A

MINI PROJECT REPORT

ON
OVER REVIEW OF DESIGN OF FOOTING FOR G+5 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
By

B.SINDHU (20845A0138)
V.NANDHINI (20845A0124)
K.MANOHAR (20845A0145)
E.RAJESH (20845A0164)
Under esteemed guidance of
A.KATHIK
(Asst. Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AURORA’S TECHNOLOGICAL AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad and approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad – 500098
(2022-2023)
 Aurora’s Technological and Research Institute
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad – 500098
(2022-2023)

DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work described in this project entitled “ OVER
REVIEW OF DESIGN OF FOOTING FOR G+5 RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING” which is being
submitted by me in partial fulfilment for the award of bachelor of Technology in
CIVIL ENGINEERING to AURORA’S TECHNOLOGICAL AND
RESEARCH INSTITUTE is the result of investigation carried by me under the
guidance of A.KARTHIK, Asst. Professor.

The work is original and has been submitted for any degree of this or any other
university.

Place: Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad

Date:

B.SINDHU (20845A0138)
V.NANDHINI (20845A0124)
K.MANOHAR (20845A0145)
E.RAJESH (20845A0164)
 Aurora’s Technological and Research Institute
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad – 500098
(2022-2023)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the mini project report entitled “OVER REVIEW OF
DESIGN OF FOOTING FOR G+5 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING” that is being
submitted by SINDHU, NANDHINI, MANOHAR, RAJESH, in partial fulfilment
for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in CIVIL ENGINEERING
to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University is a record of bonafide work
carried out by them under my guidance and supervision. The results embodied
report have not been submitted to any other university or Institute for the award of
any degree or diploma.

Date:

Internal Guide Head of the Department

Mr. A. KARTHIK Mr. P. VENU MADHAV

Mini Project Co-ordinator Director

Mr. S.VISHWANATH Mr. J. SRIKANTH
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, praise and thanks go to my god for the blessing that has been
bestowed upon me in all my endeavors.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank my parents and my brothers and sisters
for their unconditional love, moral support, and encouragement for timely
completion of my mini project report.

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. J. Srikanth, Director, Aurora’s

Technological and research Institute for providing me congenial atmosphere and
encouragement.

I extend my sincere thanks to Mr. P. Venu Madhav, Head of Civil Engineering

Department, for his guidance and unyielding support throughout the year.

I profoundly thank Mr. A. Karthik, Asst. Professor of Civil Engineering

Department, who has been an excellent guide and great source of inspiration of my
work.

It gives me a great pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness

to my Mini Project co-ordinator Mr. S. Vishwanath, Asst. Professor, Department
of Civil Engineering, for his valuable support and encouraging mentality throughout
the mini project. I am highly obliged to him for providing me in the opportunity to
carry out the ideas and work during my Mini Project and helping me in the
successful completion of the Mini Project Report.

I also express my thanks to all teaching and non-teaching staff of Aurora’s

Technological and Research Institute, Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad, for
their kind support and help whenever it required.

I also expressed my thanks to all my classmates and my friends for giving me moral
supports and encouragement during the course of my work.
 ABSTRACT
Lower base of a structure is a very supreme part as it links the main body
superstructure to the earth. That lower base is known as foundation. In this we are
going to discuss about the types of foundation used in construction industry, it is very
crucial to construct a firm base which holds the superstructure in all climatic
conditions without collapsing or decaying. It is very important to know which type
of foundation is essential to use in a particular superstructure and which designs
should be used. Different types of foundations base are utilized in different types of
structures, each one of them as a unique design and specific configuration which
makes particular structure more durable and firmer. In short, the study presents the
foundation types, which type is used for which superstructure, which design is
suitable and more precisely we will be discussing about how we can make the
foundation base more durable and stronger to with stand the natural calamities. In our
project work we are going to design, single footing with M20 Grade concrete and
combined footing with M25 Grade concrete with Fe 550 steel for G+5 residential
building.

Key words: Foundation, soil settlement, M20 Grade, M25 Grade, Fe 550 Grade.
 List of Contents

Acknowledgements
Abstract
List of figures

Chapter 1 Page No
Introduction 1
1.2 Objectives 3
1.3 Purpose of foundation 4

Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Overview 5
2.2 Site Details 8

Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1 General Information 11
3.2 Types of Foundation 12
3.2.1 classified based on shape and utility 12
1. Shallow Foundation 12
a) Pad Foundation 12
b) Strip Foundation 13
c) Combined Foundation 14
d) Mat or Raft Foundation 15
e) Spread footing Foundation 16

2. Deep Foundation
a) Pile Foundation 16
b) Pier Foundation 17
3.2.2 Material used in foundation 18
 List of Contents
Chapter 4
Construction of foundation
4.1 Excavation 24
4.2 Filling foundation with cement concrete 25
4.3 Centre marking for placing steel mesh 26
4.4 Placing cover block to the steel mat 28
4.5 Placing steel mat at centre 29
4.6 Column frame placed on centre position 30
4.7 Placing form work around the steel mat 30
4.8 Pouring concrete over form work 31
4.9 Removing of the steel footing 31
Chapter 5
Design of the single footing 32
Conclusion 35
References 36
 List of Figure

Figure no Title of Figure Page No

Figure 1.1: Foundation Reinforcement 2
Figure 2.1: Reinforcement arrangement with cover 8
Figure 3.2.1 (a) Pad Foundation 13
Figure 3.2.2 (b) Strip Foundation 13
Figure 3.2.3 (c) Combined Footing 14
Figure 3.2.4 (d) Mat/Raft Foundation 15
Figure 3.2.1 (a) Pile Foundation 17
Figure 3.2.2 (b) Pier Foundation 18
Figure 4.2 Filling base of the Foundation 26
Figure 4.3 Centre Marking 27
Figure 4.4 Placing cover for mat 28
Figure 4.5 75mm centre spacing between mat and soil 29
Figure 4.6 Frame work placed at the centre position 30
Figure 4.7 Formwork placed around the steel mat 30
Figure 4.8 Filling concrete over formwork 31
Figure 4.9 Removing form work and curing 31
Figure 5.1 Line diagram of One way and Two way shear 36
Aurora’s Technological And Research Institute

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. General

Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact
with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. Generally, the
foundation can be classified into two, namely shallow foundation and deep foundation. A
shallow foundation transfers the load to a stratum present in a shallow depth. The deep
foundation transfers the load to a deeper depth below the ground surface. A tall building
like a skyscraper or a building constructed on very weak soil requires deep foundation. If
the constructed building has the plan to extend vertically in future, then a deep foundation
must be suggested. To construct a foundation, trenches are dig deeper into the soil till a
hard stratum is reached. To get stronger base foundation concrete is poured into this
trench. These trenches are incorporated with reinforcement cage to increase the strength
of the foundation. The projected steel rods that are projected outwards act as the bones
and must be connected with the substructure above. Once the foundation has been packed
correctly the construction of the building can be started. The construction of the
foundation can be done with concrete, steel, stones, bricks etc. The material and the type
of foundation selected for the desired structure depends on the design loads and the type
of underlying soil. The design of the foundation must incorporate different effects of
construction on the environment. For example, the digging and piling works done for
deep foundation may result in adverse disturbance to the nearby soil and structural
foundation. These can sometimes cause the settlement issues of the nearby structure. Such
effects have to be studied and taken care before undergoing such operations. Disposal of
the waste material from the operations must be disposed properly. The construction of
foundation has to be done to resist the external attack of harmful substances. The support
for any structure is provided by underlying soil material and therefore, the stability of the
structure depends on it. A foundation is supposed to transmit the structural loading to the
supporting soil in such a way that the soil is not overstressed and that serious settlements
of the structure are not caused. The type of foundation utilised is closely related to the
properties of the supporting soil, since the performance of the Foundation is based on that

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of the soil in addition to its own. Thus, it is important to recognise that it is the soil-
foundation system that provides support for the structure; the components of this system
should not be viewed separately.

(Fig-1.1): Foundation reinforcement

The foundation is an element that is built and installed, while the soil is the natural earth
material which exists at the site. Since the stability of structure is dependent upon the soil
foundation system, all forces that may acts on the structure during its lifetime should be
considered. In fact, it is the worst combination of these must be considered for design.
Typically, foundation design always includes the effect of that load plus the live loads on
the structures. Other miscellaneous forces that may have to be considered result from the
action of wind, water, heat, ice, frost, earthquake and explosive blasts. Design foundation
for Residential building, and land was found in Sandy soil as per soil investigation report
SBC for site is 300 KN/m2 and recommendation of shallow that is isolated footing is
enough to counteract the building load. So single footing with M 20 Grade concrete and
combined footing with M25 Grade concrete with Fe550 steel for G+5 residential building.

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OBJECTIVES:
It is often misunderstood that the foundation is provided to support the load of the
structure. In fact foundation is a device to transmit the load of the structure to the soil
below. The main objectives of the foundation are to
1. distribute the weight of the structure over large area so as to avoid over loading
of the soil beneath
2. Load the sub- stratum evenly and thus prevent unequal settlement.
3. To provide a level surface for building operations.
4. take the structure deep into the ground and thus increase its stability , and
prevent over turning
All foundations settle under load. But if one part settles more than another, there will
be differential settlement and cracks may appear many years after the completion of the
building. Unequal settlement or differential settlement may cause due to
 Weak sub soils such as made up ground
 Shrinkable and expansive soil, such as clay
 Frost action
 Movement of ground water and uplift pressure
 Excessive vibrations due to traffic and machinery
 Slow consolidation of structured clay
 Slipping of strata on sloping sites.
The foundation is the most important part of a building as it provides an uniform base
for the superstructure and transfers the load of the same down to the soil below it
uniformly. Hence it should be laid on a firm and hard bed below the ground level so as
to transfer the load of the structure safely on to the hard bed below and at the same time
to provide good anchorage to the super structure. Utmost care should be exercised while
fixing the foundation and its various dimensions, since foundation once laid if yields
under load, little can be done to save the life of the structure.

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PURPOSE OF FOUNDATION
 In the language of Civil Engineers, the term “Foundation” denotes, “Structure
at Founding level”.
 The Foundation or Sub-structure is the lowermost portion of the building or any
other structure, which is used to transfer different types of loads acting on it, to
the subsoil below, on which it rests.
 Among all the other construction elements, the foundation is the most important
one, it determines the structural stability of the building, and the number of
years the building can serve its purpose effectively.
 The importance of the Foundation has necessitated a separate branch of Civil
Engineering, named “Foundation Engineering”, where the design techniques
and detail knowledge of this element are given.
 The Design of Foundation is very complex, and it requires intelligent scrutiny
from one professional’s experienced engineer in this field.
 Design of the foundation includes detailed sub-soil investigation, choosing the
right type of foundation depending upon the reports of subsoil
investigation, bearing capacities of soil (essentially the safe & ultimate bearing
capacity) and thorough checks to identify if the subsoil can carry the loads
expected to come from the structure, without any critical failure.
 The value of the nominal dimensions of a Foundation is given below, less than
which the foundation is said to be insecure when the loads are being applied to
it.
 Height of the foundation is determined using Rankine’s Formulae, having it is
a minimum value of 0.9 meter
 The breadth of the Foundation should not be less than 0.45 to 0.5 meter.

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Overview

The lowest part of a structure is usually referred to as the foundation. The purpose of
foundation is to transfer to load of the structure to the soil on which it is resting. A well
designed foundation would be able to transfer the load throughout the soil without
overstressing the soil (Das, 2015). If the design of the foundation does not satisfy
(overstressing), this can lead to excessive settle mentor shear failure of the soil. Excessive
settlement or shear failure can cause the structure to be damaged or even collapse.
Therefore, in order to design the foundation, both geotechnical and structural engineer
must evaluate the bearing capacity of the soil. Depending on the structure and the soil
various types of foundations are used. Single footing is simply an enlargement of a load
bearing wall or column that is possible for the load to be spread over a larger area of the
soil. The soil with low load bearing capacity, the size of the footing must be larger. Most
economical way to construct a foundation in a low load bearing capacity soil is to
construct the entire structure over a concrete pad. This is called a mat foundation. Pile
and Drilled shaft foundations are used for heavier structures when great depth is required
for the supporting load. Piles are members usually made of timber, concrete or steel which
transmit the load of the structure to the lower layers of the soil. When dealing with piles
they are divided into two categories, friction piles and end-bearing pile. The load carried
by the pile is transmitted at its tip to a firm stratum. Drilled shafts is when a shaft is drilled
into the subsoil and filled with concrete. A metal casing is usually used while the shaft is
being drilled. The casing may be removed or left in place when pouring concrete. The
diameter of drilled shafts is such larger than that of a pile. Spread footings and mat
foundations are generally referred to as shallow foundations, and pile and drilled
shaft foundations are deep foundations.

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Various authors have contributed to several aspects in the form of research papers and
text books, which are unique and are based on research. Latest selected publications and
the state of art related to effects of lateral forces on shallow foundation is presented here.
In the last years the seismic action has increased in many National Codes according to
recent records which show values up to 0.8 g for very destructive earthquakes. Literature
survey can be classified under two heads as:
• Experimental Work Analytical Work using Finite Element Methods
Experimental Work
Revised Version Manuscript Received on August 06, 2015.
Pallavi R. Kulkarni, Department of Civil Engineering, Pune University. Nashik,
Maharashtra, India.
Tejashri R. Sambre, Department of Civil Engineering, Pune University. Nashik,
Maharashtra, India.
The experimental work done by authors and literatures have been discussed here –
Debasis Ray carried out research on strength consideration which essentially involves
ensuring that the foundation loads main well below that dictated by all allowable bearing
capacity under seismic conditions and serviceability is ensured by designing the sub-
structure for the estimated permanent ground deformation under earthquake conditions
are presented Mahmoud Ghazavi and permanent ground deformation under earthquake
conditions are presented Mahmoud Ghazavi and Armin Salmani Mahali Foundation
simple procedure for estimating bearing capacity and permanent ground deformation
under earthquake conditions are presented Mahmoud Ghazavi and Armin Salmani Mahali
focused views on the seismic force considered as pseudo-static force acting on both
footing and soil determined. To obtain the akimae bearing capacity, and imaginary
retaining wall is assumed to pass the footing wedge and the lateral earth pressure exerted
on the wall in active and passive conditions are determined. The bearing capacity factors
are computed for various values of soil friction angle, seismic acceleration coefficients in
horizontal and vertical directions, ground inclination, and distances of the foundation
from the slope edge, the effects of various parameter on seismic bearing capacity factors
have been studied.

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Dhiraj Raj and Bhai M gave idea about the small to medium rise buildings, shallows
foundations are frequently used in hilly regions. In such situation obtaining the minimum
value for bearing capacity of the foundation is either from: foundation failure; or overall
stability of the slope. Various methods proposed by the researchers are available to find
the ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation on the face of the slope or near edge
of the dope, based on Limit equilibrium analysis Slip line analysis Limit analysis and
Finite element analysis. The method for bearing capacity estimation on sloping ground
was first proposed by Meyerhof (1957) and later on many researchers had contributed in
this area.
Rushree Ragini Sahoo discussed about the bearing capacity and settlement study of
shallow footings is a subject which needs consideration for design of a foundation Most
of the studies relate to the case of a vertical load applied centrally to the foundation.
However, when loads are applied eccentrically to the foundation, the bearing capacity is
different from centrally loaded footings Meyerhof (1953) developed empirical procedures
for estimating the ultimate beating capacity of foundations subjected to eccentric loads.
All the bearing capacity estimation methods may be classified into the following four
categories the lime equilibrium method the method of characteristics the upper-bound
plastic limit analysis slip line method and the numerical methods based on either the
finite-element method or fine-difference method. Footings are very often subjected to
eccentric loads. This problem has been studied in detail by few investigators. The
effective width method by Meyerhof (1953) is widely med for calculating the bearing
capacity of eccentrically loaded footings.

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(Fig-2.1): Reinforcement arrangement with cover

2.2. SITE DETAILS:

Company details:
Name of the company : Shiva Krishna Constructions Pvt. ltd
Established in the year 2007
Address : Shankar nagar colony, Peerzadiguda, Medipally, Medchal
District – Hyderabad.
Type of Construction : G+5 Residential building (Krishna bai Residensi)
Area : 1 Acre
Project duration : 2 years (June-2021- 2023).

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Site layout

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Foundation schedule

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CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY
3.1General

Construction is a very oldest human activity. Knowledge of deep founding was

possessed more than 12000 years ago in Switzerland by Neolithic inhabitants. They
constructed their home on a long wooden piles, high above dangerous animals and
hostile neighbours driven into the soft bottoms of shallow lakes. Many years later, the
Babylonians which are found on the deep alluvium settled themselves under the weight
of the construction. Biggest development in foundation engineering took place in
ancient Rome, where certain rules were imposed and pozzolanic concrete was used. In
later years many buildings collapsed because of wars earthquakes and natural calamities
and those which survived suffer from cracks and other problems. From that period it
became very important to have strong foundation. Construction of any structure starts
with the built up of foundation base which holds the weight of all beams, columns,
walls, slab, and other household materials. Hence having a strong and solid base is
must. Foundation is basically classified into two major category which is further sub
divided into number of categories based on the type of structure to be implemented. For
low rise houses and bungalows shallow foundation is used and for high rise building
and houses deep foundation is used. The classification diagram is shown below for
better understanding of the types of foundation. Every foundation has different type of
footing. Not only on ground but underground foundation is also exists which has a total
different type of construction methodology. Each foundation type has a unique equation
which helps us to design the foundation on field. For some foundation the underground
depth is 3m while for some the underground depth is 10m and more as it depends upon
the height of the structure. Also a thorough understanding of ground and soil condition
is must for construction of foundation as it plays a major role in understanding the
behaviour of the structure, which materials should be used and also will the structure
stand firm for longer time or not. So before constructing any foundation it is very
important to study the soil type of the ground and also to check if the area is an
earthquake prone zone or not.

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3.2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

1. Shallow foundations
2. Deep foundations
1. Shallow foundations:
These are used when stable soil of adequate bearing capacity is available relatively near
to the ground surface. They are built directly built the lowest part of building.
2. Deep foundation:
These are used when the soil available relatively near to the ground surface is unstable
and has inadequate bearing capacity. They transfer the loads to a soil or rock stratum.
3.2.1. Classified based on their shape and utility are as follows:
1. Shallow foundation
(a). Pad foundation: Pad foundation is a sub category of shallow foundation which
settles and spreads over the soil safely. If the soil at the site has sufficient strength and
is not too deep them Pad foundation is preferred. Thickness of pad foundation is
generally uniform. Pad foundation spreads safely over the concentrated load to the
bearing stratum. Hence the design of the foundation should be stiff so that uniform
spreading of load to the soil takes place without making the foundation pressure exceed
the permissible bearing stress. This is achieved by making the pad deep or by reinforcing
the pad as both the techniques helps to spread the force in a predefined angle.
Advantages pad foundation
 Can be designed to accommodate tights sites.
 Reinforcement for tension and shear can be added.
 Economical due to control of foundation size
Disadvantages pad foundation
 Foundation size can be very large to cope with high points loads.
 Limited foundation suitability to point loads of framed buildings.
 Deep excavation for foundation would require support to prevent caving in.

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(Figure-3.2.1): (a) Pad foundation

(b). STRIP FOUNDATION:

Strip foundation which is also called as strip footing which is sub category of shallow
foundation are used to provide continuous level or stepped strip of support to a linear
structure for example walls or closely spaced rows or columns built in centre above
them. Strip foundations can be done in mostly all sub soils, but a soil of good bearing
capacity is suitable. This type of foundation is generally used for the construction of
medium or low rise domestic buildings. The underside of strip footing should be deep
so that frost action does not take place. The position and size of strip foundation
depends upon the overall width of the wall. The old or traditional strip foundation is
basically equal or greater than overall wall width and also the foundation width is three
times the width of the supported wall.

(Fig-3.2.1): (b) Strip foundation

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ADVANTAGES OF STRIP FOUNDATIONS:

 Ability to withstand great loads.
 They have subtypes from which you can choose the one you need for particular
purposes.
 The price is much lower than that of cast-in-situ structures, although strip
foundations are not inferior to them in strength.
 Easy to build, no special training requirements for personnel.
DISADVANTAGES OF STRIP FOUNDATIONS:
 Not suitable for every soil type
 You have to do the filling on a single go and the amount of material to prepare
for filling is a problem.
 It is only suitable in low rise buildings.
(C).COMBINED FOUNDATION:
When two or more columns are close to each other and if there foundation are
overlapping then combined foundation is constructed. Generally it is carried out on
fields which have low soil bearing capacity. It is very economical when isolated footing
columns are constructed over it. Combined foundation is again sub divided into three
categories such as:

(Fig: 3.2.1): (c) Combined footing

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(D).MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION

Mat or raft foundation is a continuous slap resting on the soil that extends over an entire
footprint of the building, thus supporting the building the building and transferring its
weight to the ground. Mat or raft footing is basically a thick concrete slab reinforced
with steel that covers the entire contact area of the structure like a thick floor. They are
large concrete slabs which supports a number of walls and columns. In this the
foundations are constructed by excavating soil in order to compact, strong, undisturbed
natural soil which is at least a few feet’s below the ground level. This soil is stronger
as compared to the loose soil at the surface hence it is very good for basements. Raft or
mat foundation is required in areas where soil has to support heavy structural loads and
has low bearing capacity.

(Fig-3.2.1): (d) Mat/Raft foundation

ADVANTAGES OF MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION

 It can be constructed in poor soil condition
 It can be constructed in poor soil condition.
 It resists differential settlement.
 It distributes load over a larger area.
 It requires less earth excavation.
DISADVANTAGES OF MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION
 It is prone to edge erosion.
 When subjected to concentrated load it requires special measurements.

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(e).SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATION

Spread footing is generally used in residential building, has a wider bottom portion as
compared to the load bearing foundation walls it supports. This wider bottom portion
spreads the weight of the structure over more area to achieve more stability. The layout
and design of the spread footing foundation is controlled by some factors, such as the
weight of the superstructure it must support, penetration of soft near surface layers and
penetration through near surface layers which are likely to change volume due to shrink
swell or frost heave. This type of footing is basically used to construct basements in
residential buildings. Spread footing behaves like an inverted cantilever with load
applied in the upward direction. Builders and civil engineers prefer spread footing as it
beneficial, as it helps transfer the load to the ground surface making it an excellent
solution for stabilizing weak soil. Benefits of spread footing are it reduces the cracking
caused by settlement, cost efficient in design, construction and quality control, and
stabilize the soil around the structural base, less complicated procedure. Spread footing
is further divided into two sub categories such as
3.22. DEEP FOUNDATION
A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth. The
depth of the ground in deep foundation is above 3m. This is because; to construct high
rise buildings it is necessary to go deep into the ground to provide necessary support to
the superstructure and protects it from collapsing. Deep foundations are further
classified into four sub categories such as:
a) Pile foundation
b) Piper foundation
3.2.1. PILE FOUNDATION :
Pile foundation is type of foundation in which columns of small cylindrical diameter
are driven or cast into the ground. It is made up of concrete, timber or steel. This type
of foundation is basically used for bridge type of construction. Pile foundation is done
in the areas where the upper layer of soil is compressible or weak. Pile foundation is
basically used when the soil below the foundation does not have sufficient bearing
capacity to carry the weight of the structure into deep soil up to hard strata.

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ADVANTAGES OF PILE FOUNDATION:

 Initial cost is low
 Easy to handle and construct.
 Best suitable for friction pipes.
DISADVANTAGES OF PILE FOUNDATION
 Vulnerable to damage.
 Vulnerable to decay.
 Its durability decreases if subject to wetting and drying.

(Fig-3.2.1): (a) Pile foundation

(b). Pier foundation:

It is also known as post foundation. Pier foundation is basically a collection of large
cylindrical diameter to up hold the structure and transfer large super imposed load to
the firm strata below. It is placed few feet’s below the ground. This is very convenient
method as the materials are easily available and the method is easy and requires fewer
amounts of materials and labours. It is also very cost efficient. It is preferred in locations
where the top strata consist of decomposed rock overlying strata of sound rock.
ADVANTAGES OF PIER FOUNDATION
 Wide range of varieties in terms of design
 Its bearing capacity can be increased any under reaming the bottom.
 It is cost efficient and time efficient as it does not needs extensive excavation

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DISADVANTAGES OF PIER FOUNDATION

 Moisture problems and rain accumulation.
 Creaking sagging and bouncy floors. Poor ventilation.

(Fig-3.2.1): (b) Pier foundation

(C) Well Foundation : Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally
provided below the water level for bridges. Cassions or well have been in use for
foundations of bridges and other structures since Roman and Mughal periods. The term
‘Cassion’ is derived from caisse which means box.

ADVANTAGES OF WELL FOUNDATION

 It can resist the effect of scouring due to its large cross-sectional area.

 It reduces vibrations and has less noise because the foundation is based, on piers
there are fewer vibrations which will disturb the structure.

 Its depth can be, decided due to sinking process.

DISADVANTAGES OF WELL FOUNDATION

 Its consruction procedure is sensitive, especially placing caisson.

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 Experts are necessary for the construction of this type of foundation.

 Lack of skilled worker familiar with this type of foundation.

1. PROPERTIES OF CEMENT:

 Physical properties of cement

(a) Fineness of cement (b) Consistency of cement
(c) Soundness of cement (d) Setting time of cement
(e) Strength of the cement (f) Heat of hydration
(g) Specific gravity

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(a). Fineness of Cement :

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good
cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production
process. As hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size,
fineness of cement is very important.
(b). Consistency of cement:
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency. It is measured by vicat test in vicat
Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The plunger
of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger
will penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. A cement
is said to have a normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.
(c). Soundness of cement:
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality
cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by
excessive free lime and magnesia.
Le-chatlier test:
This method, done by using Le Chatlier Apparatus, tests the expansion of cement due to
lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in
water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the distance between the indicators
and then returned underwater, brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour.
After cooling the device, the distance between indicator points is measured again. In a
good quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.
(d). Setting time of cement:
Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on
multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and
admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not
too low and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:
 Initial setting time: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically
occurs within 30-45 minutes)
 Final setting time: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load
(occurs below 10 hours)

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(e). Strength of cement:

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural.
Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate
ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and
mixing, loading conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be
considered:
 Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related.
Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
 The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.
 Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test
should be mentioned.
(f). Hydration of cement:
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration.
Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be
beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand,
when heat generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause undesired
stress. The heat of hydration is affected most by C 3S and C3A present in cement, and
also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of
Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the
partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).
(g). Specific gravity:
Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland
cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, Portland-
blast-furnace-slag and Portland Pozzolano cement) may have specific gravities of about
2.90.
Chemical properties of cement:
The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminium) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast
furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the
chemical properties of cement.

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1. Tri-Calcium Silicate (C3S)

 Tri-calcium silicate promotes cement to hydrate quickly and makes more
strength at early stages
 Tri-calcium silicate have a high heat of hydration
 ex-Rapid Hardening cement
2. Di-Calcium Silicate
 Di-calcium silicate strengthens the concrete from 7 days to 1 year.
 They have less heat of hydration
 ex: Low heat cement
3. Tri-Calcium Aluminate
 Tri-calcium aluminate has a small contribution to the strength of first 24 hours
and they have a high heat of hydration.
4. Tetra-Calcium Alumina Ferrate.
 Comparatively Inactive
2. PROPERTIES OF FINE AGGREGATE:
The maximum size used is 80 mm and the range of 80 mm to 4.75 mm is known as
coarse aggregate and 4.75 to 150 micron is called fine aggregate. Size 4.75mm is
common for both fine and coarse fractions.
Qualities of fine aggregates:
 Fine aggregate should be clean i.e. it should be free from lumps, organic
material, etc.
 It should be strong and durable
 It should not react with cement after mixing
 Also, it should have a tough floor
 It should not absorb greater than 5% of water etc.
1. Size of Aggregate:
The largest size that fall under the limit of the exact set is 4.75mm. Using the largest
size will give more dense concrete, but a mixture of all sizes is more desirable and
more economical. If cement mortar is prepared for masonry work or plastering
work, very fine types of sand of similar size is used.

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2. Strength:
The strength of the aggregates cannot ensure the strength of the concrete the
strength of coarse aggregates are more important.
3. Shape of fine aggregate:
Irregularly nodular shaped sand is preferable to completely round grained sand. The
shape of the aggregate plays a more important role in the coarse aggregate than in
the fine aggregate.
4. Specific gravity:
The specific gravity of aggregate is the ratio of the density of water to its density. It
is used for concrete mix design and if not specified the specific gravity is taken as
2.7 because the specific gravity of most aggregates obtained from different sources
falls between 2.6 and 2.8.
5. Surface Texture of fine aggregates:
Generally, round surface aggregates are better for smooth aggregates, this property
is also related to coarse aggregate.
6. Water Absorption:
Typically, for sand, water absorption is negligible, it is desirable that water
absorption should be kept to a minimum.
7. Surface Index of fine aggregates:
It is an empirical number that corresponds to a specific surface of overweight
particles given finer fractions.
8. Bulking:
Bulging is a phenomena that causes the aggregates to swell by absorbing moisture
from the humid air. The concrete mix design may be in accurate and enough
additional sand is always added to compensate for this swelling when this bulk sand
will return to normal state.

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3. PROPERTIES OF COARSE AGGREGATE:

 It should be clean, dense and cubical in shape.
 It should be free from silt, clay and coal residues.
 It should not contain any organic and other admixtures.
 It should be sharp, course and angular to have good interlocking property.
 It should be free from thin, flat elongated flaky or splinter particle.
 The size of the aggregates should be such that the voids in the coarse aggregates
are completely filled up by.
 Fine aggregates and the voids in the fine aggregates are complete.
 Filled up with cement and water to get dense concrete.
 The coarse aggregates used in the surface course of road work must withstand
the high magnitude of load, stresses, wear and tear due to the abrasive action of
traffic.
 It should not hard enough to resist wear and tear due to the abrasive action of
the moving vehicles.
 It should not disintegrate under adverse weather condition including alternate
wet dry and freeze-thaw cycle.
 Its specific gravity should be more than 27.

4. PROPERTIES OF WATER:
The water which is used for mixing of concrete paste it should be Potable and the
value of pH of water should be closes to the 7 and not less than 6.

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CHAPTER-4
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATION
4.1. Excavation
1. Foundation trenches shall be dug out to the exact width of foundation concrete.
2. Sides of foundation shall be vertical.
3. If the soil is not good and does not permit vertical sides, the sides should be
sloped back or protected with timber shoring.
4. Excavated earth shall not be placed within 1 meter (3 feet) of the edge of the
trench.

MEASUREMENT
1. The measurement of the excavation shall be taken in cubic meters (cubic feet).
2. Volume = Rectangular trench bottom width X Vertical depth of foundation from
the ground level X length of trenches.
3. Do not consider extra volume due to sloping sides excavated by contractor for
his own convenience.
4. Rate shall be for complete work for 30 m *100 feet) lead and 1.50 m (5 feet) lift.
5. Rate shall include all tools and plants required for completion of the work.
6. For every extra lead of 30 m and every extra lift of 1.5 m, separate extra rate is
provided.

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4.2. FILLING FOUNDATION WITH CEMENT CONCRETE

Set your footings
 This properly spaces the form work and allows you the space you need to lay
your foundation.

 Situate and lay down the boards in the planned foundation shape and size.
Square and level the form
 Adjustments to the form cannot be made after the concrete is poured.
Because concrete is very heavy, be extra sure your formwork is strong and
firmly in place.
Make your concrete
 Dump the dry cement into the wheelbarrow.
 Add the water very slowly. Stir constantly.
 Stir the mixture thoroughly. Mix in just enough water so your cement is
chunky. Don't let the mixture get too soupy.
 Remember to wear safety glasses, gloves, and a mask when mixing concrete.

Make your concrete foundation

 Pour your ready concrete into your form.
 Use your trowel to level it off and smooth it over.
 Make grooves with your trowel if you want a non-slippery surface.

Finish your concrete

 Let the concrete dry.

 Remove the forms after the concrete thoroughly dries. This will take at least 24
hours.
 Keep the concrete wet to avoid cracking if it's hot outside. Soak it with a hose
at least twice daily, three times if it is very hot outside.
 Cover the pad if it looks like rain. Rain can cause depressions in the concrete
and cause your foundation to be uneven.

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(Fig – 4.2) Filling base of the foundation

4.3. MARKING CENTER POSITION FOR PLACING STEEL MAT
 The blueprint of the building comprises living room and kitchen. This is the
center line marking of building which displays six numbers of columns.
 Now, a base point is fixed, which is highly essential for marking. From that base
point a base line is placed by means of thread.
 The second point is set. Then, the second point is fixed by means of thread. With
this, we will be capable to see the base line which is highly essential for a
building part.
 From the point 1, we will mark for 4 feet. A peg is fixed at the point of 4 feet.
 The modified point from the peg which is set from 4 feet and an arc is formed
and marked for 5 feet.

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 Then, the point has been changed. For calculation of 3 feet, an arc is marked.
At that intersection point, a peg is fixed.
 From the point 1 through the arc, a thread is fixed. Through the arced point, a
thread is placed for an estimated distance, 3rd point is fixed. Then, it forms an
L shape. Then, the arc points are removed
 From the point 1, a tape is fixed. For the calculation of 10 feet, a peg is fixed.
Then, for the next 10 feet, another peg is placed, so which wholly includes of
20 feet.
 Then, again from the first point, tape is fixed and it is calculated for 12 feet.
From the 12 feet point, the tape is fixed. For the distance of 20 feet, point is
marked and a peg is fixed.
 Then, the tape is yet again tilted and the point is fixed and the whole calculation
displays about 32 feet. Then, all the pegs are connected with the thread.
 Then, at the 12 feet point, the tape is fixed. For a distance of 10 feet, a peg is
fixed. As per the plan, the footing size pattern is made.
 Then, the pattern is fixed and the width point of the footing and the footing is
marked utilizing marking powder.
 The same practice is repeated for all the columns. All the 6 columns are marked.
Similarly, all the footing is marked as displayed in the plan. The pattern is
placed in the middle.
 Similarly, all the columns are marked. The pattern is located at the middle point
of the footing and then marked.

(Fig-4.3): Center Marking

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4.4. PLACING COVER BLOCK TO THE STEEL MAT

Concrete cover for footings:-

 As per the dimensions of Footing are 0.7m and 0.6m. To length and width
of Mesh (reinforcement) used in footings are obtained by deducting the cover.
 Apply the same principle as above, the below footing is fallen under (3)
condition.
 As per the condition, a concrete cover of 0.1m is deduced from all the sides.
Hence, the dimensions of reinforcement are 0.5m and 0.4m.

(Fig-4.4): Placing cover for mat

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4.5. PLACING STEEL MAT AT CENTER (75 mm least gap for

mat)
Placing steel mat at the centre position. We should provide at least 75mm gap from
the soil. And use minimum 12mm rod for making steel mat.

(Fig-4.5): 75mm center spacing between mat and soil

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4.6. COLUMN FRAME WORK IS PLACED ON CENTER

POSITION
Minimum 12mm steel bar should be used along with 8mm for stirrups. Used 40d for
development length.

(Fig-4.6): FRAME WORK PLACED AT THE CENTER POSITION

4.7. PLACING FORM WORK AROUND THE STEEL MAT
Used shuttering oil over the formwork for smooth removal. And check for clear cover

placed in between the mat and formwork.

(Fig-4.7): FORMWORK PLACED AROUND THE STEEL MAT

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4.8. POURING CONCRETE OVER FORM WORK

We should use 1:1.5:3 ratio concrete in making concrete strong, these ingredients
should usually should usually be mixed in a ratio of 1:1.5:3:0.5 to achieve maximum
strength. That is 1 part cement, 1.5 parts of fine aggregates, 3 parts of coarse aggregates
and 0.5 part of water.

4.9. REMOVING OF FORM WORK

 We should remove formwork after 12hrs of curing.

(Fig-4.9): Removing FORM WORK AND CURING

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DESIGN OF THE SINGLE FOOTING:

For square and design of beam following steps are followed:
Load acting on column = Concrete volume + Concrete weight + Steel Weight +
Total load (Pu)
1. Size of Footing:
Load on column (Pu) =1100 KN
Self -weight of footing =10% of column load
10
= 100 𝑋
100 = 110 𝐾𝑁
Total load on soil = Column load + Self weight
=1100+110 =1210 KN
TOTAL LOAD
Area of Footing = 1210
SOIL BEARING CAPACITY = = 3.08m2
392

 Provide 1.9m X 1.6m size of footing to resist loads on footing.

2. Upward soil pressure
Factored load = Pu = 1.5X1100 = 1650 KN
Pu
Soil pressure at ultimate load qu =
2
=1.9 K 1.6 = 542 𝐾𝑁/ m
Area of footing 1650

3. Depth of footing from BM

𝑩–𝒃
𝐌𝐮 = 𝒒𝒖. 𝑳( )⋀𝟐
𝟖

= 0.542-1900 (1600-230/8)2 = 30.2 X 106 N-mm

Mu = 0.138fckbd2
30.2 X 106 = 0.138 X 20 X 1900 X d2

d2 = √0.138𝑥20𝑥1900/30.2𝑥106
= 75.88 ᴝ 76Cm
⸫ Provide 76 Cm effective depth for shear consideration
4. Reinforcement:
Mu = 0.87fyastd (1-fyast/fckbd1)
30.2 X 106 = 0.87 X 500 X Ast X 760
63239.2 = Ast = (1-550Ast/20x1900X760)
Ast =83.17mm2

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Using 12mm diameter bar spacing of bars

S = ast x B/Ast = ℿ/4 X 122 X 230/83.17
=312.76
Hence provide 12mm bars at 312.76mm c/c in both directions.
5. Check for one way shear
Critical section for one way shear is at‘d’ from face of column.
Vu = quL ((B-b)/2-d)
=0.542 X 1900 (1900-230/2 - 760)
= 77235N
ℸv = Vu//Bd = 77235/1900 X 760
= 0.05
Pt = ℿ/4 X 122X1w/312 X 550
= 0.06%
For 0.06% of steel for M20 grade = ℸc ˃ ℸv
Hence it is safe with respect to one another.
6. Check for two way shear
Critical section is at a distance of d/2 from face of column.
P = 2(990+1220) = 4420
A = 4420 X d = 4420 X 760
Two way shear
Vu2 = qU X Area of shaded
= (1900X1600-990X1220) X-0.562
= 1029.6 X 103N
Two way shear = qU = Vu2/A =0.3N/mm2

Permissible punching stress (ℸp) = 0.25√fck = 1.12 ˃ 0.3

N/mm2 Hence it is safe.
7. Check for development length
ℸbd = 1.6 X1.2 = 1.9N/mm2
Ld = 0.87fyɸ / 4ℸbd = 0.87 X 550 X 12 /4 X 1.92
= 747.65mm

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Length available beyond column face = 1900 – 230 = 1670mm ˃ Ld

Hence Ok.

990
d = 760

1600
230
1220

460
380 380

230

1900
75
Two way shear one way shear
(Fig-5.1): Line diagram of One way and Two way shear

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CONCLUSION
The effect of the basement on the seismic response of high-rise buildings and the effect
of the lateral forces applied to the superstructure on the member forces in the basement
were investigated in this study and the following conclusions could be drawn.
1. Lateral stiffness of a high-rise building structure may be significantly overestimated
resulting in larger lateral displacements and shorter natural periods of vibration if the
basement of a high rise building is ignored in the analytical model. Especially in the
case of the building structures with shear walls, the effect of the basement on the
seismic response turned out to be more significant. Therefore, it is necessary to include
the effect of basement in the analysis of high rise building structures.
2. Lateral loads affect not only the response of the super structure but also that of the
basement structure.
3. The story shear forces in the basement may be significantly overestimated if the rigid
diaphragm assumption is applied to the basement. Therefore, an efficient analysis
method using partial rigid diaphragms is proposed in this study for the analysis of high-
rise buildings subjected to lateral forces such as the seismic loads including the effects
of basement
4. The soil is tested and it has been observed that, the site is with sandy soil. The bearing
capacity of the soil has been found to be good and
5. The SBC is enough to resist it, hence isolated footing foundations has been proposed
for the site. After analysing the structure calculated
6. Size for the column is 230 x 450mm, Size of footing is 2.4 x 2.4 x 0.55m, Maximum
load coming on footing is 2500kN and Maximum
7. Diameter of bar for footing 12mmϕ @125 mm center to center.

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REFERENCES
1. API, API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms, 15th ed., API RP2A, American Petroleum Institute, 115 pp, 1984.
2. Awoshika, K. and L. C. Reese, Analysis of Foundation with Widely-Spaced Batter
Piles, Research Report 117- 3F, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas
at Austin, February, 1971.
3. Berezantzev, V. G., V. S. Khristoforov, and V. N. Golubkov, Load bearing capacity
and deformation of piled foundations, Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Soil Mech., Paris, 2, 11–15,
1961.
4. Boulanger, R. W., D. W. Wilson, B. L. Kutter, and A. Abghari, Soil–pile-structure
interaction in liquefiable sand, Transp. Res. Rec., 1569, April, 1997.
5. Broms, B. B., Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils, Proc. ASCE, J. Soil Mech.
Found. Eng. Div., 90(SM2), 27–64, 1964.
6. Broms, B. B., Lateral resistance of piles in cohesion less soils, Proc. ASCE J. Soil
Mech. Found. Eng. Div., 90(SM3), 123–156, 1964.
7. Burland, J. B., Shaft friction of piles in clay — a simple fundamental approach,
Ground Eng., 6(3), 30–42, 1973.
8. Bustamente, M. and L. Gianeselli, Pile bearing capacity prediction by means of static
penetrometer CPT, Proc. of Second European Symposium on Penetration Testing
(ESOPT II), Vol. 2, A. A. Balkema, Amsterdam, 493–500, 1982.
9. Caltrans, Bridge Design Specifications, California Department of Transportation,
Sacramento, 1990.
10. CGS, Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual, 3rd ed., Canadian Geotechnical
Society, BiTech Publishers, Vancouver, 512 pp, 1992. View publication st.

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