Lecture 1: Introduction to Information Literacy

In this lecture, students are introduced to the concepts that give an initial understanding of
information literacy (IL) through definitions and brief explanations.
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. Explain the meaning of the concept of information literacy,
ii. Evaluate the need for information literacy among university students.

1.1 An overview

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have provided new perspectives and
opportunities for expanding traditional education processes and systems. They are more and more
becoming an integral part of educational strategies, providing greater flexibility in learning
situations, promoting increased interactivity for learners and connectivity to people as well as
learning resources in different parts of the world. Information literacy is another feature of recent
innovations in education and is paramount in any education system. It is a new concept that has
emerged as a result of the challenges the world is facing in the information forum. It has come
about as a result of globalization which was prompted by worldwide networks, information
explosion which was caused by the development of ICTs, Information overload which was
triggered by too much information being posted on the Internet and the web as well as
technological developments such as Facebook, blogs, wikis, websites, among others.

Information nowadays is everywhere and this has resulted in information literacy being taught to
scholars and society at large. The term university education, in itself, means compliance with
universally accepted standards of competence for university graduates one of them being
information literate graduates.

1.2 Definition of Related Terms

i. Literacy: It means we can read and write. Literate also means having knowledge or skill in a
certain field such as medicine, law, engineering, or banking. So being information literate means
having knowledge about information.

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ii. Information need: The term information need is often understood as an individual or group's
desire to locate and obtain information to satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. According to
Hjørland (1997), it is closely related to the concept of relevance: If something is relevant for a
person in relation to a given task, we might say that the person needs the information for that task.
Information needs are related to, but distinct from information requirements.

iii. Information literacy competency is a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards
recognizing when and why information is needed, where to find it, how to evaluate, manage and
apply it, synthesize, use and communicate it ethically and legally.

iv. Digital Information Fluency (DIF) is the ability to find, evaluate and use digital information
effectively, efficiently, and ethically. It uses “Fluency” rather than “literacy” to emphasize that
competencies are more than basic abilities. DIF involves knowing how digital information is
different from print information; having the skills to use specialized tools for finding digital
information; and developing the dispositions needed in the digital information environment.

v. Lifelong learning: all learning activity is undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving
knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related
perspective” (European Commission [EC], 2001). The basic premise of lifelong learning is that it
is not feasible to equip learners at school, college, or university with all the knowledge and skills
they need to prosper throughout their lifetimes. Therefore, people will need continually to enhance
their knowledge and skills, in order to address immediate problems and to participate in a process
of continuous vocational and professional development.

1.3 Definition of Information Literacy

Information Literacy
Various definitions have been presented, and continue to evolve about what IL means. Some of
these include:
i. A set of abilities requiring individuals to "recognize when information is needed and have
the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information" (ACRL, 2000).
ii. The adoption of appropriate information behaviour to obtain, through whatever channel
or medium, information well fitted to information needs, together with critical awareness

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 of the importance of wise and ethical use of information in society (Johnston & Webber,
2003: 336).
iii. The ability to know when information is needed to help solve a problem or make a decision,
and the ability to identify, locate, organize and effectively create, and apply it to address
issues or problems at hand (UNESCO, 2003).
iv. It is knowing when and why you need information, where to find it, how to evaluate, use
and communicate in an ethical manner (ALA, 2005).
v. Alexandria Proclamation adopted by the High Level Colloquium on Information Literacy
and Lifelong Learning in November 2005 defines information literacy as a mean to
“empower people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information
effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goals”. It is a
basic human right in a digital world and promotes social inclusion of all nations.
Self-Assessment Activity

Using examples from real life show the role of digital information literacy in your day
to day activities

describe lifelong learning

what do you understand by information literacy?

What do you understand by information need?

Further Reading

Bobish, G & Jacobson, T. (eds.) (2014). The information literacy user’s guide: An open, online
textbook. Newyork, Open SUNY Textbooks. Available at:
http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/

Read about the History of Information Literacy (See Appendix 1)

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1.4 Misconceptions about information literacy

 A review of literature exposes glaring misconceptions which have a source of confusion and
have negated constructive efforts to concretize understanding and information literacy. These
include:
i. Information literacy has also been confused with other literacies such as,
a. media literacy,
b. computer literacy,
c. network literacy (Rajaram, 2006).
ii. Information literacy is a wider concept that encompasses all these literacies and much
more.
iii. Information literacy is covered by or is the same as information technology.
Difference between information literacy and information technology literacy
Information Literacy Information Technology Literacy
 Set of abilities to identify information  Skills that enable an individual
 To recognize when information is needed. to use computers.
 The ability to locate, evaluate, and use  Hardware and software
effectively the needed information. applications, databases, and use
 It also deals with content and of other technologies to achieve
communication a wide variety of academic,
 It encompasses authoring, information work-related, and personal
finding and organization, the research goals.
process, information analysis, assessment  Promotion of the concept of
and evaluation. fluency with information
 Individuals develop some technology technology.
skills.  Encompasses the broad view of
the technology infrastructures
that support the society.
Encompass not only the technological
principles, but also some appreciation of history,
economics, social, and public policy issues that
are necessary for the fulfillment of lifelong
learning through abilities which may use
technologies but are ultimately independent of
them.

iv. As technology improves access to information will become easier and therefore negate the
need for information literacy training.

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 v. With the emergence of electronic resources and e-literacy negates the need for information
literacy (Irving & Crawford, 2005). As we shall see this trend creates a bigger demand for
information literacy skills.

1.5 Importance of information literacy

According to the Association of Research and College Libraries (ACRL), Information literacy
forms the basis of lifelong learning. Today, we live in an information society where its most
significant aspect is not only the availability and rapid development of information and
communications technologies (ICTs), but the people utilizing those and the movement of
information between them because it is the information literate individual who creates and use the
information to convey knowledge and thus stimulates innovation.

Generally, Information literacy plays the following roles

Leadership for the future: Students need the thinking, reasoning, and civic abilities that enable
them to succeed in—and ultimately lead—a contemporary democratic economy, workforce, and
society

Function as a lifelong learner: Within today's information society, the most important learning
outcome for all students is their being able to function as independent lifelong learners. The
essential enabler to reaching that goal is information literacy.
Essential for future success: Whatever else you bring to the 21st-century workplace, however
great your technical skills and however attractive your attitude, and however deep your
commitment to excellence, the bottom line is that to be successful, you need to acquire a high level
of information literacy. What is needed in the knowledge industries are people who know how to
absorb and analyze and integrate and create and effectively convey information—and who know
how to use the information to bring real value to everything they undertake.

Enables one to avoid information overload: The increasingly complex world in which we live
now contains an abundance of information choices—print, electronic, image, spatial, sound,
visual, and numeric. The issue is no longer one of not having enough information; it is just the
opposite—too much information, in various formats and not all of equal value. In a time of more
than 17 million Internet sites, three billion Web pages, and more than a million items in a typical

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medium-sized academic library, the ability to act confidently (and not be paralyzed by information
overload) is critical to academic success and personal self-directed learning.

Enables one to be a problem solver: Individuals who are knowledgeable about finding,
evaluating, analyzing, integrating, managing, and conveying information to others efficiently and
effectively are held in high esteem. These are the students, workers, and citizens who are most
successful at solving problems, providing solutions, and producing new ideas and directions for
the future.

1.6 The case for information literacy among students

 Common view of scholars:
 People who have information literacy skills are critical in their thinking, motivated
and confident in managing their learning. They have better skills of retrieving
information from different sources and research, synthesizing and communicating
ideas and take on challenges of higher learning with success (Gross, 2005;Peters
& Jones, 2007; Owunsu-Ansah, 2003; McNaught, 2006).
 The reverse is true…
 If you are not information literate you will find yourself overwhelmed with class
term paper assignments, scoring poorly in-class assignments, and stuck in your
research projects finally your academic endevours will be a living nightmare.
Specifically, for university students, information literacy is important because: The 21st
Century learners may be tech-savvy, but they still can be overwhelmed. They have constant
access to global information resources through computers and mobile devices, and they expect to
be able to retrieve information instantly. Learners are now surrounded by information, whether
in print, online, or in sound bites of information. Information literacy is of immense importance
to these students for the following reasons:
 One reason is that some undergraduate students acceding university have limited
background of fundamental research and information competency skills.
 They may not have acquired the necessary skills to effectively search for information, or
evaluate, synthesize and blend ideas.
 They may not have learned how to use information in original work or give proper citations
and references for information used.

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  While some students may have acquired basic computer skills to send electronic mail,
navigate the web, and share files, they may not have been taught how to effectively search
the Internet or effectively use library E-resources for academic research.

This is where information literacy skills are essential and make a difference in the success of
students. If they are given the opportunity to follow such programs, they will have the following
benefits:

 They will certainly face fewer difficulties while writing papers.

 Student-centered, inquiry-based, problem-solving, and critical thinking proactive learning
environment with the help of information literacy skills, develops deep learners in the
society.
 Students are educated with abilities and skills of how to learn or learning to learn, by
developing the aspects of reasoning and critical thinking.

Overall Information literacy skills will help students to achieve this target in a broader sense, in
student-centered learning.

1.7 Critical reasons for information literacy in higher education

Reason No 1: University/Emerging pedagogical practices require IL

 Pedagogical methods: methods of teaching or learning have changed
 There is a greater emphasis on innovative approaches to educational delivery
For example:
 Active learning…independent student engagement with the best minds pool of ideas
and the contradictions therein.
 Constructivism…originating new ways of looking at issues and concepts
…synthesizing existing knowledge into new models and theories.
 Online, distance, and e-learning:
 These approaches require students possesses a range of skills:
 Problem-solving, and
 Self-directed and independent learning which enable learners to engage in using a
wide range of information sources to expand their knowledge, construct
knowledge, ask informed questions, and sharpen their critical thinking

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  If you are not information literate, then they are going to face challenges and these
strategies will fail
Reason No. 2: IL as key to participating in the emerging knowledge society
 Definition of the knowledge society:
 A society characterized by the ability to use knowledge through all its elements to
empower citizens and bring about development and positive societal change.
 Main characteristics of the knowledge society:
 Widespread use of information to achieve innovation,
 High capacities to generate, organize, and disseminate knowledge and use it to
create economic wealth and social goods for the community
 IL is the basis for creating skills for participating effectively in the knowledge
society because it provides the skills of accessing information and using it to create
new products and services

Reason No 3: Information literacy is key to cultivating innovativeness

 What does the notion of innovation imply for us who are here?
 Innovation is the process of generating ideas and translating them into a good
product or service that creates value that improves the way we do things, bring
better service to the stakeholders.
 Innovation involves deliberate application of knowledge, imagination and
initiative in deriving greater or different values from resources, and includes all
processes by which new ideas are generated and converted into useful products
and services
 In short innovation is the key to transformation and development.
 Our vision as a university “To be a University of global excellence, meeting the dynamic
needs and development of society”.
 We will not achieve this vision “If our senior most scholars…or aspiring scholars do not
have adequate information literacy skills”.
Reason No 3. Information literacy is key to cultivating innovativeness
 Information literacy gives us the capacity to know how to bridge the gap between the
known and the unknown, speculation and reality, engage with new ideas, by

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  Asking the right questions,
 Identifying our information needs correctly
 Retrieving the right information and
 Coming up with the solutions to problems in our that face us and our communities
(Lloyd, 2006).
Reason No 4: Information literacy leads to better academic outcomes among students
 Research findings indicate that: IL is an essential requirement for better academic
performance in a world characterized by an increasing choice in the range and quality of
information resources available to them. Why?
i. IL assists students to
 Determine the information they need to learn
 Accesses the needed information,
 Evaluate it and use the information effectively to accomplish academic goals.
 uses information ethically and legally thus avoiding plagiarism.
ii. IL assists students to deal with the excessive information available to them in their
academic work as they are able to select carefully what is correct, or only what they need
and use it correctly.
Reason No 5: Information literacy is a means of creating skills for lifelong learning
 What is lifelong learning?
 Refers to the ability to continue learning throughout life by acquiring new
knowledge as new circumstances require.
 Lifelong learning is key to:
 Employability and job mobility
 Solving problems that arise in the course of life
 Adapting to job situation through the ability to learn and collaborate with
others
 The concept/ construct of information literacy is centered on
“learning how to learn” through developing knowledge, attitudes, and patterns of behaviour in
the use of information that facilitates effective study, research process and acquisition of new
knowledge to suit current and future requirements (Eisenberg 2007; Kuhlthau, 1993; Kapitzke,
2003; ARCL, 2000; Doyle, 1992).

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1.8 Conclusion
 We live in a knowledge society where individual success will depend on one’s ability to
access and use information /knowledge to create new ideas/innovate and solve problem.
 There is need to develop and continuously improve one’s information literacy skills.
 To succeed in university studies or work place one needs know how to search for
information from various sources: books in the library, how to access and use e-books
and e-journals.
 Learning mainly focuses on achieving knowledge, skills and attitudes, associated with
particular subject areas. Irrespective of the disciplinary stream, each and every student
should be able to access, use and communicate information in an innovative manner.
1.9 Summary
Information literacy skills are helpful to everybody, especially students, in order to succeed
academically and in their future job opportunities. Teachers and lecturers are greatly in need of
information literacy skills, in order to carry out their occupations efficiently and successfully.
Information literate individuals improve the society's quality of life in general and academically.
Information literacy helps us in our day to day life such as buying a house, choosing a school,
making an investment, voting for the election and it is the foundation of the democratic society.

Self-Assessment Activity

relate the development of Information literacy to the uptake of technology

explain why information literacy is taught in a university setting

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 Appendix 1
History of Information Literacy

There have been numerous, extensive, and detailed accounts of the history and development of
information literacy. These texts have covered the international scope of information literacy
activities (Bruce, Candy & Klaus, 2000; Rader, 2002) and in specific locations such as the USA
(Gibson, 2008), Europe (Virkus, 2003), Australia (Hughes, Middleton, Edwards, Bruce, &
McAllister, 2005) and the UK (Andretta, Pope, & Walton, 2008; Armstrong et al., 2005); different
educational settings such as schools (Batool & Webber, 2014; McTavish, 2009) and universities
(Johnston & Webber, 2003), communal settings such as public libraries (Harding, 2008) and
locations outside of libraries (Weiner & Jackman, 2010). Such texts offer comprehensive and
detailed accounts of the emergence and development of the field.

The term information literacy was first coined by Paul Zurkowski in a 1974 report to the US
National Commission on Libraries and Information Science on the future priorities organization.
Zurkowski contended that: “People trained in the application of information resources to their
work can be called information literates. They have learned techniques and skills for utilizing the
wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information solutions to
their problems…”

However, as Whitworth (2014) notes while Zurkowski introduces the idea of information literacy
he does not develop the concept to any significant degree. Following Zurkowski’s work, Burchinal
(1976) is considered to have advanced the field further by shifting attention to the educational
aspects of information literacy and identifying specific skills (Eisenberg et al., 2004; Pinto et al.,
2010; Whitworth, 2014). The specific skills Burchinal identifies are the ability to: “efficiently and
effectively locate and use information needed for problem-solving and decisionmaking” (1976).
Burchinal shifts the focus to instruction – or more precisely education – and Burchinal identifies
schools as the most opportune location for information literacy education.

External to the US, Hamelink (1976) a Dutch communication scholar offered a substantial critical
development to the field. Hamelink, drawing upon the liberational and critical educational theories
of Paolo Freire (Freire, 1985, 1993; Shor & Freire, 1987) conceptualized information literacy as

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something that the population of a society needs to develop so as to deal with the “cognitive costs”
of being part of that society (Whitworth, 2014). As such Hamelink (1976) inserted into information
literacy an anti-systemic potential – a critical affordance that went beyond the benefits to wider
society that a skills enhanced workforce was thought to facilitate. Unfortunately, with a few
notable exceptions this critical potential within information literacy was not widely expanded upon
in the following years.

One of the next major developments was the publication in the USA of the Presidential
Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report by the American Library Association (A.L.A.)
(Association, 1989). This text was itself a consequence of a series of reports which established a
model of lack in US schooling with regards to the development of a particular set of skills
(Plotnick, 1999). The 1983 text A Nation at Risk (Gardner, Larsen, Baker, & Campbell)
established a basic agenda that aspects of American schooling were failing (though the validity of
the report was later challenged (Stedman, 1994)). In consequence of this report numerous other
texts were produced outlining various ways in which schooling could be enhanced. One particular
line of enquiry was to consider the ways school libraries could enhance the skills of students in
dealing with information resources (Plotnick, 1999). The A.L.A.s Final Report (Association, 1989)
identified that libraries and librarians could and did serve as vital intermediaries for the
development of information literacy in students and the general population. The Report identifies
a five step process (knowing when we need information, identifying what information is needed
to address a problem, finding the information and evaluating it, organizing the information using
the information to address the problem) in the consideration of information and sought to instil
such a process in educational practices and goes on to describe an ideal ‘Information Age School’.
Such arguments were not particularly innovatory – as noted previously information literacy
determined as the ability to find information was an extension of the bibliographic and search skills
school and university librarians had been teaching for decades. Moreover, such approaches were
becoming codified and understood as specific systems – for example Eisenberg’s Big6 system
(Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990) offered a codified approach to information identification and
retrieval.

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However, the Final Report’s high level origin within the professional librarian community resulted
in it having significant impact and it led to the establishment of the National Forum on Information
Literacy (NFIL) later in 1989 which advocated the mainstreaming of information literacy. Doyle
(1992), conducting research for the NFIL refined information literacy to mean
“the ability to access, evaluate and use information from a variety of sources” and identified ten
discrete attributes of an information literate person.

Webber and Johnston (2000) note how this understanding of information literacy is heavily
influenced by information science. They identify the difference between information literacy and
information science, especially in the US flavour, is the ability of an information literate to
manifest such qualities. Indeed Doyle’s (1992) model – and indeed most other models of
information literacy – draw heavily upon the ‘outcomes’ approach; a way of defining a form of
instruction not by what the course is about but by what qualities or attributes a person who passes
the course will have demonstrated. There were also significant developments external to the USA
in the following years. Bruce from Griffith’s University in Australia produced the
“Information Literacy Blueprint” (1994) which identified seven attributes of the information
literate. It is interesting to note that these seven characteristics are not specific tasks that the
information literate will be able to perform, rather the description is of the person and their
particular approaches to dealing with information. A further work by Bruce (1997) offered a
significant development to the field through approaching the topic not from a behaviourist
perspective as had been done previously but by utilizing more phenomenological methods which
focused upon how the user experienced information. Lloyd (2010) contends that Bruce’s work
instigated a shift in the way in which information literacy was understood and taught while Gibson
(2008) asserts that there was a more general shift in information literacy activities accompanying
the move away from behaviourism and towards more cognitive approaches in education; a change
apparent in many academic fields during the 1980s and 1990s.

In the UK, the Society of College, National and University Libraries (SCONUL) produced
“Information skills in higher education: a SCONUL position paper” (SCONUL., 1999) (revised in
2011 (Bent & Stubbings, 2011)) a text which determined information literacy as a desired goal
achieved through developing the seven core skills or ‘pillars’. A key refinement of the seven pillars
was the inclusion of the ability to ‘create’. In the SCONUL model (which is aimed at higher

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education) an information literate person will be able to “contribute to the synthesis of existing
information, to further develop ideas building on that synthesis, and, ultimately, create new
knowledge” (SCONUL., 1999). This represents an important development in information literacy.
It indicates growing recognition of the productive as well as the consumptive potential of an
individual using digital media and that such an aspect must be factored into competent use. That
is, given the nature of digital media there was an imperative that creative and productive aspects
be considered in skilled information usage.

In the following years the scope of information literacy was subject to a further revision. This was
driven by recognition of the growth in the number of those needing information literacy skills. The
steep increase in the number of people with computers and able to access the internet meant that
information literacy was a skill that would be necessary to all members of a society and not just
those in the university and academic sector. This reiteration of a life-long learning agenda
articulated the desire to extend information literacy beyond the institutional remit of the library
and particularly libraries within educational establishments. Thus while libraries were still vital
for the delivery of information literacy courses to their extant clients, there were many people who
were not being reached. The rapid expansion of communications technology was resulting in
computing, searching and information retrieval technologies being available to many outside of
the library sector yet there was insufficient provision of information literacy training. Thus while
there was an ever increasing penetration of digital technology and the information and media
content it made available, education around such systems lagged behind. One consequence of this
was the emergence of various other forms of training and literacy – for example internet literacy
(Hofstetter, 2003; Livingstone, 2008; Livingstone, Bober, & Helsper, 2005) achieved some
currency. In a number of countries skills and training courses were established outside of academia
to facilitate internet literacy training. This understanding was also made manifest in a number of
initiatives by pan-national organizations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and international engagement by national organisations such as
the US National Commission on Library and Information Science and the NFIL resulting in the
2003 meeting of experts in Prague. Here information literacy was defined as: knowledge of one’s
information concerns and needs, and the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, organize and
effectively create, use and communicate information to address issues or problems at hand; it is a

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prerequisite for participating effectively in the Information Society, and is part of the basic human
right of life-long learning. (UNSECO, 2003)

In such a description the rationale for information literacy incorporates empowering people to be
full members of the information society and is even regarded as a basic human right. The twophase
United Nations World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva in 2003 and Tunis in 2005
along with the preparatory and follow up conferences led to a further statement which advanced
and refined the description of information literacy. The Alexander Proclamation of the High Level
Colloquium on Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning in 2005 determined that:

Information Literacy lies at the core of lifelong learning. It empowers people in all walks of life to
seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social,
occupational and educational goals. It is a basic human right in a digital world and promotes social
inclusion of all nations. (Garner, 2006)

Such a definition simplifies the task of information literacy is to four key aspects: to seek, evaluate,
use and create information for the users’ needs. As such it concatenates the multi-stage complexity
of the activity in previous definitions. In particular some of the initial stages such as recognizing a
need for information are now sublimated into seeking for information. Moreover, the reduction in
number of steps also raises the comparative importance of the aspect of creation. The text further
grounds information literacy within a wider frame-work of social equality and asserts the
importance of such skills in a ‘digital world’. Information literacy is considered as an activity that
‘empowers’ people – it affords people the opportunity to avail themselves of information they
could not get if they lacked a grounding in information literacy education. These definitions with
the incorporation of the ideas of equality, rights and justice further enforce information literacy’s
determination as an unequivocal good. However, there is a slight refocusing in these descriptions.
While information literacy is still a positive factor, the benefits to the individual’s personal good
are highlighted rather than the primary national level, economic benefit identified by Whitworth
(2014) in Zurkowski’s (1974) initial determination. Information literacy is now cast on the side of
progressive politics as a benefit to the individual. While economic activity is still a valuable result,
the foregrounded benefit is primarily one of equality and social justice. However, information

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literacy still lacks the larger, anti-conservative or progressive critical stance that informs media
literacy (Kellner, 2000; Kellner & Share, 2005; Sholle & Denski, 1994; Silverblatt & Eliceiri,
1997). Within media education, criticality is developed through the application of comparative
analysis and evaluation which draws upon critical theories within the arts and humanities.
Information literacy does place a specific emphasis upon evaluation, however the nature of the
evaluation is variated by the level of study. At a higher level evaluation incorporates a degree of
criticality and indeed resembles some of the analytic aspects of media education. However, at the
lower levels the evaluation tends to be more concerned with the validity of the information for the
purpose at hand rather than considering it in terms of meta-critical perspectives and ideological
analysis. It is concerned with considering the degree of internal validity, whether the information
identified serves the purpose of the quest for information. Aspects of criticality are reserved for
higher level training.

During the mid-to-late 2000s and early 2010s this alignment with media literacy and education
was also occurring in terms of the content, practices and foci as well; a number of authors noted
that the conceptual convergence of media and information literacy was gaining momentum
(Livingstone, Van Couvering, & Thumin, 2008). Livingstone (2008) sees this as a positive
development and argues “a convergence of media (or audiovisual) and information literacies is
needed to map out a constructive route to understanding what… people know, and need to know,
regarding that deceptively simple notion of “using the internet”. An example of this convergence
is the text unveiled by UNESCO in 2011, the “Media and Information Literacy

Curriculum for Teachers” (Wilson, Grizzle, Tuazon, Akyempong, & Cheung, 2011). Translated
into 10 languages the Media and Information Literacy (MIL) curriculum provided an educational
framework which would facilitate the development of skills in both information and media
literacy. It was intended to be used in teacher education programmes to prepare teachers to be able
to incorporate MIL into the school curricula.

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