC has
also raised some questions and concerns, even among those of you who are digital natives. Almost half of the students in my
latest communication research class wanted to do their final research projects on something related to social media. Many of
them were interested in studying the effects of CMC on our personal lives and relationships. This desire to study and
question CMC may stem from an anxiety that people have about the seeming loss or devaluing of face-to-face (FtF)
communication. Aside from concerns about the digital cocoons that many of us find ourselves in, CMC has also raised
concerns about privacy, cyberbullying, and lack of civility in online interactions. We will continue to explore many of these
issues in the “Getting Plugged In” feature box included in each chapter, but the following questions will help you begin to
see the influence that CMC has in your daily communication.
1. In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?
2. What are some ways that CMC reduces stress in your life? What are some ways that CMC increases stress in your life?
Overall, do you think CMC adds to or reduces your stress more?
3. Do you think we, as a society, have less value for FtF communication than we used to? Why or why not?

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as
sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological
contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model
incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in
response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may
point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a

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more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one
message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as
sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate
process, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.
The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the transmission model focused on how
a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication
process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may
not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or
ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.
Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context includes the environmental
factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication.
Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication. I
have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a large conference table, and even once in an
auditorium where I was positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been
walked around campus to interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees. Although I was a little chilly when
I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in Puerto
Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90-degree temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t
pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s
important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication.
Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions
are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling
news a few hours before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the psychological noise
triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing
the emotion of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so
“love struck” that they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise
find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the

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communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond
individual communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars
view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send
messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We
also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is more than sending and receiving messages.
The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization
of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is and what communication does. The
transmission model views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From
this view, communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views communication as an
interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction,
and so on. From this view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within physical and
psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that it
helps us not only understand them but also create and change them.
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social
realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we
communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue
to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead
of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators.
Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model
suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about
your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending your verbal message to
start receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal
message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to
understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based
on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.
Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as
physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus
on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that
shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single
interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our
communication encounters.
Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. As we are socialized into our various
communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social

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contexts include don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet you, thank
people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children
or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following them.
Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we
are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a
new employee you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for formality.
Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone
having to point it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself any potential
embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal punishment that might be a consequence of
breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these
norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even have the power to override social rules in
some situations. To go back to the examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if
the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when we’re having an exciting conversation,
but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and
cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to help us understand the multiple
contexts that influence our communication.
Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate
differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be
more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may
be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness
and attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new neighbors to visit.
Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up
becoming friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much about having
everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention during later visits. Since communication norms and
rules also vary based on the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational context. For
example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to
a brother-sister relationship and vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does
culture.
Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and
ability. We will learn more about these identities in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception”, but for now it is important for
us to understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence our
communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of
how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely,
people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play
in their communication.

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 Figure: Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.
Wikimedia Commons – public domain.
When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural
communication creates uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view intercultural
communication as negative. But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you will likely not get more comfortable
or competent as a communicator. Difference, as we will learn in Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication”, isn’t a bad thing. In
fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various aspects of our lives. In order to communicate well within
various cultural contexts, it is important to keep an open mind and avoid making assumptions about others’ cultural identities.
While you may be able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a communication encounter, there may also be
cultural influences that you can’t see. A competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all the cultural contexts a person
brings to an encounter, since not all cultural identities are visible. As with the other contexts, it requires skill to adapt to shifting
contexts, and the best way to develop these skills is through practice and reflection.

Key Takeaways
Communication models are not complex enough to truly capture all that takes place in a communication encounter, but
they can help us examine the various steps in the process in order to better understand our communication and the
communication of others.
The transmission model of communication describes communication as a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes
a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The transmission of the message many

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 be disrupted by environmental or semantic noise. This model is usually too simple to capture face-to-face interactions, but
can be usefully applied to computer-mediated communication.
The interaction model of communication describes communication as a two-way process in which participants alternate
positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback within physical and psychological
contexts. This model captures the interactive aspects of communication but still doesn’t account for how communication
constructs our realities and is influenced by social and cultural contexts.
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social
realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. This model includes participants who are simultaneously senders and
receivers and accounts for how communication constructs our realities, relationships, and communities.

Exercises
1. Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the communication process help you in your academic
life, your professional life, and your civic life?
2. What communication situations does the transmission model best represent? The interaction model? The transaction
model?
3. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter you had. Sketch out the
communication encounter and make sure to label each part of the model (communicators; message; channel; feedback; and
physical, psychological, social, relational, and cultural contexts).

References
Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication Theory, eds. Kenneth K.
Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970), 83–92.
Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human Communication (London: Edward
Arnold, 1990), 71.
Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press,
1949), 16.
Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social Interaction and the Internet
(London: Sage, 2004), 14.

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1.3 : Communication Principles
Learning Objectives
Discuss how communication is integrated in various aspects of your life.
Explain how communication meets physical, instrumental, relational, and identity needs.
Explain how the notion of a “process” fits into communication.
Discuss the ways in which communication is guided by culture and context.

Taking this course will change how you view communication. Most people admit that communication is important, but it’s
often in the back of our minds or viewed as something that “just happens.” Putting communication at the front of your mind
and becoming more aware of how you communicate can be informative and have many positive effects. When I first started
studying communication as an undergraduate, I began seeing the concepts we learned in class in my everyday life. When I
worked in groups, I was able to apply what I had learned about group communication to improve my performance and overall
experience. I also noticed interpersonal concepts and theories as I communicated within various relationships. Whether I was
analyzing mediated messages or considering the ethical implications of a decision before I made it, studying communication
allowed me to see more of what was going on around me, which allowed me to more actively and competently participate in
various communication contexts. In this section, as we learn the principles of communication, I encourage you to take note of
aspects of communication that you haven’t thought about before and begin to apply the principles of communication to various
parts of your life.

Communication Is Integrated into All Parts of Our Lives

This book is meant to help people see the value of communication in the real world and in our real lives. When I say real, I
don’t mean to imply that there is some part of our world or lives that is not real. Since communication is such a practical field
of study, I use the word real to emphasize that what you’re reading in this book isn’t just about theories and vocabulary or
passing a test and giving a good speech. I also don’t mean to imply that there is a divide between the classroom and the real
world. The “real world” is whatever we are experiencing at any given moment. In order to explore how communication is
integrated into all parts of our lives, I have divided up our lives into four spheres: academic, professional, personal, and civic.
The boundaries and borders between these spheres are not solid, and there is much overlap. After all, much of what goes on in
a classroom is present in a professional environment, and the classroom has long been seen as a place to prepare students to
become active and responsible citizens in their civic lives. The philosophy behind this approach is called integrative learning,
which encourages students to reflect on how the content they are learning connects to other classes they have taken or are
taking, their professional goals, and their civic responsibilities.

Academic
It’s probably not difficult to get you, as students in a communication class, to see the relevance of communication to your
academic lives. At least during this semester, studying communication is important to earn a good grade in the class, right?
Beyond the relevance to your grade in this class, I challenge you to try to make explicit connections between this course and
courses you have taken before and are currently taking. Then, when you leave this class, I want you to connect the content in
future classes back to what you learned here. If you can begin to see these connections now, you can build on the foundational
communication skills you learn in here to become a more competent communicator, which will undoubtedly also benefit you
as a student.

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 Good communication skills can help you succeed in academic settings and set you up for success postgraduation.

Benjamin Darfler – Graduation – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Aside from wanting to earn a good grade in this class, you may also be genuinely interested in becoming a better communicator.
If that’s the case, you are in luck because research shows that even people who have poor communication skills can improve a
wide range of verbal, nonverbal, and interpersonal communication skills by taking introductory communication courses
(Zabava & Wolvin, 1993). Communication skills are also tied to academic success. Poor listening skills were shown to
contribute significantly to failure in a person’s first year of college. Also, students who take a communication course report
more confidence in their communication abilities, and these students have higher grade point averages and are less likely to
drop out of school. Much of what we do in a classroom—whether it is the interpersonal interactions with our classmates and
professor, individual or group presentations, or listening—is discussed in this textbook and can be used to build or add to a
foundation of good communication skills and knowledge that can carry through to other contexts.

Professional
The National Association of Colleges and Employers has found that employers most desire good communication skills in the
college graduates they may hire (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2010). Desired communication skills vary
from career to career, but again, this textbook provides a foundation onto which you can build communication skills specific to
your major or field of study. Research has shown that introductory communication courses provide important skills necessary
for functioning in entry-level jobs, including listening, writing, motivating/persuading, interpersonal skills, informational
interviewing, and small-group problem solving (DiSalvo, 1980). Interpersonal communication skills are also highly sought after
by potential employers, consistently ranking in the top ten in national surveys (National Association of Colleges and Employers,
2010). Poor listening skills, lack of conciseness, and inability to give constructive feedback have been identified as potential
communication challenges in professional contexts. Employers appreciate good listening skills and the ability to communicate
concisely because efficiency and clarity are often directly tied to productivity and success in terms of profit or task/project
completion. Despite the well-documented need for communication skills in the professional world, many students still resist
taking communication classes. Perhaps people think they already have good communication skills or can improve their skills on
their own. While either of these may be true for some, studying communication can only help. In such a competitive job market,
being able to document that you have received communication instruction and training from communication professionals (the
faculty in your communication department) can give you the edge needed to stand out from other applicants or employees.

Personal
While many students know from personal experience and from the prevalence of communication counseling on television talk
shows and in self-help books that communication forms, maintains, and ends our interpersonal relationships, they do not know
the extent to which that occurs. I am certain that when we get to the interpersonal communication chapters in this textbook that
you will be intrigued and maybe even excited by the relevance and practicality of the concepts and theories discussed there.
My students often remark that they already know from experience much of what’s discussed in the interpersonal unit of the

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course. While we do learn from experience, until we learn specific vocabulary and develop foundational knowledge of
communication concepts and theories, we do not have the tools needed to make sense of these experiences. Just having a
vocabulary to name the communication phenomena in our lives increases our ability to consciously alter our communication to
achieve our goals, avoid miscommunication, and analyze and learn from our inevitable mistakes. Once we get further into the
book, I am sure the personal implications of communication will become very clear.

Civic
The connection between communication and our civic lives is a little more abstract and difficult for students to understand.
Many younger people don’t yet have a conception of a “civic” part of their lives because the academic, professional, and
personal parts of their lives have so much more daily relevance. Civic engagement refers to working to make a difference in our
communities by improving the quality of life of community members; raising awareness about social, cultural, or political
issues; or participating in a wide variety of political and nonpolitical processes (Ehrlich, 2000). The civic part of our lives is
developed through engagement with the decision making that goes on in our society at the small-group, local, state, regional,
national, or international level. Such involvement ranges from serving on a neighborhood advisory board to sending an e-mail
to a US senator. Discussions and decisions that affect our communities happen around us all the time, but it takes time and effort
to become a part of that process. Doing so, however, allows us to become a part of groups or causes that are meaningful to us,
which enables us to work for the common good. This type of civic engagement is crucial to the functioning of a democratic
society.

Voting is one way to stay civically engaged, but you can also participate in decision making in nonpolitical contexts.

Stephen Venkman-Not here muchYour Vote Counts – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Communication scholars have been aware of the connections between communication and a person’s civic engagement or
citizenship for thousands of years. Aristotle, who wrote the first and most influential comprehensive book on communication
2,400 years ago, taught that it is through our voice, our ability to communicate, that we engage with the world around us,
participate in our society, and become a “virtuous citizen.” It is a well-established and unfortunate fact that younger people,
between the ages of eighteen and thirty, are some of the least politically active and engaged members of our democracy. Civic
engagement includes but goes beyond political engagement, which includes things like choosing a political party or advocating
for a presidential candidate. Although younger people have tended not to be as politically engaged as other age groups, the
current generation of sixteen- to twenty-nine-year-olds, known as the millennial generation, is known to be very engaged in
volunteerism and community service. In addition, some research has indicated that college students are eager for civic
engagement but are not finding the resources they need on their campuses (Jaschik, 2012). The American Association of
Colleges and Universities has launched several initiatives and compiled many resources for students and faculty regarding

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civic engagement. I encourage you to explore their website at the following link and try to identify some ways in which you
can productively integrate what you are learning in this class into a civic context:
http://www.aacu.org/resources/civicengagement.

Communication Meets Needs

You hopefully now see that communication is far more than the transmission of information. The exchange of messages and
information is important for many reasons, but it is not enough to meet the various needs we have as human beings. While the
content of our communication may help us achieve certain physical and instrumental needs, it also feeds into our identities and
relationships in ways that far exceed the content of what we say.

Physical Needs
Physical needs include needs that keep our bodies and minds functioning. Communication, which we most often associate
with our brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to and effects on our physical body and well-being.
At the most basic level, communication can alert others that our physical needs are not being met. Even babies cry when they
are hungry or sick to alert their caregiver of these physical needs. Asking a friend if you can stay at their house because you
got evicted or kicked out of your own place will help you meet your physical need for shelter. There are also strong ties between
the social function of communication and our physical and psychological health. Human beings are social creatures, which
makes communication important for our survival. In fact, prolonged isolation has been shown to severely damage a human
(Williams & Zadro, 2001). Aside from surviving, communication skills can also help us thrive. People with good interpersonal
communication skills are better able to adapt to stress and have less depression and anxiety (Hargie, 2011). Communication can
also be therapeutic, which can lessen or prevent physical problems. A research study found that spouses of suicide or
accidental death victims who did not communicate about the death with their friends were more likely to have health problems
such as weight change and headaches than those who did talk with friends (Greene, Derlega, & Mathews, 2006). Satisfying
physical needs is essential for our physical functioning and survival. But, in order to socially function and thrive, we must also
meet instrumental, relational, and identity needs.

Instrumental Needs
Instrumental needs include needs that help us get things done in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term goals.
We all have short- and long-term goals that we work on every day. Fulfilling these goals is an ongoing communicative task,
which means we spend much of our time communicating for instrumental needs. Some common instrumental needs include
influencing others, getting information we need, or getting support (Burleson, Metts, & Kirch, 2000). In short, communication
that meets our instrumental needs helps us “get things done.”

Communicating for instrumental needs helps us get things done. Think about how much instrumental communication is
required to build a house.
Sandia Labs – Habitat for Humanity Build-A-Thon – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

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To meet instrumental needs, we often use communication strategically. Politicians, parents, bosses, and friends use
communication to influence others in order to accomplish goals and meet needs. There is a research area within communication
that examines compliance-gaining communication, or communication aimed at getting people to do something or act in a
particular way (Gass & Seiter, 1999). Compliance gaining and communicating for instrumental needs is different from coercion,
which forces or manipulates people into doing what you want. In Section 1.3 “Communication Principles”, we will discuss
communication ethics and learn that open communication, free from constraint and pressure, is an important part of an ethical
society. Compliance-gaining communication is different from persuasion, which we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 11
“Informative and Persuasive Speaking”. While research on persuasion typically focuses on public speaking and how a speaker
persuades a group, compliance-gaining research focuses on our daily interpersonal interactions. Researchers have identified
many tactics that people typically use in compliance-gaining communication (Gass & Seiter, 1999). As you read through the
following list, I am sure many of these tactics will be familiar to you.
Common Tactics Used for Compliance Gaining
Offering rewards. Seeks compliance in a positive way, by promising returns, rewards, or generally positive outcomes.
Threatening punishment. Seeks compliance in a negative way, by threatening negative consequences such as loss of
privileges, grounding, or legal action.
Using expertise. Seeks compliance by implying that one person “knows better” than the other based on experience, age,
education, or intelligence.
Liking. Seeks compliance by acting friendly and helpful to get the other person into a good mood before asking them to do
something.
Debt. Seeks compliance by calling in past favors and indicating that one person “owes” the other.
Altruism. Seeks compliance by claiming that one person only wants “what is best” for the other and he or she is looking
out for the other person’s “best interests.”
Esteem. Seeks compliance by claiming that other people will think more highly of the person if he or she complies or think
less of the person if he or she does not comply.

Relational Needs
Relational needs include needs that help us maintain social bonds and interpersonal relationships. Communicating to fill our
instrumental needs helps us function on many levels, but communicating for relational needs helps us achieve the social relating
that is an essential part of being human. Communication meets our relational needs by giving us a tool through which to
develop, maintain, and end relationships. In order to develop a relationship, we may use nonverbal communication to assess
whether someone is interested in talking to us or not, then use verbal communication to strike up a conversation. Then, through
the mutual process of self-disclosure, a relationship forms over time. Once formed, we need to maintain a relationship, so we
use communication to express our continued liking of someone. We can verbally say things like “You’re such a great friend” or
engage in behaviors that communicate our investment in the relationship, like organizing a birthday party. Although our
relationships vary in terms of closeness and intimacy, all individuals have relational needs and all relationships require
maintenance. Finally, communication or the lack of it helps us end relationships. We may communicate our deteriorating
commitment to a relationship by avoiding communication with someone, verbally criticizing him or her, or explicitly ending a
relationship. From spending time together, to checking in with relational partners by text, social media, or face-to-face, to
celebrating accomplishments, to providing support during difficult times, communication forms the building blocks of our
relationships. Communicating for relational needs isn’t always positive though. Some people’s “relational needs” are negative,
unethical, or even illegal. Although we may feel the “need” to be passive aggressive or controlling, these communicative
patterns are not positive and can hurt our relationships. In Chapter 6 “Interpersonal Communication Processes” and Chapter 7
“Communication in Relationships”, we will explore the “dark side” of communication in more detail.

Identity Needs
Identity needs include our need to present ourselves to others and be thought of in particular and desired ways. What adjectives
would you use to describe yourself? Are you funny, smart, loyal, or quirky? Your answer isn’t just based on who you think you
are, since much of how we think of ourselves is based on our communication with other people. Our identity changes as we
progress through life, but communication is the primary means of establishing our identity and fulfilling our identity needs.
Communication allows us to present ourselves to others in particular ways. Just as many companies, celebrities,

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and politicians create a public image, we desire to present different faces in different contexts. The influential scholar Erving
Goffman compared self-presentation to a performance and suggested we all perform different roles in different contexts
(Goffman, 1959). Indeed, competent communicators can successfully manage how others perceive them by adapting to
situations and contexts. A parent may perform the role of stern head of household, supportive shoulder to cry on, or hip and
culturally aware friend based on the situation they are in with their child. A newly hired employee may initially perform the role
of motivated and agreeable coworker but later perform more leadership behaviors after being promoted. We will learn more
about the different faces we present to the world and how we develop our self-concepts through interactions with others in
Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception”.

Communication Is a Process
Communication is a process that involves an interchange of verbal and/or nonverbal messages within a continuous and dynamic
sequence of events (Hargie, 2011). When we refer to communication as a process, we imply that it doesn’t have a distinct
beginning and end or follow a predetermined sequence of events. It can be difficult to trace the origin of a communication
encounter, since communication doesn’t always follow a neat and discernible format, which makes studying communication
interactions or phenomena difficult. Any time we pull one part of the process out for study or closer examination, we artificially
“freeze” the process in order to examine it, which is not something that is possible when communicating in real life. But
sometimes scholars want to isolate a particular stage in the process in order to gain insight by studying, for example, feedback
or eye contact. Doing that changes the very process itself, and by the time you have examined a particular stage or component
of the process, the entire process may have changed. These snapshots are useful for scholarly interrogation of the
communication process, and they can also help us evaluate our own communication practices, troubleshoot a problematic
encounter we had, or slow things down to account for various contexts before we engage in communication (Dance & Larson,
1976).
We have already learned, in the transaction model of communication, that we communicate using multiple channels and send
and receive messages simultaneously. There are also messages and other stimuli around us that we never actually perceive
because we can only attend to so much information at one time. The dynamic nature of communication allows us to examine
some principles of communication that are related to its processual nature. Next, we will learn that communication messages
vary in terms of their level of conscious thought and intention, communication is irreversible, and communication is
unrepeatable.

Since communication is such a dynamic process, it is difficult to determine where communication begins and ends.
Mathieu Plourde – Instructor to Groups – CC BY 2.0.
Some scholars have put forth definitions of communication stating that messages must be intended for others to perceive them
in order for a message to “count” as communication. This narrow definition only includes messages that are tailored or at least
targeted to a particular person or group and excludes any communication that is involuntary (Dance & Larson, 1976). Since
intrapersonal communication happens in our heads and isn’t intended for others to perceive, it wouldn’t be considered
communication. But imagine the following scenario: You and I are riding on a bus and you are sitting across from me. As I sit

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thinking about a stressful week ahead, I wrinkle up my forehead, shake my head, and put my head in my hands. Upon seeing
this you think, “That guy must be pretty stressed out.” In this scenario, did communication take place? If I really didn’t intend
for anyone to see the nonverbal communication that went along with my intrapersonal communication, then this definition
would say no. But even though words weren’t exchanged, you still generated meaning from the communication I was
unintentionally sending. As a communication scholar, I do not take such a narrow definition of communication. Based on the
definition of communication from the beginning of this chapter, the scenario we just discussed would count as communication,
but the scenario illustrates the point that communication messages are sent both intentionally and unintentionally.
Communication messages also vary in terms of the amount of conscious thought that goes into their creation. In general, we can
say that intentional communication usually includes more conscious thought and unintentional communication usually includes
less. For example, some communication is reactionary and almost completely involuntary. We often scream when we are
frightened, say “ouch!” when we stub our toe, and stare blankly when we are bored. This isn’t the richest type of
communication, but it is communication. Some of our interactions are slightly more substantial and include more conscious
thought but are still very routine. For example, we say “excuse me” when we need to get past someone, say “thank you” when
someone holds the door for us, or say “what’s up?” to our neighbor we pass every day in the hall. The reactionary and routine
types of communication just discussed are common, but the messages most studied by communication scholars are considered
constructed communication. These messages include more conscious thought and intention than reactionary or routine messages
and often go beyond information exchange to also meet relational and identity needs. As we will learn later on, a higher degree
of conscious thought and intention doesn’t necessarily mean the communication will be effective, understood, or ethical. In
addition, ethical communicators cannot avoid responsibility for the effects of what they say by claiming they didn’t “intend” for
their communication to cause an undesired effect. Communication has short- and long-term effects, which illustrates the next
principle we will discuss—communication is irreversible.
The dynamic nature of the communication process also means that communication is irreversible. After an initial interaction has
gone wrong, characters in sitcoms and romantic comedies often use the line “Can we just start over?” As handy as it would be
to be able to turn the clock back and “redo” a failed or embarrassing communication encounter, it is impossible.
Miscommunication can occur regardless of the degree of conscious thought and intention put into a message. For example, if
David tells a joke that offends his coworker Beth, then he can’t just say, “Oh, forget I said that,” or “I didn’t intend for it to be
offensive.” The message has been sent and it can’t be taken back. I’m sure we have all wished we could take something back
that we have said. Conversely, when communication goes well, we often wish we could recreate it. However, in addition to
communication being irreversible, it is also unrepeatable.
If you try to recreate a good job interview experience by asking the same questions and telling the same stories about yourself,
you can’t expect the same results. Even trying to repeat a communication encounter with the same person won’t feel the same
or lead to the same results. We have already learned the influence that contexts have on communication, and those contexts
change frequently. Even if the words and actions stay the same, the physical, psychological, social, relational, and cultural
contexts will vary and ultimately change the communication encounter. Have you ever tried to recount a funny or interesting
experience to a friend who doesn’t really seem that impressed? These “I guess you had to be there” moments illustrate the fact
that communication is unrepeatable.

Communication Is Guided by Culture and Context

As we learned earlier, context is a dynamic component of the communication process. Culture and context also influence how
we perceive and define communication. Western culture tends to put more value on senders than receivers and on the content
rather the context of a message. These cultural values are reflected in our definitions and models of communication. As we will
learn in later chapters, cultures vary in terms of having a more individualistic or more collectivistic cultural orientation. The
United States is considered an individualistic culture, where emphasis is put on individual expression and success. Japan is
considered a collectivistic culture, where emphasis is put on group cohesion and harmony. These are strong cultural values that
are embedded in how we learn to communicate. In many collectivistic cultures, there is more emphasis placed on silence and
nonverbal context. Whether in the United States, Japan, or another country, people are socialized from birth to communication
in culturally specific ways that vary by context. In this section we will discuss how communication is learned, the rules and
norms that influence how we communicate, and the ethical implications of communication.

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Communication Is Learned
Most people are born with the capacity and ability to communicate, but everyone communicates differently. This is because
communication is learned rather than innate. As we have already seen, communication patterns are relative to the context and
culture in which one is communicating, and many cultures have distinct languages consisting of symbols.
A key principle of communication is that it is symbolic. Communication is symbolic in that the words that make up our
language systems do not directly correspond to something in reality. Instead, they stand in for or symbolize something. The fact
that communication varies so much among people, contexts, and cultures illustrates the principle that meaning is not inherent in
the words we use. For example, let’s say you go to France on vacation and see the word poisson on the menu. Unless you know
how to read French, you will not know that the symbol is the same as the English symbol fish. Those two words don’t look the
same at all, yet they symbolize the same object. If you went by how the word looks alone, you might think that the French word
for fish is more like the English word poison and avoid choosing that for your dinner. Putting a picture of a fish on a menu
would definitely help a foreign tourist understand what they are ordering, since the picture is an actual representation of the
object rather than a symbol for it.
All symbolic communication is learned, negotiated, and dynamic. We know that the letters b-o-o-k refer to a bound object with
multiple written pages. We also know that the letters t-r-u-c-k refer to a vehicle with a bed in the back for hauling things. But if
we learned in school that the letters t-r-u-c-k referred to a bound object with written pages and b-o-o-k referred to a vehicle with
a bed in the back, then that would make just as much sense, because the letters don’t actually refer to the object and the word
itself only has the meaning that we assign to it. We will learn more, in Chapter 3 “Verbal Communication”, about how language
works, but communication is more than the words we use.
We are all socialized into different languages, but we also speak different “languages” based on the situation we are in. For
example, in some cultures it is considered inappropriate to talk about family or health issues in public, but it wouldn’t be odd
to overhear people in a small town grocery store in the United States talking about their children or their upcoming surgery.
There are some communication patterns shared by very large numbers of people and some that are particular to a dyad—best
friends, for example, who have their own inside terminology and expressions that wouldn’t make sense to anyone else. These
examples aren’t on the same scale as differing languages, but they still indicate that communication is learned. They also
illustrate how rules and norms influence how we communicate.

Rules and Norms

Earlier we learned about the transaction model of communication and the powerful influence that social context and the roles
and norms associated with social context have on our communication. Whether verbal or nonverbal, mediated or interpersonal,
our communication is guided by rules and norms.
Phatic communion is an instructive example of how we communicate under the influence of rules and norms (Senft, 2009).
Phatic communion refers to scripted and routine verbal interactions that are intended to establish social bonds rather than
actually exchange meaning. When you pass your professor in the hall, the exchange may go as follows:
Student:
“Hey, how are you?”
Professor:
“Fine, how are you?”
Student:
“Fine.”
What is the point of this interaction? It surely isn’t to actually inquire as to each other’s well-being. We have similar phatic
interactions when we make comments on the weather or the fact that it’s Monday. We often joke about phatic communion
because we see that is pointless, at least on the surface. The student and professor might as well just pass each other in the hall
and say the following to each other:
Student:
“Generic greeting question.”
Professor:
“Generic greeting response and question.”

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Student:
“Generic response.”
This is an example of communication messages that don’t really require a high level of conscious thought or convey much
actual content or generate much meaning. So if phatic communion is so “pointless,” why do we do it?

Rules and norms guide much of our communication. Think of all the unspoken norms for behavior in a crowded elevator.
Dangerismycat – crowded elevator – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
The term phatic communion derives from the Greek word phatos, which means “spoken,” and the word communion, which
means “connection or bond.” As we discussed earlier, communication helps us meet our relational needs. In addition to finding
communion through food or religion, we also find communion through our words. But the degree to which and in what
circumstances we engage in phatic communion is also influenced by norms and rules. Generally, US Americans find silence in
social interactions awkward, which is one sociocultural norm that leads to phatic communion, because we fill the silence with
pointless words to meet the social norm. It is also a norm to greet people when you encounter them, especially if you know
them. We all know not to unload our physical and mental burdens on the person who asks, “How are you?” or go through our
“to do” list with the person who asks, “What’s up?” Instead, we conform to social norms through this routine type of verbal
exchange.
Phatic communion, like most aspects of communication we will learn about, is culturally relative as well. While most cultures
engage in phatic communion, the topics of and occasions for phatic communion vary. Scripts for greetings in the United States
are common, but scripts for leaving may be more common in another culture. Asking about someone’s well-being may be
acceptable phatic communion in one culture, and asking about the health of someone’s family may be more common in another.

Communication Has Ethical Implications

Another culturally and situationally relative principle of communication is the fact that communication has ethical implications.
Communication ethics deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on our actions and communication regarding what
we believe to be right and wrong. Aristotle said, “In the arena of human life the honors and rewards fall to those who show
their good qualities in action” (Pearson et al., 2006). Aristotle focuses on actions, which is an important part of communication
ethics. While ethics has been studied as a part of philosophy since the time of Aristotle, only more recently has it become
applied. In communication ethics, we are more concerned with the decisions people make about what is right and wrong than
the systems, philosophies, or religions that inform those decisions. Much of ethics is gray area. Although we talk about making
decisions in terms of what is right and what is wrong, the choice is rarely that simple. Aristotle goes on to say that we should act
“to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way.” This quote connects to communication
competence, which focuses on communicating effectively and appropriately and will be discussed more in Section 1.4
“Communication Competence”.

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 Figure: Ethics deals with our beliefs about what is right and wrong, but the choice is often not as clear-cut.. Justin Baeder –
That Way – CC BY 2.0.
Communication has broad ethical implications. Later in this book we will discuss the importance of ethical listening, how to
avoid plagiarism, how to present evidence ethically, and how to apply ethical standards to mass media and social media. These
are just a few examples of how communication and ethics will be discussed in this book, but hopefully you can already see
that communication ethics is integrated into academic, professional, personal, and civic contexts.
When dealing with communication ethics, it’s difficult to state that something is 100 percent ethical or unethical. I tell my
students that we all make choices daily that are more ethical or less ethical, and we may confidently make a decision only later
to learn that it wasn’t be most ethical option. In such cases, our ethics and goodwill are tested, since in any given situation
multiple options may seem appropriate, but we can only choose one. If, in a situation, we make a decision and we reflect on it
and realize we could have made a more ethical choice, does that make us a bad person? While many behaviors can be more
easily labeled as ethical or unethical, communication isn’t always as clear. Murdering someone is generally thought of as
unethical and illegal, but many instances of hurtful speech, or even what some would consider hate speech, have been
protected as free speech. This shows the complicated relationship between protected speech, ethical speech, and the law. In
some cases, people see it as their ethical duty to communicate information that they feel is in the public’s best interest. The
people behind WikiLeaks, for example, have released thousands of classified documents related to wars, intelligence gathering,
and diplomatic communication. WikiLeaks claims that exposing this information keeps politicians and leaders accountable and
keeps the public informed, but government officials claim the release of the information should be considered a criminal act.
Both parties consider the other’s communication unethical and their own communication ethical. Who is right?
Since many of the choices we make when it comes to ethics are situational, contextual, and personal, various professional
fields have developed codes of ethics to help guide members through areas that might otherwise be gray or uncertain. The
following “Getting Critical” box includes information about the National Communication Association’s Ethical Credo. Doctors
take oaths to do no harm to their patients, and journalists follow ethical guidelines that promote objectivity and provide for the
protection of sources. Although businesses and corporations have gotten much attention for high-profile cases of unethical
behavior, business ethics has become an important part of the curriculum in many business schools, and more companies are
adopting ethical guidelines for their employees.

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 NCA Credo for Ethical Communication
The “Getting Critical” boxes throughout this book will challenge you to think critically about a variety of communication
issues, and many of those issues will involve questions of ethics. Therefore, it is important that we have a shared
understanding of ethical standards for communication. I tell my students that I consider them communication scholars while
they are in my class, and we always take a class period to learn about ethics using the National Communication
Association’s (NCA) “Credo for Ethical Communication,” since the NCA is the professional organization that represents
communication scholars and practitioners in the United States.
We all have to consider and sometimes struggle with questions of right and wrong. Since communication is central to the
creation of our relationships and communities, ethical communication should be a priority of every person who wants to
make a positive contribution to society. The NCA’s “Credo for Ethical Communication” reminds us that communication
ethics is relevant across contexts and applies to every channel of communication, including media (National Communication
Association, 2012). The credo goes on to say that human worth and dignity are fostered through ethical communication
practices such as truthfulness, fairness, integrity, and respect for self and others. The emphasis in the credo and in the study
of communication ethics is on practices and actions rather than thoughts and philosophies. Many people claim high ethical
standards but do not live up to them in practice. While the credo advocates for, endorses, and promotes certain ideals, it is up
to each one of us to put them into practice. The following are some of the principles stated in the credo:
We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and
responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.
We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through the expression of intolerance and hatred.
We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of
others.
1. What are some examples of unethical communication that you have witnessed?
2. Read through the whole credo. Of the nine principles listed, which do you think is most important and why? The credo
can be accessed at the following link: http://natcom.org/Tertiary.aspx?id=2119&terms=ethical%20credo.

Key Takeaways
Getting integrated: Increasing your knowledge of communication and improving your communication skills can positively
affect your academic, professional, personal, and civic lives.
In terms of academics, research shows that students who study communication and improve their communication skills are
less likely to drop out of school and are more likely to have high grade point averages.
Professionally, employers desire employees with good communication skills, and employees who have good listening skills
are more likely to get promoted.
Personally, communication skills help us maintain satisfying relationships.
Communication helps us with civic engagement and allows us to participate in and contribute to our communities.
Communication meets our physical needs by helping us maintain physical and psychological well-being; our instrumental
needs by helping us achieve short- and long-term goals; our relational needs by helping us initiate, maintain, and terminate
relationships; and our identity needs by allowing us to present ourselves to others in particular ways.
Communication is a process that includes messages that vary in terms of conscious thought and intention. Communication
is also irreversible and unrepeatable.
Communication is guided by culture and context.
We learn to communicate using systems that vary based on culture and language.
Rules and norms influence the routines and rituals within our communication.
Communication ethics varies by culture and context and involves the negotiation of and reflection on our actions regarding
what we think is right and wrong.
Exercises
1. Getting integrated: The concepts of integrative learning and communication ethics are introduced in this section. How do
you see communication ethics playing a role in academic, professional, personal, and civic aspects of your life?

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 2. Identify some physical, instrumental, relational, and identity needs that communication helps you meet in a given day.
3. We learned in this section that communication is irreversible and unrepeatable. Identify a situation in which you wished you
could reverse communication. Identify a situation in which you wished you could repeat communication. Even though it’s
impossible to reverse or repeat communication, what lessons can be learned from these two situations you identified that
you can apply to future communication?
4. What types of phatic communion do you engage in? How are they connected to context and/or social rules and norms?

References
Burleson, B. R., Sandra Metts, and Michael W. Kirch, “Communication in Close Relationships,” in Close Relationships: A
Sourcebook, eds. Clyde Hendrick and Susan S. Hendrick (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 247.
Dance, F. E. X., and Carl E. Larson, The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach (New York, NY: Holt,
Reinhart, and Winston, 1976), 28.
DiSalvo V. S., “A Summary of Current Research Identifying Communication Skills in Various Organizational Contexts,”
Communication Education 29 (1980): 283–90.
Ehrlich, T., Civic Responsibility and Higher Education (Phoenix, AZ: Oryx, 2000), vi.
Gass, R. H., and John S. Seiter, Persuasion, Social Influence and Compliance Gaining (Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1999),
205.
Goffman, E., The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1959).
Greene, K., Valerian J. Derlega, and Alicia Mathews, “Self-Disclosure in Personal Relationships,” in The Cambridge Handbook
of Personal Relationships, eds. Anita L. Vangelisti and Daniel Perlman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 421.
Hargie, O., Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 2.
Jaschik, S., “The Civic Engagement Gap,” Inside Higher Ed, September 30, 2009, accessed May 18, 2012,
http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2009/09/30/civic.
National Association of Colleges and Employers, Job Outlook 2011 (2010): 25.
Pearson, J. C., Jeffrey T. Child, Jody L. Mattern, and David H. Kahl Jr., “What Are Students Being Taught about Ethics in
Public Speaking Textbooks?” Communication Quarterly 54, no. 4 (2006): 508.
Senft, G., “Phatic Communion,” in Culture and Language Use, eds. Gunter Senft, Jan-Ola Ostman, and Jef Verschueren
(Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2009), 226–33.
Williams, K. D., and Lisa Zadro, “Ostracism: On Being Ignored, Excluded, and Rejected,” in Interpersonal Rejection, ed.
Mark R. Leary (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2001), 21–54.
Zabava, W. S., and Andrew D. Wolvin, “The Differential Impact of a Basic Communication Course on Perceived
Communication Competencies in Class, Work, and Social Contexts,” Communication Education 42 (1993): 215–17.

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1.4 : Communication Competence
Learning Objectives
Define communication competence.
Explain each part of the definition of communication competence.
Discuss strategies for developing communication competence.
Discuss communication apprehension and public speaking anxiety and employ strategies to manage them.

Communication competence has become a focus in higher education over the past couple of decades as educational policy
makers and advocates have stressed a “back to basics” mentality (McCroskey, 1984). The ability to communicate effectively is
often included as a primary undergraduate learning goal along with other key skills like writing, critical thinking, and problem
solving. You likely haven’t heard professors or university administrators use the term communication competence, but as we
learn more about it in this section, I am sure you will see how communication competence can benefit you in many aspects of
your life. Since this book focuses on communication in the real world, strategies for developing communication competence are
not only limited to this section. A “Getting Competent” feature box is included in each chapter, specifically to help you develop
communication competence.

Defining Competence
We have already defined communication, and you probably know that to be competent at something means you know what
you’re doing. When we combine these terms, we get the following definition: communication competence refers to the
knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various
contexts (Cooley & Roach, 1984). To better understand this definition, let’s break apart its components.

Developing communication competence can bring many rewards, but it also requires time and effort.

Paul Shanks – Communication – CC BY-NC 2.0.

The first part of the definition we will unpack deals with knowledge. The cognitive elements of competence include knowing
how to do something and understanding why things are done the way they are (Hargie, 2011). People can develop cognitive
competence by observing and evaluating the actions of others. Cognitive competence can also be developed through instruction.
Since you are currently taking a communication class, I encourage you to try to observe the communication concepts you are
learning in the communication practices of others and yourself. This will help bring the concepts to life and also help you
evaluate how communication in the real world matches up with communication concepts. As you build a repertoire of
communication knowledge based on your experiential and classroom knowledge, you will also be developing behavioral
competence.
The second part of the definition of communication competence that we will unpack is the ability to use. Individual factors
affect our ability to do anything. Not everyone has the same athletic, musical, or intellectual ability. At the individual level, a
person’s physiological and psychological characteristics affect competence. In terms of physiology, age, maturity, and ability

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to communicate affect competence. In terms of psychology, a person’s mood, stress level, personality, and level of
communication apprehension (level of anxiety regarding communication) affect competence (Cooley & Roach, 1984). All
these factors will either help or hinder you when you try to apply the knowledge you have learned to actual communication
behaviors. For example, you might know strategies for being an effective speaker, but public speaking anxiety that kicks in
when you get in front of the audience may prevent you from fully putting that knowledge into practice.
The third part of the definition we will unpack is ability to adapt to various contexts. What is competent or not varies based on
social and cultural context, which makes it impossible to have only one standard for what counts as communication competence
(Cooley & Roach, 1984). Social variables such as status and power affect competence. In a social situation where one person—
say, a supervisor—has more power than another—for example, his or her employee—then the supervisor is typically the one
who sets the standard for competence. Cultural variables such as race and nationality also affect competence. A Taiwanese
woman who speaks English as her second language may be praised for her competence in the English language in her home
country but be viewed as less competent in the United States because of her accent. In summary, although we have a clear
definition of communication competence, there are not definitions for how to be competent in any given situation, since
competence varies at the individual, social, and cultural level.
Despite the fact that no guidelines for or definitions of competence will be applicable in all situations, the National
Communication Association (NCA) has identified many aspects of competence related to communication. The primary focus
has been on competencies related to speaking and listening, and the NCA notes that developing communication competence in
these areas will help people in academic, professional, and civic contexts (Morreale, Rubin, & Jones, 1998). To help colleges
and universities develop curriculum and instruction strategies to prepare students, the NCA has defined what students should
be able to do in terms of speaking and listening competencies by the time they graduate from college:
1. State ideas clearly.
2. Communicate ethically.
3. Recognize when it is appropriate to communicate.
4. Identify their communication goals.
5. Select the most appropriate and effective medium for communicating.
6. Demonstrate credibility.
7. Identify and manage misunderstandings.
8. Manage conflict.
9. Be open-minded about another’s point of view.
10. Listen attentively.
These are just some of the competencies the NCA identified as important for college graduates. While these are skill focused
rather than interpersonally or culturally focused, they provide a concrete way to assess your own speaking competencies and to
prepare yourself for professional speaking and listening, which is often skill driven. Since we communicate in many different
contexts, such as interpersonal, group, intercultural, and mediated, we will discuss more specific definitions of competence in
later sections of the book.

Developing Competence
Knowing the dimensions of competence is an important first step toward developing competence. Everyone reading this book
already has some experience with and knowledge about communication. After all, you’ve spent many years explicitly and
implicitly learning to communicate. For example, we are explicitly taught the verbal codes we use to communicate. On the
other hand, although there are numerous rules and norms associated with nonverbal communication, we rarely receive explicit
instruction on how to do it. Instead, we learn by observing others and through trial and error with our own nonverbal
communication. Competence obviously involves verbal and nonverbal elements, but it also applies to many situations and
contexts. Communication competence is needed in order to understand communication ethics, to develop cultural awareness, to
use computer-mediated communication, and to think critically. Competence involves knowledge, motivation, and skills. It’s not
enough to know what good communication consists of; you must also have the motivation to reflect on and better your
communication and the skills needed to do so.
In regards to competence, we all have areas where we are skilled and areas where we have deficiencies. In most cases, we can
consciously decide to work on our deficiencies, which may take considerable effort. There are multiple stages of competence
that I challenge you to assess as you communicate in your daily life: unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence,

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conscious competence, and unconscious competence (Hargie, 2011). Before you have built up a rich cognitive knowledge base
of communication concepts and practiced and reflected on skills in a particular area, you may exhibit unconscious
incompetence, which means you are not even aware that you are communicating in an incompetent manner. Once you learn
more about communication and have a vocabulary to identify concepts, you may find yourself exhibiting conscious
incompetence. This is where you know what you should be doing, and you realize that you’re not doing it as well as you
could. However, as your skills increase you may advance to conscious competence, meaning that you know you are
communicating well in the moment, which will add to your bank of experiences to draw from in future interactions. When you
reach the stage of unconscious competence, you just communicate successfully without straining to be competent. Just because
you reach the stage of unconscious competence in one area or with one person does not mean you will always stay there. We
are faced with new communication encounters regularly, and although we may be able to draw on the communication skills we
have learned about and developed, it may take a few instances of conscious incompetence before you can advance to later
stages.
In many introductory communication classes that I teach, a student usually says something like “You must be really good at
this stuff since you study it and have been teaching it for a while.” At the same time students assume that I have a high level of
communication competence, they are hard on themselves for being at the stage of conscious incompetence, where they catch
themselves communicating poorly in regards to a concept we recently studied. In response to both of these comments, I say,
“Just because I know the concepts and definitions doesn’t mean I always put them to good use. We’re all imperfect and
fallible, and if we expect to be perfect communicators after studying this, then we’re setting ourselves up for failure. However,
when I do mess up, I almost always make a mental note and reflect on it. And now you’re starting to do the same thing, which
is to notice and reflect on your communication more. And that already puts you ahead of most people!”

Becoming more mindful of your communication and the communication of others can contribute to your communication
competence.
Free Stock Photos – public domain.

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One way to progress toward communication competence is to become a more mindful communicator. A mindful communicator
actively and fluidly processes information, is sensitive to communication contexts and multiple perspectives, and is able to
adapt to novel communication situations (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000). Becoming a more mindful communicator has
many benefits, including achieving communication goals, detecting deception, avoiding stereotypes, and reducing conflict.
Whether or not we achieve our day-to-day communication goals depends on our communication competence. Various
communication behaviors can signal that we are communicating mindfully. For example, asking an employee to paraphrase
their understanding of the instructions you just gave them shows that you are aware that verbal messages are not always clear,
that people do not always listen actively, and that people often do not speak up when they are unsure of instructions for fear of
appearing incompetent or embarrassing themselves. Some communication behaviors indicate that we are not communicating
mindfully, such as withdrawing from a romantic partner or engaging in passive-aggressive behavior during a period of
interpersonal conflict. Most of us know that such behaviors lead to predictable and avoidable conflict cycles, yet we are all
guilty of them. Our tendency to assume that people are telling us the truth can also lead to negative results. Therefore, a certain
amount of tentativeness and mindful monitoring of a person’s nonverbal and verbal communication can help us detect
deception. However, this is not the same thing as chronic suspicion, which would not indicate communication competence. This
is just the beginning of our conversation about communication competence. Regarding the previous examples, we will learn
more about paraphrasing in Chapter 5 “Listening”, conflict management in Chapter 6 “Interpersonal Communication
Processes”, and deception in Chapter 4 “Nonverbal Communication”.

“Getting Competent”

Getting Started on Your Road to Communication Competence

The “Getting Competent” boxes throughout this book are meant to help you become a more confident and skilled
communicator. While each box will focus on a specific aspect of communication competence, this box addresses
communication competence more generally. A common communication pitfall that is an obstacle on many students’ roads
to communication competence is viewing communication as “common sense.”
Many students note that some of what we learn in communication classes is “common sense.” I agree with this observation
in some cases but disagree with it in others. As I’ve noted before, this class builds on knowledge that you have already
gained, through experience and observation as a person with many years of communication under your belt. For example, a
student might say that it is “common sense” that conflict avoidance can lead to built-up tensions that eventually hurt an
interpersonal relationship. But many of us avoid confronting what is causing conflict in our relationships even though we
know it’s better to talk about our problems than to let them build up. In order to put that “commonsense” knowledge to
competent use, we must have a more nuanced understanding of how conflict and interpersonal communication relate and
know some conflict management strategies.
Communication is common in that it is something that we spend most of our time doing, but the ability to make sense of
and improve our communication takes competence that is learned through deliberate study and personal reflection. So, to
get started on your road to competence, I am proposing that you do two things. First, challenge yourself to see the value in
the study of communication. Apply the concepts we are learning to your life and find ways to make this class help you
achieve your goals. Second, commit to using the knowledge you gain in this class to improve your communication and the
communication of those around you. Become a higher self-monitor, which means start to notice your communication more.
We all know areas where we could improve our communication, and taking this class will probably expose even more. But
you have to be prepared to put in the time to improve; for example, it takes effort to become a better listener or to give
better feedback. If you start these things now you will be primed to take on more communication challenges that will be
presented throughout this book.
1. What aspects of communication do you think are “common sense?” What aspects of communication do you think
require more formal instruction and/or study?
2. What communication concept has appealed to you most so far? How can you see this concept applying to your life?
3. Do a communication self-assessment. What are your strengths as a communicator? What are your weaknesses? What
can you do to start improving your communication competence?

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Overcoming Anxiety
Whether you will give your first presentation in this class next week or in two months, you may be one of many students in the
introduction to communication studies course to face anxiety about communication in general or public speaking in particular.

Figure: Communication apprehension and public speaking anxiety are common but can be managed productively.
Ana C. – day 339 butterflies – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
Decades of research conducted by communication scholars shows that communication apprehension is common among college
students (Priem & Solomon, 2009). Communication apprehension (CA) is fear or anxiety experienced by a person due to actual
or imagined communication with another person or persons. CA includes multiple forms of communication, not just public
speaking. Of college students, 15 to 20 percent experience high trait CA, meaning they are generally anxious about
communication. Furthermore, 70 percent of college students experience some trait CA, which means that addressing
communication anxiety in a class like the one you’re taking now stands to benefit the majority of students (Priem & Solomon,
2009). Public speaking anxiety is type of CA that produces physiological, cognitive, and behavioral reactions in people when
faced with a real or imagined presentation (Bodie, 2010). Research on public speaking anxiety has focused on three key ways to
address this common issue: systematic desensitization, cognitive restructuring, and skills training (Bodie, 2010).
Communication departments are typically the only departments that address communication apprehension explicitly, which is
important as CA is “related to negative academic consequences such as negative attitudes toward school, lower over-all
classroom achievement, lower final course grades, and higher college attrition rates” (Allen, Hunter, & Donohue, 2009).
Additionally, CA can lead others to make assumptions about your communication competence that may be unfavorable. Even
if you are intelligent, prepared, and motivated, CA and public speaking anxiety can detract from your communication and lead
others to perceive you in ways you did not intend. CA is a common issue faced by many people, so you are not alone. We will
learn more about speaking anxiety in Chapter 12 “Public Speaking in Various Contexts”. While you should feel free to read
ahead to that chapter, you can also manage your anxiety by following some of the following tips.
Top Ten Ways to Reduce Speaking Anxiety
1. Remember, you are not alone. Public speaking anxiety is common, so don’t ignore it—confront it.
2. You can’t literally “die of embarrassment.” Audiences are forgiving and understanding.
3. It always feels worse than it looks.
4. Take deep breaths. It releases endorphins, which naturally fight the adrenaline that causes anxiety.
5. Look the part. Dress professionally to enhance confidence.
6. Channel your nervousness into positive energy and motivation.
7. Start your outline and research early. Better information = higher confidence.
8. Practice and get feedback from a trusted source. (Don’t just practice for your cat.)
9. Visualize success through positive thinking.
10. Prepare, prepare, prepare! Practice is a speaker’s best friend.

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Key Takeaways
Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to
use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts.
To be a competent communicator, you should have cognitive knowledge about communication based on observation and
instruction; understand that individual, social, and cultural contexts affect competence; and be able to adapt to those
various contexts.
Getting integrated: The NCA notes that developing communication competence in speaking and listening will help college
students in academic, professional, and civic contexts.
Levels of communication competence include unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence,
and unconscious competence.
In order to develop communication competence, you must become a more mindful communicator and a higher self- monitor.
Communication apprehension (CA) refers to fear or anxiety experienced by a person due to real or imagined communication
with another person or persons. Public speaking anxiety is a form of CA that more specifically focuses on anxiety about
giving a public presentation. Both are commonly experienced by most people and can be managed using various strategies.

Exercises
1. Getting integrated: Evaluate your speaking and listening competencies based on the list generated by the NCA. Out of the
skills listed, which ones are you more competent in and less competent in? Which skill will be most useful for you in
academic contexts? Professional contexts? Personal contexts? Civic contexts?
2. Think of a person you know who you think possesses a high level of communication competence. What makes you think
this? What communication characteristics do they have that you might want to have yourself?
3. What anxieties do you have regarding communication and/or public speaking? Since communication and speaking are a
necessary part of life, identify some strategies you can use to manage those anxieties.

References
Allen, M., John E. Hunter, and William A. Donohue, “Meta-analysis of Self-Report Data on the Effectiveness of Public
Speaking Anxiety Treatment Techniques,” Communication Education 38, no. 1 (2009): 54–76.
Bodie, G. D., “A Racing Heart, Rattling Knees, and Ruminative Thoughts: Defining, Explaining, and Treating Public
Speaking Anxiety,” Communication Education 59, no. 1 (2010): 72.
Burgoon, J. K., Charles R. Berger, and Vincent R. Waldron, “Mindfulness and Interpersonal Communication,” Journal of
Social Issues 56, no. 1 (2000): 105.
Cooley, R. E., and Deborah A. Roach, “A Conceptual Framework,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary
Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 25.
Hargie, O., Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 9.
McCroskey, J. C., “Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A
Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 259.
Morreale, S., Rebecca B. Rubin, and Elizabeth Jones, Speaking and Listening Competencies for College Students
(Washington, DC: National Communication Association, 1998), n.p.
Priem, J. S., and Denise Haunani Solomon, “Comforting Apprehensive Communicators: The Effects of Reappraisal and
Distraction on Cortisol Levels among Students in a Public Speaking Class,” Communication Quarterly 57, no. 3 (2009): 260

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