Chapter - 1

Introduction to Electricity

Though you cannot see electricity, you are aware of it every day. You
see it used in countless ways. You cannot taste or smell electricity, but you
can feel it. Basically, there are two kinds of electricity - static (stationary) and
dynamic (moving). This module is about dynamic electricity because that is
the kind commonly put to use. Electricity (dynamic) is characterized by the
flow of electrons through a conductor.

A material that contains many free electrons and is capable of carrying

an electric current is called a conductor. Metals and (generally) water are
conductors. Gold, silver, aluminum and copper are all good conductors.
Materials that contain relatively few free electrons are called insulators. Non-
metallic materials such as wood, rubber, glass and mica are insulators. Fair
conductors include the human body, earth, and concrete.

The below Table 1 shows the Fundamental Electrical Terms used to control
every electric circuit.

Fundamental Electrical terms

Function Term Symbol Unit of measure Abbreviation
Force Voltage E Voltage V
Result of Force Current I Ampere A
Resists current flow due Resistance R Ohm 
to physical properties
Resists current flow due Reactance X Ohm 
to magnetic effect
Total opposition to current Impedance Z Ohm 
flow in AC systems

Table – 1

1
Electrical Safety: Electrical hazards can cause shocks, burns and
electrocution (death).

1.1 Shock

Electric shock occurs when the human body becomes part of a path
through which electrons can flow. The resulting effect on the body can be either
direct or indirect.

a. Direct

Injury or death can occur whenever electric current flows through the
human body. Currents of less than 30 mA can result in death. A thorough
coverage of the effects of electricity on the human body is contained in the
section of this module entitled Effects of Electricity on the Human Body.

b. In direct

Although the electric current through the human body may be well below
the values required to cause noticeable injury, human reaction can result
in falls from ladders or scaffolds, or movement into operating machinery.
Such reaction can result in serious injury or death.

1.2 Burns

Burns can result when a person touches electrical wiring or equipment

that is improperly used or maintained. Typically, such burn injuries occur on
the hands.

1.2 Explosions

Explosions occur when electricity provides a source of ignition for an

explosive mixture in the atmosphere. Ignition can be due to overheated
conductors or equipment, or normal arcing (sparking) at switch contacts.

1.3 Fires:

Electricity is one of the most common causes of fire both in the home
and workplace. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major cause,
with high resistance connections being one of the primary sources of ignition.
High resistance connections occur where wires are improperly spliced or
connected to other components such as receptacle outlets and switches. This
was the primary cause of fires associated with the use of aluminum wire in
buildings during the 1960s and 1970s.

1.4 Effects of Electricity on the Human Body:

The effects of electric shock on the human body depend on several

factors. The major factors are:

a. Current and Voltage

b. Resistance

c. Path through body

d. Duration of shock
2
The muscular structure of the body is also a factor in that people having less
musculature and more fat typically show similar effects at lesser current
values.

We can sum up the lethal effects of electric current as follows:

1. Current flow greater than the "let-go" threshold of an individual may cause
a person to collapse, become unconscious and can result in death. The current
flow would most often have to continue for longer than five seconds. Although
it may not be possible to determine the exact cause of death with certainty,
asphyxiation or heart failure are the prime suspects.

2. Current flow through the chest, neck, head or major nerve centers
controlling respiration may result in a failure of the respiratory system. This is
usually caused by a disruption of the nerve impulses between the respiratory
control center and the respiratory muscles. Such a condition is dangerous since
it is possible for the respiratory failure to continue even after the current flow
has stopped.

3. The most dangerous condition can occur when fairly small amounts of
current flow through the heart area. Such current flow can cause ventricular
fibrillation. This asynchronous movement of the heart causes the hearts' usual
rhythmic pumping action to cease. Death results within minutes.

4. When relatively large currents flow through the heart area, heart action may
be stopped entirely. If the shock duration is short and no physical damage to
the heart has occurred, the heart may begin rhythmic pumping automatically
when the current ceases.

3
 Chapter – 2

Electrical Components Symbols and Functions

The below Table 2 shows the various components, their symbols and functions
used in electrical circuits.

Name Symbol Function

Conductor Conductor is a metal that conducts
electric current.
Connection It connects the devices to make a
closed circuit.
Battery It is a DC Storage device.

Alternating
The type of electric current which
Current (AC)
reverses at regularly recurring
intervals of time and which has
alternately positive and negative
values.

Direct Current
The type of electric current in which
(DC)
the electrons move continuously in
one direction through the conductor.

Fuse Over current protection device

Lamp Used for industrial and domestic

lighting applications.

Iron cored Basic electrical component employed

Inductor (Choke) in most circuits. Stores energy in the
form of electro-magnetic field.
Florescent lamp Fluorescent lamp starter is a bi-
starter metallic switch for the purpose of
starting the fluorescent lamp.
One way switch Used to allow or prevent the circuit
current.
Two way switch Used two connect two different
circuits alternatively from a common
point.
Magnetic relay Relay is an electro mechanical switch
with 1NO + 1NC used to make& break the circuit. no-
normally open
NC - normally closed. When Relay
coil is energized NO contact closes
and NC contact opens. When it is
de-energized contacts come back to
normal position.
Table 2

4
Exercise 1: Single lamp controlled by one-way switch

Aim: To control a lamp by one-way switch

Circuit Description: A one-way switch is used to control the working of a

single incandescent lamp. This circuit is used for controlling the operation of
lamps and fans. It must be ensured that the phase be connected through fuse
that is used for excess current and short circuit protections. Here the Phase is
the live part and the Neutral is the return path for the circuit current.

When the switch s is operated, circuit closes and the lamp is getting energized.
Fig - 1 shows the circuit of a lamp controlled by one-way switch.

Fuse S

Phase
L

AC 230V AC
Mains

Neutral

S: One way switch

L: Incandescent Lamp

Fig - 1

5
Exercise 2: Single lamp controlled by 2 two way Switches

Aim: To control a lamp by 2 two way switches

Circuit Description: The lamp is controlled by two way switches as shown

in figure - 2. It glows when both S1 and S2 are in either position 1 or 2. When
S1 is in position 1 and S2 in position 2 or vice versa, the lamp is off. This
enables the lamp to be controlled from two different locations that are situated
away from each other.

S1 S2

1 1
Fuse
NC NC
Phase

COM
NO NO L
2 2
230V AC
AC Mains

Neutral

S1 & S2: Two way switches

L: Incandescent Lamp

Fig - 2

6
Exercise 3: Series and parallel connection of lamps

Aim: To connect series and parallel of lamps

Circuit Description: The operation of switches S1 and S2 determines the

series – parallel behavior of the circuit. When S1 is closed and S2 is open,
lamps L1 and L2 are connected in series across the AC power supply. Thus
they share the applied voltage and glow DIM. When we close S2 also, the two
terminals of lamp L1 are connected together resulting in the entire supply
voltage available across lamp L2 alone. Thus lamp L2 glows BRIGHT.

In practice, this arrangement is used to test motor and transformer

windings for any short circuit. The winding under test is connected to supply
with a lamp in series. With faulty / shorted winding, the lamp glows BRIGHT,
as the winding Impedance is zero. Fig - 3 shows the circuit of two lamps
connected in series and parallel.

Fuse S1

Phase
L1

AC 230V AC
Mains S2

Neutral
L2

S1 & S2: One way switches

L1 & L2: Incandescent

Lamps

Fig - 3

7
Exercise 4: Florescent lamp control

Aim: To control a Florescent lamp

Circuit Description: An iron cored inductor (Choke) and a florescent lamp

starter is included in the circuit with the florescent lamp as shown in fig- 5.

Fluorescent lamp starter which is shown in fig - 4 is a switch for the purpose
of starting the fluorescent lamp that opens the preheating circuit of the lamp
and applies the necessary striking high pulse voltage for starting to the both
ends of the lamp after the cathode of the lamp has been preheated.

The fluorescent lamp starter consists of bi-metallic contacts sealed with

a small discharge bulb with an argon gas. When the AC mains voltage which
exceeds the fluorescent lamp starter operating voltage is supplied, a glow
discharge within the small discharge bulb occurs and a bi-metallic contact is
heated, causing the contact to bend and make contact with the other contact
and close.

Fig – 4

When the switch S is closed, the AC mains voltage is applied to the circuit. At
first, the lamp does not operate, since there is no electrical connection from
one end to the other. A non-operating fluorescent tube will appear as an open
circuit and the current does not flow.

In order to start the lamp, striking high pulse voltage must be

applied across the lamp to ionize the gas and "strike the arc" within. The full
AC mains voltage appears across the contacts of the fluorescent lamp starter
via the Choke L and lamp cathodes, since the fluorescent lamp starter is
switched electrically in parallel with the lamp. When the AC mains voltage
which exceeds the fluorescent lamp starter operating voltage is supplied, a
glow discharge within the small discharge bulb occurs and a bi-metallic contact
is heated, causing the contact to bend and make contact with the other contact
and close.

The contacts touch completes the circuit, and the choke and the lamp
cathodes are now series connected across the AC mains, and allowing preheat
current to flow between the lamp cathode through the starter and the choke.

8
 Since the glow discharge within the small discharge bulb has now ceased
by the close of the bi-metallic contact, the bi-metallic contacts cool down and
re-open, breaking the short circuit.

Because the inductance of the choke tries to maintain current flow, the
sudden interruption of the preheat circuit causes a voltage spike (striking high
pulse voltage) at the instant of the opening of the contacts to trigger which
starts the lamp. At this point, the lamp will work and the starter consumes no
power while the lamp is operating. If it does not, the fluorescent lamp starter's
contacts close again and the cycle repeats.

Once the lamp has started, the choke controls its current and voltage to
the correct levels, so that the lamp running current is enough to keep the
cathodes hot and emitting electrons.

Since the lamp's running voltage is much lower than the AC mains
voltage (less than half AC mains), there is not enough voltage to cause a glow
discharge in the fluorescent lamp starter, so it remains open circuit. This is the
reason why the lamp continues to glow even with the absence of the starter.

Fuse S

Phase

AC 230V AC
Mains ST
T
Neutral

S: One way switch L: Iron cored inductor (choke)

ST: Starter
T: Fluroscent Lamp

Fig - 5

9
Appendix
Additional exercises

1. Design a circuit to start and stop the given lamp by using push buttons
switches.

2. Design a circuit to control three lamps (LI, L2 and L3) positioned inside a
Godown. The required behavior is:
a. Upon operating first switch, L1 should glow.
b. L1 and L2 should glow upon operating second switch.
c. L1, L2 and L3 all should glow once we operate third switch.
d. The sequence should reverse while one wants to make them OFF.

3. Design a circuit to control three lamps (LI, L2 and L3) positioned inside a
Godown, in Energy saving method. The required behavior is:
a. Upon operating first switch, L1 should glow.
b. Upon operating second switch L1 should off and L2 should glow.
c. Upon operating third switch L2 should off and L3 should glow.
d. The sequence should reverse while one wants to make them OFF.

4. Design a circuit to control a lamp with Electronic fan regulator as Dimmer.

5. Design a circuit to connect two lamps in series and parallel using two
switches.

6. Design a circuit to control two lamps alternately using a 2 c/o Relay

contacts.

10
 Chapter - 1

Introduction to Electronics

If one wants to gain a good understanding of electronics, he or she

should build circuits and test them independently. For this one should acquire
a practical knowledge of the characteristics of different devices and in
constructing various circuits. This lab is very useful& informative.
Before start the hands on practice of electronics you should know about
the basic electronics components, safety measures and required information.
There are two types of components that we come across namely Active
and Passive components. Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors, etc., are known as
passive components because they can only attenuate the electrical voltage and
signals and cannot amplify. Whereas devices like transistors, operational
amplifier (Op Amp) can amplify or increase the amplitude and energy
associated with the signals. Hence the transistors and Op Amp come under
active devices. These components can be combined in different configurations
by interconnecting them with conducting wires to build different useful
Electronic circuits. Apart from the components and circuits we must also have
familiarity on the principle of operations and usefulness of some of the
essential electronic measuring instruments such as digital multi meters,
regulated power supplies, Function generators, oscilloscopes, etc., These help
us in trouble shooting the circuits and identify the faulty components whenever
the circuits that we build do not work as expected.

1.2 Classification of basic electronics:

BASIC ELECTRONICS

COMPONENTS & MEASURING CIRCUITS

DEVICES INSTRUMENTS

PASSIVE: ACTIVE: Digital multi meters Rectifiers

Resistors Transistors Power supplies Amplifiers

Capacitors Op - amps Voltage sources & Oscillators

etc. current sources
Diodes Filters
Oscilloscopes
Inductors
etc.

11
 Chapter - 2

Electronic Components Symbols and Functions

The below Table 1 shows the various components, their symbols and functions
used in electronic circuits.

Name Symbol Function

Conductor Conductor is a metal that
conducts electric current.
Connection It connects the devices to
make a closed circuit.
Battery It is a DC Storage device.

Fixed Resistor It resists the flow of current.

The resistance value is fixed.
Variable Resistor Its resistance value can be
varied. Example: Radio and
TV volume controls.
Non polar It stores electro-static energy
Capacitor and it is used for filtering
purposes Example: Ceramic
Capacitor.
Electrolytic + - It is a polarized capacitor
Capacitor

Inductor Air cored A coil of enameled wire

without any core material
present inside.
Inductor iron A coil of enameled wire with
cored iron core present inside
Example: Tube light Choke
Transformer Transformer is a device which
is used to step up or step
down voltages.
Magnetic relay Relay is an electro mechanical
with 1NO + 1NC switch used to make& break
the circuit. NO- NORMALLY
OPEN
NC - NORMALLY CLOSED.
When Relay coil is energized
NO contact closes and NC
contact opens. When it is de-
energized contacts come back
to normal position.

12
Diode - It is a PN junction diode that
allows current in a single
direction. It converts
Alternating current (AC) in to
Direct Current (DC).
Zener diode It is a semiconductor device
used for voltage regulation. It
is always reverse biased.

Silicon Controlled It is a semiconductor device

Rectifier (SCR) used for controlled
rectification. It converts
alternating current to direct
current and also helps in
controlling this conversion.
Ex: It can be used both
inverter and rectifier.
DIAC It is a three layer, two
terminals, bi directional
device. It is used to trigger
TRAIC
Seven segment There are two types of seven
display segment display. 1. Common
anode display and 2.
Common cathode display
Photo diode It’s a reverse biased PN
junction diode. It has two
terminals. It is used to detect
the light radiation. It is used
in photo voltaic applications.
Light Emitting It is a forward biased PN
diode (LED) junction diode. When current
flows it emits the light.
NPN transistor used as electronic switch and
amplifier.

PNP transistor used as electronic switch and

amplifier.

Photo transistor In this transistor that

conducts upon receiving light
radiation. It is used in
electrical isolation circuits.
Light dependent It is a semi-conductor device
resistor(LDR) whose resistance varies with
applied intensity
Logic Gate A logic gate is an elementary
building block of a digital
AND Gate circuit

Table 1

13
2.1 Color coding of Resistors:

Example 1 2 3 4 Say, 1: Brown

2: Black
3: Orange
4: Gold

The Value is 10,000 ohms (or) 10 K ohms and the tolerance is ±5%

The below Table 2 shows the color coding of resistors.

2nd 3rd band 4th band

Color 1st band
band (multiplier) (tolerance)

Black 0 0 ×100

Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1%

Red 2 2 ×102 ±2%

Orange 3 3 ×103

Yellow 4 4 ×104

Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5%

Blue 6 6 ×106 ±0.25%

Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1%

Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05%

White 9 9 ×109

Gold ×10-1 ±5%

Silver ×10-2 ±10%

14
Circuit Description:

5.1 Resistors in series: Resistors can be connected in series; that is, the
current flows through them one after another. The circuit in figure shows four
resistors connected in series. Note that since there is only one path for the
current to travel, the current through each of the resistors is the same. Also,
the voltage drops across the resistors must add up to the total voltage supplied
by the battery. Therefore, the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in
series is the sum of their resistances.

Thus total resistance is = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

R1 R2 R3 R4

5.2 Resistors in parallel: Resistors can be connected such that they branch
out from a single point (known as a node), and join up again in the circuit. This
is known as a parallel connection. The potential difference will be the same
across each resistor. Also, the current splits as it travels. So, the total current
is sum of the currents through four branches.

Thus total resistance is = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3) + (1/R4)

Sl No Series Parallel Total

1 Calculated Equivalent
Resistance(Rc)
2 Allowed Tolerance@±5%
of Rc
3 Measured Equivalent
Resistance (Rm)
4 Actual Tolerance(Rm-Rc)

15
Exercise 6: Light Activated Switch

Aim: To test the circuit of Light Activated Switch

Circuit Description: The circuit is incorporating LDR. LDR stands for Light
dependent resistor. Its resistance varies according to the light intensity. When
it is kept under dark, the resistor value will be very high. Under applied light
resistor value is low. We use this LDR for biasing the transistor used to switch
ON the LED. When sufficient Light falls on the LDR, the transistor gets biasing
voltage to switch ON the LED as shown in fig 4.

Fig 4

16
Exercise 7: Automatic LED flasher

Aim: To test the circuit of Automatic LED flasher

Circuit Description: This circuit is an as table Multi vibrator as shown in fig

5. Here we are using two set of components with the same value and
Specifications. In this circuit our aim is switch ON the two LED’s alternatively
and automatically. When the circuit is first powered up, neither transistor will
be switched on However, this means that at this stage they will both have high
base voltages and therefore a tendency to switch on, and inevitable slight
asymmetries will mean that one of the transistors is first to switch on. This will
quickly put the circuit into one of the above states, and oscillation will ensue.
In practice, oscillation always occurs for practical values of R and C. In this

circuit, we can change the flashing rate of the LED by changing the values of
capacitor or biasing resistor.

Fig 5

17
Appendix

Additional exercises:

1. Design a Buzzer circuit using Transistors.

2. Design a circuit of transistor that acts as an Inverter.
3. Design a circuit of Automatic Night Lamp Indicator.
4. Design a circuit of Zener Diode Tester.
5. Design a circuit of Touch Activated Light or LED using Transistors.
6. Design a circuit of Burglar Alarm.

18