Activity 4

Layers of Skin

Background
One inch of your skin has approximately 19 million skin cells and 60,000 melanocytes (cells that
make melanin or skin pigment). It also contains 1,000 nerve endings and 20 blood vessels. Skin is
essential because it keeps the body's water and other precious molecules. It also keeps excess water (and
other things) out. (This is why you can swim for hours without becoming waterlogged.) Structurally, the skin
is a marvel. It is pliable yet tough, which allows it to take constant punishment from external agents.
Without our skin, we would quickly fall prey to bacteria and perish from water and heat loss.
Let’s enjoy it as we focus more on its different layers and functions.
 Laboratory Activity 5
Skeletal System and Joints
Background

The skeletal system is your body’s central framework. It consists of bones and connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It’s also called the musculoskeletal system.
 Module 6-Lesson 1
Body Membranes

Abstraction

The two major categories of body membranes— epithelial and connective tissue—are
classified in part according to their tissue makeup.
The epithelial membranes also called covering and lining membranes, include the
cutaneous membrane (skin), the mucous membranes, and the serous membranes. However, calling
these membranes “epithelial” is misleading because it is not the whole story. Although they all do
contain an epithelial layer, it is always combined with an underlying layer of connective tissue.
Hence these membranes are simple organs. Because we will discuss the skin in detail shortly, we
will list it here solely as a subcategory of the epithelial membranes.

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
A. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE
➢ The cutaneous membrane is composed of two layers, the superficial epidermis, and the
underlying dermis.
➢ The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium, whereas the dermis is mostly
dense (fibrous) connective tissue.
➢ Unlike other epithelial membranes, the cutaneous membrane is exposed to air and is a dry
membrane.
 Figure 1

B. MUCOUS MEMBRANE

A mucous membrane is composed of epithelium (the type varies with the site) resting
on a loose connective tissue membrane called a lamina propria.

This membrane type lines all body cavities that open to the exterior, such as those of
the hollow organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts.

The term mucosa refers only to the location of the epithelial membranes, not their
cellular makeup, which varies.

Most mucosae contain either stratified squamous epithelium (as in the mouth and
esophagus) or simple columnar epithelium (as in the rest of the digestive tract).

In all cases, they are moist membranes that are almost continuously bathed in secretions
or, in the case of the urinary mucosae, urine.
 Figure 2

C. SEROUS MEMBRANE

✓ A serous membrane, or serosa, is composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium

resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue.
✓ In contrast to mucous membranes, which line open body cavities, serous membranes line
body cavities that are closed to the exterior (except for the dorsal body cavity and joint
cavities). Serous membranes occur in pairs.
✓ It folds in on itself to form the visceral layer, which covers the outside of the organ(s) in
that cavity.
 Figure 3

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

• Synovial membranes are composed of loose areolar connective tissue and contain no
epithelial cells at all.

• These membranes line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints, where they provide a
smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid.

• They also line small sacs of connective tissue called bursae and the tube-like tendon
sheaths.

• Both of these structures cushion organs moving against each other during muscle
activity—such as the movement of a tendon across a bone’s surface.
 Figure 4

Module 6 - Lesson 2
Integumentary System

Abstraction

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Would you be enticed by an advertisement for a coat that is waterproof, stretchable, and
washable; that invisibly repairs small cuts, rips, and burns; and that is guaranteed to last a lifetime
with reasonable care? Sounds too good to be true, but you already have such a coat—your
cutaneous membrane, or skin.

Skin is absolutely essential because it keeps water and other precious molecules in the
body. It also keeps excess water (and other things) out. (This is why you can swim for hours
without becoming waterlogged.) Structurally, the skin is a marvel. It is pliable yet tough, which
allows it to take constant punishment from external agents. Without our skin, we would quickly
fall prey to bacteria and perish from water and heat loss.
The skin and its appendages (sweat and oil glands, hair, and nails) are collectively called the
integumentary system. Let’s take a look at the structure and function of this often-
underappreciated body system.

Functions of the Integumentary System

The integumentary system, also called the integument, which simply means “covering,”
performs a variety of functions; most, but not all, of which are protective. It insulates and
cushions the deeper body organs and protects the entire body from mechanical damage (bumps
and cuts), chemical damage (such as from acids and bases), thermal damage (heat and cold),
ultraviolet (UV) radiation (in sunlight), and microbes. The uppermost layer of the skin is hardened,
to help prevent water loss from the body surface.
The skin’s rich capillary network and sweat glands (both controlled by the nervous
system) play an important role in regulating heat loss from the body surface. The skin acts as a
mini-excretory system; urea, salts, and water are lost when we sweat. The skin is also a chemical
plant; it manufactures several proteins important to immunity and synthesizes vitamin D.
(Modified cholesterol molecules in the skin are converted to vitamin D by sunlight.) The skin also
produces acidic secretions, called the acid mantle, that protect against bacterial invasion.
 STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

The skin is composed of two kinds of tissue. The outer epidermis is made up of stratified
squamous epithelium that is capable of becoming hard and tough. The underlying dermis is
made up mostly of dense connective tissue.
The epidermis and dermis are firmly connected and the dermis is fairly tear-resistant. However,
a burn or friction (such as the rubbing of a poorly fitting shoe) may cause them to separate,
allowing interstitial fluid to accumulate in the cavity between the layers, which results in a
blister.

Deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis, which essentially is

adipose (fat) tissue. It is not considered part of the skin, but it does anchor the skin to
underlying organs and provides a site for nutrient storage. Subcutaneous tissue serves as a
shock absorber and insulates the deeper tissues from extreme temperature changes occurring
outside the body. It is also responsible for the curves that are more a part of a woman’s
anatomy than a man’s.

Figure. 1 Structure of the Skin

EPIDERMIS
Most cells of the epidermis are keratinocytes (keratin cells), which produce keratin, the
fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a tough protective layer in a process called
keratinization. These keratinocytes are connected by desmosomes throughout the epidermis.
Like all other epithelial tissues, the epidermis is avascular; that is, it has no blood supply
of its own. This explains why a man can shave daily and not bleed even though he cuts off many
cell layers each time he shaves.
 The epidermis is composed of up to five layers, or strata. From the inside out these are
the stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum, illustrated in Figure 2
(except the stratum lucidum, which is found only in thick skin).

Figure 2. The Main Structural Feature of the Epidermis

The deepest cell layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, lies closest to the dermis and
is connected to it along a wavy border that resembles corrugated cardboard. This basal layer
contains the most adequately nourished of the epidermal cells because nutrients diffusing from
the dermis reach them first. Stem cells in this layer are constantly dividing, and millions of new
cells are produced daily; hence its alternate name, stratum germinativum (germinating layer).
Of the new cells produced, some become epidermal cells, and others maintain the population of
stem cells by continuing to divide. The daughter cells destined to become epidermal cells are
pushed upward, away from the source of nutrition, to become part of the epidermal layers closer
to the skin surface. As they move away from the dermis and become part of the more superficial
layers, the stratum spinosum and then the stratum granulosum, they become flatter and
increasingly keratinized.
As these cells leave the stratum granulosum, they die, forming the clear stratum lucidum.
This latter epidermal layer is not present in all skin regions. It occurs only where the skin is hairless
and extra thick, that is, on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The combination of
accumulating keratin inside them, secreting a water-repellent glycolipid into the extracellular
space, and their increasing distance from the blood supply (in the dermis) effectively dooms the
stratum lucidum cells and the more superficial epidermal cells because they are unable to get
adequate nutrients and oxygen.
The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is 20 to 30 cell layers thick, but it accounts
for about three-quarters of the epidermal thickness. The shingle-like dead cell remnants, filled
with keratin, are referred to as cornified, or horny, cells. The common saying “Beauty is only skin
deep” is especially interesting because nearly everything we see when we look at someone is
dead! The abundance of the tough keratin protein in the stratum corneum allows that layer to
provide a durable “overcoat” for the body, which protects deeper cells from the hostile external
environment and water loss and helps the body resist biological, chemical, and physical assaults.
The stratum corneum rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily as dandruff is familiar to everyone.
The average person sheds about 18 kg (40 lb) of these flakes in a lifetime, providing a food source
for the dust mites that inhabit our homes and bed linens. This layer is replaced by cells produced
by the division of the deeper stratum basale cells. Indeed, we have a totally “new” epidermis
every 25 to 45 days.
Melanin, a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black, is produced by
special spider-shaped cells called melanocytes, found chiefly in the stratum basale. Freckles
and moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot.

DERMIS
The dermis is your “hide.” It is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind the body
together. When you purchase leather goods (bags, belts, shoes, and the like), you are buying the
treated dermis of animals. The connective tissue making up the dermis consists of two major
regions—the papillary and the reticular areas (Figure 4.5), which are composed of areolar and
dense irregular connective tissue, respectively. Like the epidermis, the dermis varies in thickness.
For example, it is particularly thick on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet but is quite
thin on the eyelids.
 The papillary layer is the superficial dermal region. It is uneven and has peg-like
projections from its superior surface, called dermal papillae, which indent the epidermis above.
Many of the dermal papillae contain capillary loops, which furnish nutrients to the epidermis.
Others house pain receptors (free nerve endings) and touch receptors. On the palms of the hands
and soles of the feet, the papillae are arranged in definite patterns that form looped and whorled
ridges on the epidermal surface that increase friction and enhance the gripping ability of the
fingers and feet. Papillary patterns are genetically determined. The ridges of the fingertips are
well provided with sweat pores and leave unique, identifying films of sweat called fingerprints on
almost anything they touch.
The reticular layer is the deepest skin layer. It contains dense irregular connective tissue,
as well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called lamellar
corpuscles. Other cutaneous sensory receptors, which are part of the nervous system, are also
located in the skin. These tiny sensors, which include touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
receptors, provide us with a great deal of information about our external environment. They alert
us to sources of heat or cold, or the tickle of a bug exploring our skin. In addition to detecting
stimuli from our environment, phagocytes found here (and, in fact, throughout the dermis) act
to prevent microbes that have managed to get through the epidermis from penetrating any
deeper into the body.

Figure 3. The Dermis Layer

Both collagen and elastic fibers are found throughout the dermis. Collagen fibers are
responsible for the toughness of the dermis; they also attract and bind water and thus help to
keep the skin hydrated. Elastic fibers give the skin its elasticity when we are young. As we age,
the number of collagen and elastic fibers decreases, and the subcutaneous tissue loses fat. As a
result, the skin loses its elasticity and begins to sag and wrinkle.
The dermis is abundantly supplied with blood vessels that play a role in maintaining body
temperature homeostasis. When body temperature is high, the capillaries of the dermis become
engorged, or swollen, with heated blood, and the skin becomes reddened and warm. This allows
body heat to radiate from the skin's surface. If the environment is cool and body heat must be
conserved, blood bypasses the dermis capillaries temporarily, allowing internal body
temperature to remain high.

Homeostatic Imbalance
Any restriction of the normal blood supply to the skin results in cell death and, if
severe or prolonged enough, skin ulcers. Decubitus ulcers (bedsores) occur in bedridden patients
who are not turned regularly or who are dragged or pulled across the bed repeatedly. The weight
of the body puts pressure on the skin, especially over bony projections. Because this pressure
restricts the blood supply, the skin becomes pale or blanched at pressure points. At first, the skin
reddens when pressure is released, but if the situation is not corrected, the cells begin to die, and
small cracks or breaks in the skin appear at compressed sites. Permanent damage to the
superficial blood vessels and tissue eventually results in degeneration and ulceration of the skin.

Figure 4. Degeneration and Ulceration of the Skin

Module 7 - Lesson 1
Bones and Skeletal System

Abstraction

Although the word skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning “dried-up body,” our internal
framework is beautifully formed and proportioned. Strong yet light, it is perfectly adapted for its
functions of protecting the body and allowing motion. No other animal has such long legs (compared to
the arms or forelimbs) or such a strange foot, and few have grasping hands with opposable thumbs.
The bones of the skeleton are part of the skeletal system, which also includes joints, cartilages, and
ligaments (fibrous cords that bind the bones together at joints). The skeleton is divided into two parts:
the axial skeleton, the bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body, and the appendicular skeleton,
the bones of the limbs and girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton. Joints give these parts of the
skeleton flexibility and allow movement to occur.

FUNCTIONS OF BONES
Support. Bones, the “steel girders” and “reinforced concrete” of the body, form the
internal framework that supports the body and cradles its soft organs. The
bones of the legs act as pillars to support the body trunk when we stand, and
Allow movement.
the rib cageSkeletal muscles,
supports attached
the thoracic to bones by tendons, use the bones as
wall.
levers to move the body and its parts. As a result, we can breathe, walk,
swim, and throw a ball. Before continuing, take a moment to imagine that
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skeletal system provides support and protection while allowing movement

Storage. Fat is stored in the internal (marrow) cavities of bones. Bone itself serves as a
storehouse for minerals, the most important of which are calcium and
phosphorus. Most of the body’s calcium is deposited in the bones as calcium
salts, but a small amount of calcium in its ion form (Ca2+) must be present in
the blood at all times for the nervous system to transmit messages, for
muscles to contract, and for blood to clot. Problems occur not only when
there is too little calcium in the blood, but also when there is too much.
Hormones control the movement of calcium to and from the bones and
blood according to the needs of the body. Indeed, “deposits” and
“withdrawals” of calcium (and other minerals) to and from bones go on
almost all the time.

Blood cell formation. Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis , occurs within the marrow
cavities of certain bones.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones. There are two basic types of osseous, or bone, tissue:
Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and homogeneous, whereas spongy bone has a spiky, open
appearance like a sponge. Additionally, bones come in many sizes and shapes. For example, the tiny
pisiform bone of the wrist is the size and shape of a pea, whereas the femur, or thigh bone, is nearly 2
feet long and has a large, ball-shaped head. The unique shape of each bone fulfills a particular need.
Bones are classified according to shape into four groups: long, short, flat, and irregular.

As their name suggests, long bones are typically longer than they are wide. As a rule, they have a shaft
with enlarged ends. Long bones are mostly compact bones but also contain spongy bones at the ends.
All the bones of the limbs, except the patella (kneecap) and the wrist and ankle bones, are long.

Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. They have two thin layers of compact bone
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them (see Figure 5.1). Most bones of the skull, the ribs,
and the sternum (breastbone) are flat bones.

Short bones are generally cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact
bone. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short. Sesamoid bones, which form within tendons, are a
special type of short bone. The best-known example is the patella. Bones that do not fit one of the
preceding categories are called irregular bones. The vertebrae, which make up the spinal column, fall
into this group. Like short bones, they are mainly spongy bones with an outer layer of compact bone.

Figure 1
GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
In a long bone, the diaphysis, or shaft, makes up most of the bone’s length and is composed of compact
bone. The diaphysis is covered and protected by a fibrous connective tissue membrane, the periosteum.
Hundreds of connective tissue fibers, called perforating fibers, or Sharpey’s fibers, secure the
periosteum to the underlying bone.

The epiphyses are the ends of long bones. Each epiphysis consists of a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing an area filled with spongy bone. Instead of a periosteum, articular cartilage covers its external
surface. Because the articular cartilage is glassy hyaline cartilage, it provides a smooth surface that
decreases friction at the joint when covered by lubricating fluid. Imagine how slick a marble floor (the
articular cartilage) is when wet; this is analogous to the lubrication of a joint.

In adult bones, there is a thin line of bony tissue spanning the epiphysis that looks a bit different from
the rest of the bone in that area. This is the epiphyseal line. The epiphyseal line is a remnant of the
epiphyseal plate (a flat plate of hyaline cartilage) seen in a young, growing bone. Epiphyseal plates
cause the lengthwise growth of a long bone. By the end of puberty, when hormones inhibit long bone
growth, epiphyseal plates have been completely replaced by bone, leaving only the epiphyseal lines to
mark their previous location.

The inner bony surface of the shaft is covered by a delicate connective tissue called endosteum. In
infants, the cavity of the shaft, called the medullary cavity, is a storage area for red marrow, which
produces blood cells. Children’s bones contain red marrow until the age of 6 or 7 when it is gradually
replaced by yellow marrow, which stores adipose (fat) tissue. In adult bones, red marrow is confined to
cavities in the spongy bone of the axial skeleton, the hip bones, and the epiphyses of long bones such as
the humerus and femur
Figure 2

For their relatively low mass, bones are amazingly strong. Consider, for example, the forces endured in
football and professional hockey. Despite their remarkable strength, bones are susceptible to fractures,
or breaks, throughout life. During youth, most fractures result from exceptional trauma that twists or
smashes the bones. Sports activities such as football, skating, and skiing jeopardize the bones, and
automobile accidents certainly take their toll. In old age, bones thin and weaken, and fractures occur
more often.

A fracture in which the bone breaks cleanly but does not penetrate the skin is a closed (or simple)
fracture. When the broken bone ends penetrate through the skin, the fracture is open (or compound).
Table 1

Module 7 - Lesson 2
Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Abstraction

I. AXIAL SKELETON
The skeleton is divided into two parts, the axial and appendicular skeletons. The axial skeleton
forms the longitudinal axis of the body. The axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the
body. It can be divided into three parts— the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic
cage.

A. SKULL
The skull is formed by two sets of bones. The cranium encloses and protects the fragile brain
tissue. The facial bones form a cradle for the eyes that is open to the anterior and allow the
facial muscles to show our feelings through smiles or frowns. All but one of the bones of the
skull are joined together by interlocking suture's immovable joints. Only the mandible
(jawbone) is attached to the rest of the skull by a freely movable joint.

Figure 1. The human skeleton. The bones of the axial skeleton are colored green. The bones of the
appendicular skeleton are gold.

1. CRANIUM
The boxlike cranium is composed of eight large flat bones. Except for two sets of paired bones
(the parietal and temporal), they are all single bones.
a. Frontal Bone. The frontal bone forms the forehead, the bony projections under the
eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye’s orbit

b. Parietal Bones. The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and lateral walls of
the cranium (see Figure 5.9). The sagittal suture is formed at the midline where the two
parietal bones meet, and the coronal suture is formed where the paired parietal bones
meet the frontal bone.

c. Temporal Bones. The temporal bones lie inferior to the parietal bones and join them at
the squamous sutures. Several important bone markings appear on the temporal bones.

d. Occipital Bone. The occipital bone is the most posterior bone of the cranium. It forms
the base and back wall of the skull. The occipital bone joins the parietal bones anteriorly
at the lambdoid suture. In the base of the occipital bone is a large opening, the foramen
magnum (literally, “large hole”). The foramen magnum surrounds the lower part of the
brain and allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain. Lateral to the foramen
magnum on each side is the rocker-like occipital condyles, which rest on the first
vertebra of the spinal column.

e. Sphenoid Bone. The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and
forms part of the floor of the cranial cavity.

f. Ethmoid Bone. The ethmoid bone is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the
sphenoid. It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the medial walls of the orbits.
 Figure 2. Human Skull (Lateral View)

2. FACIAL BONES

Figure 3. Anterior View

 Figure 4. Medial View

B. VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE)

Serving as the axial support of the body, the vertebral column, or spine, extends from the skull,
which it supports, to the pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to the lower limbs.
Some people think of the vertebral column as a rigid supporting rod, but that picture is
inaccurate. Instead, the spine is formed from 26 irregular bones connected and reinforced by
ligaments in such a way that a flexible, curved structure results. Running through the central
cavity of the vertebral column is the delicate spinal cord, which the vertebral column surrounds
and protects.
Before birth, the spine consists of 33 separate bones called vertebrae, but 9 of these eventually
fuse to form the two composite bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx, that construct the inferior
portion of the vertebral column. Of the 24 single bones, the 7 vertebrae of the neck are cervical
vertebrae, the next 12 are the thoracic vertebrae, and the remaining 5 supporting the lower
back are lumbar vertebrae.
 Figure 5. Vertebral Column

C. THORACIC CAGE
The sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae make up the bony thorax. The bony thorax is routinely called
the thoracic cage because it forms a protective cage of slender bones and cartilage around the organs of
the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, and major blood vessels).
 Figure 6. The bony thorax (thoracic cage)

1. STERNUM
The sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of three bones—the
manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. It is attached directly to the first seven pairs of ribs via
costal cartilages.

2. RIBS
Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax. All the ribs articulate with the vertebral
column posteriorly and then curve downward and toward the anterior body surface. The true
ribs, the first seven pairs, attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilages. False ribs, the next
five pairs, either attach indirectly to the sternum or are not attached to the sternum at all. The
last two pairs of false ribs lack sternal attachments, so they are also called floating ribs.

II. APPENDICULAR SKELETON

A. BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

Each pectoral girdle, or shoulder girdle, consists of two bones—a clavicle and a scapula.

The paired clavicles, or collarbones, are slender, doubly curved bones. Each clavicle attaches to
the manubrium of the sternum medially (at its sternal end) and the scapula laterally, where it
helps to form the shoulder joint. The clavicle acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the top
of the thorax and helps prevent shoulder dislocation. When the clavicle is broken, the whole
shoulder region caves in medially, which shows how important its bracing function is.

The paired scapulae, or shoulder blades, are commonly called “wings” because they flare when
we move our arms posteriorly. The scapulae are not directly attached to the axial skeleton; they
are loosely held in place by trunk muscles. Each triangular scapula has a flattened body with three
borders—superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary).

B. BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

Thirty separate bones form the skeletal framework of each upper limb, including the arm,
forearm, and hand.

1. ARM

The arm is formed by a single bone, the humerus, which is a typical long bone. At its proximal
end is a rounded head that fits into the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula. Immediately inferior
to the head is a slight constriction called the anatomical neck. Anterolateral to the head are two
bony projections separated by the intertubercular sulcus—the greater tubercle and the lesser
tubercle, which are sites of muscle attachment.

2. FOREARM

Two bones, the radius, and the ulna form the skeleton of the forearm. When the body is in the anatomical
position, the radius is the lateral bone; that is, it is on the thumb side of the forearm. When the hand is
rotated so that the palm faces backward, the distal end of the radius crosses over and ends up medial to
the ulna. Both proximally and distally the radius and ulna articulate at small radioulnar joints and the two
bones are connected along their entire length by the flexible interosseous membrane. Both the ulna and
the radius have a styloid process at their distal end.
 Figure
7.
Bones
of the
right
arm
and

forearm.

3. HAND

The skeleton of the hand consists of the carpals, the metacarpals, and the phalanges. The eight carpal
bones, arranged in two irregular rows of four bones each, form the part of the hand called the carpus or
the wrist. The carpals are bound together by ligaments that restrict movements between them.

The palm consists of metacarpals. The metacarpals are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side of the hand
toward the little finger. When the fist is clenched, the heads of the metacarpals become obvious as the
“knuckles.” The phalanges are the bones of the fingers. Each hand contains 14 phalanges. There are three
in each finger (proximal, middle, and distal), except for the thumb, which has only two (proximal and
distal).
Figure 8. Bones of the right hand, anterior view
 Figure
9.
Bones
of the

Shoulder Girdle
C. BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

The pelvic girdle is formed by two coxal bones, commonly called hip bones, and the sacrum.
Together with the coccyx, the pelvic girdle forms the pelvis. Note that the terms pelvic girdle (the
coxal bones and the sacrum) and pelvis (the coxal bones, sacrum, and coccyx) have slightly
different meanings.

The bones of the pelvic girdle are large and heavy, and they are attached securely to the axial
skeleton via the sacral attachment to the L5 lumbar vertebra. The sockets, which receive the
thigh bones, are deep and heavily reinforced by ligaments that attach the limbs firmly to the
girdle. Bearing weight is the most important function of this girdle because the total weight of
the upper body rests on the pelvis. The reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and part of the
large intestine lie within and are protected by the pelvis

Figure 10. Articulated pelvis

D. BONES OF THE LOWER LEG

The lower limbs carry our total body weight when we are erect. Hence, it is not surprising that
the bones forming the three segments of the lower limbs (thigh, leg, and foot) are much thicker
and stronger than the comparable bones of the upper limb.
1. Thigh
The femur, or thigh bone, is the only bone in the thigh. It is the heaviest, strongest, and longest
bone in the body. Its proximal end has a ball-like head, a neck, and a greater trochanter and lesser
trochanter (separated anteriorly by the intertrochanteric line and posteriorly by the intertrochanteric
crest). These markings and the gluteal tuberosity, located on the proximal end of the shaft, all serve as
sites for muscle attachment. The head of the femur articulates with the deep, secure socket of the
acetabulum of the hip bone. However, the surgical neck of the femur is still a common fracture site,
especially in old age.

2. LEG
Connected along their length by an interosseous membrane, two bones, the tibia and fibula, form the
skeleton of the leg.
Figure 11. Bones of the right thigh and leg. Anterior view of the femur (a). Posterior view of the
femur (b). Anterior view of the leg (c).

3. FOOT
The foot, composed of the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges, has two important functions. It supports
our body weight and serves as a lever that allows us to propel our bodies forward when we walk and run.

Figure 11. Bones of the right foot, superior view

Figure 12. Arches of the foot