Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction and

Development

Lesson 8.3

Human Reproduction and Development

Contents

Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 4

Human Life Cycle 4
Human Reproduction 6
Male Reproductive Structures 8
Female Reproductive Structures 8
Spermatogenesis 10
Oogenesis 12
Fertilization 13
Human Development 15
Pre-Implantation Embryonic Development 15
Extraembryonic Membrane and Placental Development 16
Embryonic and Fetal Development 18

Key Points 21

Check Your Understanding 22

Challenge Yourself 24

Bibliography 24
Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development

Lesson 8.3
Human Reproduction and
Development

Introduction
Just like plants and other animals, humans are capable of reproduction and development.
These two biological processes are essential to produce new individuals that will comprise
the succeeding generations of our species and maintain the continuity of the human race.
You may already be familiar with some of the events that occur during pregnancy in
females. Our reproduction mechanism and developmental pattern are similar to most
other higher animals. This lesson will focus on the important processes that happen during
human reproduction and development. What are the significant events that contribute to
successful reproduction in humans? How did you develop in your mother’s womb? Are
these processes significantly different in comparison with that of plants and other animals?

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the Compare and contrast reproduction
following: and developmental processes in
plants and animals (STEM_BIO11/12
● Describe the life cycle of humans.
-IVa-h-1).
● Discuss the mechanism of human
reproduction.
● Describe the stages of human
development.

Warm Up
Molding Human Development 30 minutes
Our development during the pregnancy of our mothers consists of embryonic and fetal
stages, which consist of events that contribute to our further normal growth and
development. In this activity, you will try to mold these different stages by using clay.

Materials
● a device with an Internet connection
● modeling clay

Procedure
1. Form a group of five members.
2. By using your internet-connected device, access the provided link below.

Pregnancy Visual Timeline

WebMD, “Pregnancy Visual Timeline,”
https://www.webmd.com/baby/interactive-pregnancy-tool-fet
al-development?week=1, last accessed on June 8, 2020.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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3. Based on the content of the link, make a timeline of the stages of human embryonic
and fetal development.
4. Your timeline should highlight the formation of organs. This can be expressed in a
weekly or monthly interval. A sample developmental interval is shown in Fig. 8.3.1.
5. After identifying the events that will be included in your timeline, make a
corresponding clay model for each developmental stage.
6. Present your output to the class.
7. Answer the guide questions afterward.

Fig. 8.3.1. Sample interval for the timeline of events during pregnancy

Guide Questions
1. What is the importance of biological development in humans?
2. What are the major processes that could possibly be happening during the active
development of the embryo?
3. What are the major changes that occur in the developing embryo?
4. How do you think is human development crucial to the continuity of the human race
on the planet?
5. What do you think are the consequences of abnormal developmental processes?
What do you think are its causes?

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
and Development

Learn about It!

Human Life Cycle

The human life cycle can be divided into different life stages, as shown in Fig. 8.3.2. It starts
with fertilization, which is followed by a series of growth and developmental processes that
allow the formation of a fully functional individual. During fertilization, the male parent’s
sperm cell unites with the female parent’s egg cell. These gametes serve as vehicles to
combine the paternal and maternal genetic material in the offspring. The resulting fertilized
egg, which is called the zygote, will continue to develop and become an embryo through a
series of active cell division and differentiation.

Fig. 8.3.2. The alternation between meiosis and fertilization is key to our survival.

What are the important developmental stages in

the human life cycle?

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Human development is summarized in Fig. 8.3.3. While inside the female’s womb, the
embryo will continue to develop until it becomes a fetus. The fetal stage refers to the
developmental phase between the embryonic state and birth. During this time, the fetus
receives oxygen and nourishment through the placenta. In the ninth month of pregnancy
or gestation, the baby is ready to be born. After birth, babies with an age of zero to
one-year-old are considered infants. During this time, babies continue their development to
attain full functionality of their organs such as eyes, brain, and other sensory structures.

Fig. 8.3.3. The summary of the human life cycle

After the infancy period, the individual reaches the childhood stage that covers ages from 1
to 12 years old. At this stage, children develop locomotor and cognitive skills like running,
jumping, reading, and writing. Moreover, muscles tend to become more pronounced, and
fats from the infancy stage are reduced. Following childhood is the adolescence stage, the
individual is prepared into adulthood through the process of puberty. Teenagers aged 13 to

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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19 years old undergoing puberty experience changes in their body parts and functions.
Various physical changes due to the development of male and female secondary traits (as
shown in Table 8.3.1) become more prominent.

Table 8.3.1. Secondary sex characteristics that appear during puberty

Males Females

1. Development of facial, body, and pubic 1. Development of pubic hair

hair 2. Breast development
2. Increase in muscle mass 3. Widening of the hips in preparation
3. Broadening of shoulders for a possible pregnancy
4. Further increase in height, usually taller 4. Further increase in height, but
than females usually less than in males
5. Increase in the size of Adam’s apple and 5. Distribution of fat to the hip region
the deepening of voice 6. Acne development under the
6. Acne development under the influence of influence of both genetic and
both genetic and environmental factors environmental factors

Changes that occurred during puberty prepare humans for the next stage of their lives
called adulthood. During this period, they become sexually mature physically and
behaviorally, and this ensures that they will be able to transmit their genes to the next
generation. Adults can be categorized as young adults (20–35 years old), middle-aged
adults (36–54 years old), and elderly (55–65 years old).

Human Reproduction
Reproduction in humans, unlike in lower animals and plants, is exclusively sexual. Thus, it
involves both the production of sex cells or gametes and their fusion during
fertilization. These two events are necessary to ensure that the zygote will be formed and
that it has the complete set of genetic instructions needed to eventually grow into an adult
individual.

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Front view

Side view
Fig. 8.3.4. The male reproductive system consists of the gonads, accessory glands, ducts,
and the penis.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Male Reproductive Structures
The male reproductive system in the pelvic region, as shown in Fig. 8.3.4, consists of
different structures that help produce and convey male gametes. The primary reproductive
glands are the testes, which are contained outside the abdomen in a pouch called the
scrotum. This sac helps maintain the temperature needed for sperm production, which is
usually lower than the normal body temperature. During ejaculation or the forceful
expulsion of the semen, sperm cells from the testes exit into the vas deferens, which
ascends into the abdomen and loop into the urinary bladder and down into the urethra.

Along their way, the sperm cells receive secretions from different glands. The seminal
vesicle contributes to 60% of the semen content. It secretes an alkaline solution that
contains fructose for nourishment and other substances that protect sperm cells from
traces of urine. The prostate gland contributes to 30% of semen volume, which helps
neutralize the pH of semen and vaginal fluids. The bulbourethral gland produces a
lubricating fluid that aids in sexual intercourse. Lastly, the penis, or the male intromittent
organ, consists of nerves that aids in erection and forceful expulsion of the semen.

Female Reproductive Structures

The female reproductive system is also located in the pelvic region, as shown in Fig. 8.3.5.
It provides the proper condition for the production of egg cells and for fertilization to occur.
Ovaries are the primary reproductive structures that produce eggs, the process of which
will be discussed in the next section. The fallopian tubes or oviducts catch the eggs during
ovulation through their finger-like appendages called fimbriae. They are also the site of
fertilization. They then terminate into the uterus or the womb. This chamber has a highly
vascularized (with many blood vessels) epithelial layer called the endometrium so that it
can house and nourish the developing embryo. Its muscular layer also helps expel the baby
into the elastic channel called the vagina or birth canal during labor. The vagina also
accommodates the penis during sexual intercourse to receive the sperm cells. Between the
uterus and the vagina is the cervix, a narrow region that helps prevent the entry of other
foreign materials.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Front view

Side view

Fig. 8.3.5. The female reproductive system consists of the gonads, accessory glands, ducts,
and external genitalia.

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The external genitalia of females consists of two flaps of tissues called the labia minora and
labia majora. The clitoris, which is homologous to the penis, functions for sexual
stimulation due to the rich supply of nerve endings. Bartholin’s gland secretes mucus,
which contributes to lubrication during sexual intercourse. It is homologous to the
bulbourethral gland of males.

As previously mentioned, the testes and ovaries are the gonads or gamete-producing
organs of humans. They also have mechanisms to nourish these sex cells. The process of
gamete formation is called gametogenesis, wherein the diploid chromosome set of
precursor cells is reduced into a haploid set.

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis refers to the process of sperm cell production and development in
males. This process occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, which contain cells
that develop into sperm cells. Nourishment is provided by the Sertoli cells. Sperm cells
mature by gaining motility and the capacity to fertilize an egg cell. The entire process of
spermatogenesis takes about 65–75 days in mature human males.

Spermatogenesis is shown in Fig. 8.3.6, which can be divided into four major stages.
Spermatogenesis in males begins during puberty and is continuous throughout their lives.
1. Proliferation. Located in the periphery of the seminiferous tubules are diploid cells
called the spermatogonia (singular, spermatogonium). To allow the production of
more sperm cells, each spermatogonium undergoes mitotic division to produce
more spermatogonia.
2. Growth. Each of the spermatogonia undergoes minimal growth and further mitotic
division to transform into primary spermatocytes.
3. Maturation. Maturation involves the meiotic division to reduce the chromosome
number of the gametes.
a. Meiosis I: The primary spermatocytes proceed to meiosis I, where cells are
already reduced from diploid to haploid. Each primary spermatocyte that
undergoes meiosis I forms two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

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b. Meiosis II: Afterward, the secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II to
produce spermatids or young, undifferentiated sperm cells. Each
secondary spermatocyte will produce two spermatids.

Fig. 8.3.6. Spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules of human testis

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4. Differentiation: Each of the spermatids produced from meiosis will mature into
spermatozoa (singular, spermatozoon). The spermatids are spherical cells with no
means of motility. During differentiation, they develop distinct head and tail regions.
The head contains the male DNA and acrosome, which contains digestive enzymes
needed for fertilization. The middle piece contains mitochondria for energy, and the
tail is a modified flagellum for locomotion. Also, note that every spermatogonium
gives rise to four functional spermatozoa.

Oogenesis
Oogenesis refers to the process of egg cell production and nourishment. The ovaries
contain two layers, namely the cortex and the medulla. The cortex is the outer layer and
serves as the primary site for oogenesis. Inside the ovaries, follicles develop and protect
and nourish the developing egg cell.

Oogenesis, which is shown in Fig. 8.3.7, starts when a female is still her mother’s womb
during pregnancy. This is in contrast to spermatogenesis, which begins during a male’s
puberty. However, similar to spermatogenesis, oogenesis also has four major stages.
1. Proliferation. The diploid precursor cells called oogonia (singular, oogonium)
undergo mitosis to increase their number. This only occurs during the pregnancy
stage of the mother. Thus, the number of egg cells produced is fixed throughout the
life of a female.
2. Growth. Each of the oogonia undergoes further growth to increase their cytoplasmic
content. This is more pronounced compared with males because of the need to
nourish the embryo. Growth converts oogonia into primary oocytes.
3. Maturation. Primary oocytes undergo meiotic division to reduce the chromosome
number to haploid in eggs.
a. Meiosis I. The primary oocyte proceeds to meiosis I but stops along the way
during birth. Thus, the primary oocytes of a female are arrested at prophase I
during her birth. This will only continue during puberty, wherein some
primary oocytes continue meiosis I every menstrual cycle. This process
produces a secondary oocyte and a polar body. Polar bodies often die.
b. Meiosis II. Also, every menstrual cycle, the secondary oocyte continues into

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meiosis II. However, it becomes arrested at metaphase II by the time it is
released into the fallopian tube during ovulation. It will only finish its meiosis
II once a sperm cell fertilizes it. Once meiosis II is completed, an ootid and
another polar body are produced.
4. Differentiation. Unlike in spermatogenesis, differentiation in oogenesis is not very
pronounced. No significant change takes place in the ootid. However, at this point,
the oogenic cell is already called an ovum or the mature egg cell. Also, note that
every oogonium gives rise to only one functional ovum.

Fig. 8.3.7. Oogenesis in the ovaries and fallopian tubes of females

Fertilization
During copulation or sexual intercourse, the male releases mature spermatozoa into the
reproductive tract of the female. Sperm cells travel from the vagina to the fallopian tube to
meet with the egg cell for fertilization. Fertilization, as shown in Fig. 8.3.8, refers to the
fusion of the sperm and egg cells to allow the formation of a diploid zygote. In order for
fertilization to occur, sperm cells utilize their motility to reach the egg cell. Once they reach
the fallopian tube, they will attempt to penetrate the egg cell.

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Fig. 8.3.8. Fertilization process in humans and the prevention of polyspermy

Note that the egg cell referred to in fertilization is a secondary oocyte. The first layer that
needs to be reached by the sperm consists of granulosa cells, which protect and nourish
the egg during development. Afterward, the sperm will release acrosomal enzymes for
enzymatic degradation of the underlying layer, the zona pellucida, or the jelly coat layer.
Once a sperm cell has passed through the zona pellucida, the plasma membranes of the
sperm and egg fuse and the nucleus containing the paternal genetic material will also start
to combine with that of the egg.

Just like in animals, fertilization in humans exhibits mechanisms that prevent polyspermy
or fertilization by multiple spermatozoa. The fast-block mechanism against polyspermy is
accomplished by changing the electrical charge within the membrane of the egg cell. On the
other hand, the slow-block mechanism against polyspermy requires the cortical granule
reaction to facilitate the formation of the fertilization membrane or the thickened
vitelline membrane. These mechanisms are important to ensure that only one sperm will
be able to successfully fertilize the egg cell.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Human Development
Pre-Implantation Embryonic Development
After fertilization, the zygote will travel down into the uterus, where it will be implanted and
develop into a complete and functional human. This stage refers to the pre-implantation
period or germinal stage of embryonic development. During the journey of the fertilized
egg to the uterus, the developing zygote will undergo a series of mitotic cell divisions. Its
number of cells increases, but the total volume remains the same. This is primarily due to
the cells that initially bypass the growth stages of the cell cycle.

Fig. 8.3.9. Pre-implantation development of the zygote in humans

Transition periods will occur as the zygote divides. Distinct two-cell, four-cell, and
eight-cell stages can be observed, as shown in Fig. 8.3.9. At three days after fertilization, a
16-cell phase will arrive in the uterus. This stage is referred to as the morula stage. Within
the uterus, the zygote continues to divide until it creates a ball of cells called the blastocyst.
The inner cell mass of the blastocyst becomes the embryo, while the outer shell, called
trophoblast, develops into the chorionic sac and the fetal portion of the placenta. The
inner mass of an embryo has the capacity to differentiate into any cell type.

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On the eighth to ninth days of the pre-implantation phase, trophoblast cells will start to
undergo a series of cellular differentiation to form connections between the developing
embryo and the uterine wall. This process is called embryonic implantation, as shown in
Fig. 8.3.10. This step is crucial in attaching the embryo to the womb of the mother that will
be needed to supply the blood and nutrients to the developing individual until birth.

Fig. 8.3.10. Pre-implantation travel of the zygote from the fallopian tube to the uterus

Extraembryonic Membrane and Placental Development

During the second week of human development in the uterus, the implanted embryonic
cells start to organize into layers and form the extraembryonic membranes. These
comprise the amnion, yolk sac, allantois, and chorion (as shown in Fig. 8.3.11). These
membranes are structures that support and protect the growing embryo.
1. The amnion contains a fluid that surrounds the embryo. This is a common feature in
the development of amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals).

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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2. The yolk sac serves as the initial source of nourishment of the embryo during the
early stages of pregnancy.
3. The allantois initially functions to collect liquid waste. Also, it facilitates gas
exchange. Eventually, both the yolk sac and allantois will give rise to the umbilical
cord.
4. The chorion forms villi that allow the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste
material with the pregnant mother.

Fig. 8.3.11. Extraembryonic membranes in human embryos

In the third week of development, the embryo becomes a three-layered disc of cells through
the process of gastrulation. At this point, the embryo becomes an oval-shaped disc. The
three germ layers are formed after gastrulation, with each layer developing into specific
tissues and organs in the embryo. This developmental pattern is similar to some animals, as
discussed in the previous lesson. During the prenatal period, at around four to twelve
weeks, the placenta gradually develops and allows feeding of the developing embryo (as
shown in Fig. 8.3.12). The placenta is derived from the tissues of the embryo, as well as
maternal tissues of the uterine lining. It is connected to the developing embryo through the
umbilical cord, which has various networks of blood vessels that facilitate the transport of
materials between the baby and the mother.

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Fig. 8.3.12. The human placenta and the umbilical cord

Embryonic and Fetal Development

The full summary of embryonic and fetal development in humans are summarized in Fig.
8.3.13. Note that at the start of the embryonic stage, the developing embryo becomes
susceptible to the effects of teratogens. These are chemicals that induce developmental
defects. The process of organ formation or organogenesis starts in the third week after
fertilization. At this time, the heart is also developed. In the fourth week, the eyes, arms,
and legs are becoming more prominent. The embryo also starts to increase in size due to
active tissue and organ development. During the eighth and ninth weeks, the external
genitalia or reproductive organs are starting to form. Thus, at this point, the phenotypic sex
of the developing embryo can be predicted through ultrasonic imaging or ultrasound. This
part covers the embryonic period of human development. At the onset of the ninth
week, the individual enters the fetal period, where further active organ formation will
happen. This spans from ninth to thirty-eight weeks of pregnancy. The formation of
different organs happens simultaneously, and the fetus starts to become more similar to a
fully-formed actual baby.

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Fig. 8.3.13. Development of different organs during embryonic and fetal periods.
Sclerotomes, somites, and the neural plate serve as precursor structures for bones,
muscles, and the nervous system, respectively.

Which time period do you think is the most crucial

for human development?

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Did You Know?

The human brain is the first organ to develop during embryonic
development. This happens during the neurulation process,
where the neural plate folds to form the neural tube. At the same
time, the human brain is the last organ to become fully developed,
which happens one year after birth. This is the reason why the first
year of life is crucial for brain development.

Human brain development

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Key Points
___________________________________________________________________________________________
● The human life cycle begins with fertilization and is accompanied by a series of
growth and developmental events that allow the full formation of the offspring.
● Human reproduction involves both the production of the sex cells through
gametogenesis and their fusion through the fertilization process.
● After fertilization, the fertilized egg will travel into the uterus, where it will be
implanted. This stage refers to the pre-implantation embryonic development.
● During the second week of human development in the uterus, the implanted
embryonic cells start to organize into layers and form the extraembryonic
membranes, namely the amnion, the yolk sac, the allantois, and the chorion.
● Human development can be divided into embryonic and fetal periods.

Pre-embryonic, embryonic, and fetal periods of development in humans

___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Check Your Understanding

A. Determine the accuracy of each of the following statements.

Write true if the statement is correct and false if otherwise.

1. The human life cycle starts with fertilization and is accompanied by a series of
growth stages.
2. During fertilization, the male’s sperm cell unites with the female’s egg cell, which
combines the genetic material from both parents.
3. The process of organ formation or neurulation starts during the third week of
development after fertilization.
4. At the onset of the embryonic period, the embryo also starts to increase in size due
to active tissue and organ development.
5. The first meiotic division during oogenesis produces two secondary oocytes for
every primary oocyte.
6. The growth phase in spermatogenesis is more pronounced than that in oogenesis.
7. Both the yolk sac and allantois give rise to the umbilical cord of the developing
embryo.
8. The fertilized egg will first undergo a series of cellular divisions before it gets
implanted in the uterus of the mother.
9. The differentiation phase is less pronounced in oogenesis than in spermatogenesis.
10. The developing fetus obtains its nourishment directly from the yolk sac during the
entire pregnancy of the mother.

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B. Complete the Venn diagrams by comparing and contrasting the given

terms below.

Types of gametogenesis

Periods of development in humans

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Unit 8: Plant and Animal Organ Systems and Processes: Reproduction
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Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the importance of gametogenesis in human reproduction?

2. Why do you think should fertilization happen during reproduction?
3. Do you think the timeline of human development is similar for all individuals?
Explain your answer.
4. Why do you think does the development of the brain consume more time than that
of the other organs?
5. What do you think are the factors that can affect normal development of humans?

Bibliography
Coyne, Jerry. 2009. Why Evolution Is True. Oxford University Press. Genetic Science Learning
Center. July 1, 2013.

Johnson, G.B., and Raven, P.H. 2001. Biology: Principles & Explorations. Austin: Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.

Klug, W.S., Spencer, C.A., and Cummings, M.R. 2016. Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson.

Mader, S.S. 2014. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., and Campbell, N.A. 2011. Campbell Biology. Boston: Benjamin
Cummings/Pearson.

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