©2015 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 110, pp. 9–38

Geology of the Enterprise Hydrothermal Nickel Deposit,

North-Western Province, Zambia
Patricia L. Capistrant,1,* Murray W. Hitzman,1,† David Wood,2 Nigel M. Kelly,1 Gretchen Williams,2
Munshya Zimba,2 Yvette Kuiper,1 Doug Jack,2 and Holly Stein3, 4
1 Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401 USA
2 First Quantum Minerals Ltd, Zambia, Plot 3805, Zambia Road, Ndola, Zambia
3 AIRIE Program, Dept. of Geosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1482 USA
4 Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED), University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway

Abstract
The Enterprise nickel deposit (40 Mt of 1.07% Ni) is located on the eastern edge of the Kabompo dome in
the North-Western Province of Zambia. The deposit area contains basement schists overlain by Neoproterozoic
metasedimentary rocks. Nickel sulfides are hosted within a sequence of quartz-, carbonate-, and carbon-rich
metasedimentary rocks that interfinger with and overlie siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks. The host rocks con-
tain significant kyanite, talc, and magnesian chlorite. Silicification and magnesian metasomatism occurred prior
to or concurrent with a regional metamorphic event (590–500 Ma). Mineralization resulted in the precipitation
of nickel and iron-nickel sulfides in veins and as semimassive replacements of the host rocks. Nickel sulfides
precipitated in two main stages: a millerite-vaesite-pyrite assemblage that formed disseminations and semimas-
sive replacements in vuggy textured rocks, and a later millerite-bravoite-(molybdenite) assemblage in quartz-
kyanite veins and local semimassive replacements. The deposit contains minor copper and trace amounts of
cobalt and platinum group elements (PGEs). A discrete zone of copper sulfides underlies a portion of the nickel
sulfide zone. Re-Os geochronology on molybdenite yields a 540.6 ± 1.8 Ma age for mineralization at Enterprise,
the approximate age of metamorphism. Sulfur isotope results indicate that the sulfur at Enterprise was derived
largely from Neoproterozoic marine sulfate by thermochemical sulfate reduction. Significant volumes of mafic
igneous rocks are not present in the immediate area of the Enterprise deposit. No evidence of prealteration
concentrations of nickel exists within the sedimentary rock sequence at the deposit. The alteration and miner-
alization style of the Enterprise deposit is similar to the much less metamorphosed nickel-bearing Shinkolobwe
uranium deposit in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), though the Enterprise deposit does not contain
significant uranium. The sediment-hosted nickel-rich deposits of Central African Copperbelt exemplified by
Enterprise appear to represent a new style of hydrothermal nickel mineralization.

Introduction In the 1950s, Roan Selection Trust Technical Services Ltd.

The Enterprise nickel deposit in the Central African (RST) utilized soil geochemical surveys to identify anoma-
Copperbelt appears to represent a new style of hydrother- lous copper in both the Enterprise (then called Kawako) and
mal nickel mineralization (González-Álvarez et al., 2013). Sentinel areas (Appleton, 1978). Anglo American Corpora-
The Enterprise deposit contains nickel-bearing sulfides as tion explored in the area during the early 1990s, with efforts
replacements of metasedimentary rocks and in veins cutting focused at the Sentinel deposit (Steven and Armstrong, 2003).
metasedimentary rocks. Enterprise is located on the eastern Anglo American also drilled six reverse circulation holes at
edge of the Kabompo dome in the North-Western Province Enterprise. Kiwara PLC, a London listed junior company,
of Zambia (Fig. 1) approximately 300 km west of the Zam- subsequently resampled the holes in 2007. Kiwara then
bian Copperbelt. This area of Zambia, known as the Domes twinned Anglo American’s holes with diamond drill holes and
region owing to the presence of ortho- and paragneiss and intersected nickel-rich saprolite.
schist cored basement complexes rimmed by Neoproterozoic First Quantum Minerals Ltd. acquired Kiwara PLC in late
metasedimentary rocks, contains a number of major copper 2010 and initiated an aggressive drilling program at Enterprise
deposits, including the Sentinel (previously known as Kalum- that quickly identified substantial amounts of nickel-mineral-
bila) deposit 17 km to the southeast of Enterprise, which con- ized material. By the end of 2012 over 300 holes had been
tains minor amounts of nickel (Steven and Armstrong, 2003) completed and First Quantum Ltd. announced a maiden mea-
and the Lumwana Cu-(U) (Malundwe, Chimiwungo, and sured and indicated mineral resource of 40.1 Mt of 1.07% Ni
Lubwe; Bernau, 2007; Rowe, 2012) and Kansanshi Cu-Au (www.first-quantum.com/Media-Centre/Press-Releases/
deposits (Broughton et al., 2002) approximately 50 and Press-Release-Details/2012/First-Quantum-Minerals-
150 km to the east of Enterprise, respectively (Fig. 2), neither Provides-Update-on-Kansanshi-and-Enterprise-Mineral-
of which are known to contain nickel. Resource-and-Reserve-Estimates1132197/default.aspx). As
currently known the Enterprise deposit consists of the Enter-
prise Main and Enterprise Southwest zones. This paper deals
*Present address: First Quantum Minerals Ltd., 330 Bay Street, Suite 820
with the Main zone, which contains a series of mineralized
#1000, Toronto, Ontario M5H 2S8, Canada. bodies that range in thickness from a few meters to over 80 m
† Corresponding author: e-mail, [email protected] and cover an area of 1,000 × 500 m. Although supergene
Submitted: September 22, 2013
0361-0128/15/4274/9-30 9 Accepted: April 5, 2014
10 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

24° 25° 26° 27° 28°

0 50 100
kilometers Tenke D E M O C RAT I C
Fungurume REPUBLIC
OF CONGO
Kamoa Kolwezi Kambove
Likasi
- 11° 11°-
Shinkolobwe
Menda Luishia
Swambo Kinsevere

Ruashi-Etoile
Mwinilunga o Lubumbashi
mp
abo me Kipushi
K Do
-12° Kansanshi 12°-
Lumwana Solwezi Musoshi
Enterprise
Sentinel
Konkola
Nchanga
Mufilira
Kitwe
Nkana
-13° ZAMBIA Ndola 13°
Luanshya

Ant
Kaf orium
iclin
ue
Kasempa

24° 25° 26° 27° 28°

LEGEND
post-Katangan granite (520 Ma) major mine or deposit

post-Katangan cover city

Nguba and Kundelungu groups (750-600 Ma) river

Roan Group (880-735 Ma) border

pre-Katangan basement (2050-1800Ma) outline of Figure 2

Fig. 1. Simplified geologic map of the Central African Copperbelt showing the location of the Enterprise deposit. The
Zambian Copperbelt in the southeast portion of the region contains a number of copper deposits surrounding the Kafue
anticlinorium, the easternmost basement inlier in northern Zambia. The Congolese Copperbelt forms a W-NW–trending arc
extending from the northern edge of the Zambian Copperbelt to the Tenke-Fungarume deposits and then along a westward
trend to the Kolwezi district. The Domes region comprises the area from the Solwezi dome westward to the Kabompo dome.
The Shinkolobwe and Swambo U-(Ni) deposits occur between the Domes region and the Congolese Copperbelt.

nickel-mineralized material is present at Enterprise it was not in order of abundance are bravoite (nickeliferous pyrite; (Fe,
investigated in the present study. Ni)S2), vaesite (NiS2), and millerite (NiS). Nickel sulfides
The Enterprise area is largely covered by soil and sapro- occur as disseminated grains along laminations, as semimas-
lite with virtually no outcrop. This study is based largely on sive replacements of the host rocks, and within veins. The
detailed core logging of 21 drill holes from within the Main mineralized zones contain minor copper, trace amounts of
zone combined with data from company drill logs of additional cobalt, and very low platinum group elements (PGEs); values
holes (Capistrant, 2013). Mineralized zones at Enterprise of other elements (e.g. U, Zn, rare earth elements [REEs])
occur within metasedimentary rocks adjacent to a series of appear to be very low, though the assay database is limited.
normal faults. The main nickel sulfide minerals at Enterprise Mineralization appears to have taken place concurrently with
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 11

25° 26° 27°

0 50 100
kilometers
KABOMPO DOME

12° 12°
Kansanshi
Lubwe
Enterprise
Sentinel
Malundwe
Chimiwungo

MWOMBEZHI DOME SOLWEZI DOME

LUSWISHI DOME

LEGEND
Syenite Kundelungu Mwashya Lower Roan
Group Subgroup Subgroup

Mafic meta-igneous Upper Roan Pre-Katangan

Nguba Group Subgroup basement 13°
13°
Ore Deposit Outline of Figure 3

25° 26° 27°

Fig. 2. Generalized geologic map of the North-Western Province of Zambia (Domes region) showing the location of the
Enterprise Ni deposit as well as the locations of major copper deposits. The Lumwana deposit comprises the Malundwe,
Chimiwungo, and Lubwe orebodies. The geology of the Luswishi dome area is from Ayers (1975). The geology in the Solwezi
Dome and Kansanshi areas is based on Arthurs and Legg (1974), Barron (2003), and data from First Quantum Minerals Ltd.,
Zambia. The geology of the Mwombezhi dome area is from Mulelua and Seifert (1998) and Bernau (2007). The geology of
the Kabompo dome area is from Appleton (1978), Key et al. (2001), Klinck (1977), and data from First Quantum Minerals
Ltd., Zambia. This figure is modified from Hitzman et al. (2012).

metamorphism of the host sedimentary sequence and been Analytical Methods

preceded or accompanied by intense magnesian alteration This study utilized standard transmitted and reflected light
and silicification. petrographic techniques and automated quantitative mineral-
Though metamorphosed mafic igneous rocks are recog- ogical analysis (QEMSCAN®) to delineate the mineralogy and
nized in the Enterprise area, there does not appear to be an paragenetic sequence of alteration and mineralization. The
obvious igneous source for the amount of nickel contained QEMSCAN® instrument is an automated quantitative min-
in the deposit, especially as compared to some other hydro- eralogy tool that utilizes a Carl Zeiss EVO50 SEM platform,
thermal nickel deposits such as Avebury in Tasmania (Keays four Bruker energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) detectors,
and Jowitt, 2013). Enterprise is not hosted in black shales and proprietary software to produce false-colored mineral
as are several other sediment-hosted nickel deposits (Jowitt maps from backscatter electron signals and EDS spectra. A
and Keays, 2011) and there is no evidence for significant con- PC-based software suite, iDiscover™, allowed automated
centrations of nickel in the rocks prior to metasomatism and data acquisition and interactive data analysis.
metamorphism. The Enterprise deposit shares similarities A number of sulfide samples were analyzed for sulfur iso-
in terms of alteration and mineralization style to the much topes. Approximately 80 to 130 µg of sulfide was collected by
less metamorphosed nickel-bearing Shinkolobwe uranium microdrilling. Each sample was combusted at 1050°C in a
deposit in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC; Derriks Eurovector 3000 elemental analyzer at the Colorado School
and Vaes, 1956) though Enterprise is not known to contain of Mines Stable Isotope Laboratory. The sulfur dioxide gen-
significant uranium. erated was delivered to a Micromass Isoprime stable isotope
This contribution presents a description of the stratigraphy ratio mass spectrometer in continuous flow mode in a stream
and structure of the host rocks at the Enterprise deposit as of helium carrier gas. Isotope transient peaks of samples were
well as the paragenetic sequence of metamorphism, hydro- compared to a laboratory standard sulfur dioxide reference
thermal metasomatism, and associated sulfide mineralization. gas. Isotopic values are reported using the δ notation as a
These data are utilized to compare the deposit with other per mil difference from the Canyon Diablo Troilite (CDT)
sediment-hosted nickel deposits. international reference (Beaudoin et al., 1994). An NBS-127
12 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

barium sulfate standard reference material from the National both the Lower Roan Subgroup of the Zambian Copperbelt
Institute of Standards and Technology barium sulfate was cal- (hematitic conglomerates and sandstones) and the Roches
ibrated to CDT through repeated measurement. This method Argilo-Talqueuses (R.A.T.) Subgroup of the Congolese Cop-
yielded precision of 0.01‰ determined from blind duplicates perbelt (talc- and/or chlorite-bearing hematitic siltstones). At
of sample material. the Enterprise deposit the upper portion of the Lower Roan
Vein-hosted molybdenite, intergrown with Ni sulfides, Subgroup succession contains mixed kyanite-bearing quartz-
was extracted using a small hand-held drill and the result- rich metasedimentary and metacarbonate rocks termed the
ing powder was used for Re-Os isotope analysis at the AIRIE Enterprise graben sequence by First Quantum geologists.
Program, Colorado State University. Purity of molybdenite The Lower Roan Subgroup along the eastern margin of the
separate is estimated at 90 to 100%. Molybdenite was com- Kabompo dome is overlain by an approximately 200-m-thick
bined with a mixed-double Os spike using the Carius tube section of predominately carbonate metasedimentary rocks
method and equilibrated in HNO3-HCl (inverse aqua regia) with subordinate siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks with
for 12 hours at 230°C. Purified Re and Os were loaded on Pt minor kyanite and talc that is commonly capped by stratiform
filaments and isotopic data were acquired by negative thermal to discordant polylithic breccia derived from evaporitic rocks.
ionization mass spectrometry (NTIMS) on a Triton instru- This carbonate-evaporite sequence is stratigraphically equiva-
ment at AIRIE. All data are blank corrected, and with the lent to the Upper Roan Subgroup of the Zambian Copperbelt
double Os spike corrections for Os isotope mass fractionation (Selley et al., 2005; Bull et al., 2011) and to the Mines and
and common Os are applied. Dipeta subgroups in the Congolese Copperbelt (François,
1973; Cailteux, 1994; Cailteux et al., 2005a; Kampunzu et al.,
Geologic Setting 2005).
The ore deposits of the Central African Copperbelt, The Upper Roan Subgroup carbonate-evaporite sequence
including the Enterprise nickel deposit, occur primarily is overlain along the eastern edge of the Kabompo dome
within Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks of the 5- to by a heterogeneous package of metamorphosed siltstones,
10-km-thick Katangan Supergroup (Cailteux, et al., 2005a). shales, silty carbonate rocks, and thin carbonate beds up to
Rocks of the Katangan Supergroup occur within a series of 450 m thick that is regionally correlated with the Mwashya
extensional basins that straddle the border between the DRC Subgroup. Regional mapping in the eastern Kabompo dome
and Zambia. Although sharing broadly similar stratigraphic indicates that this sequence displays rapid facies changes
sequences, individual depocenters had distinctive features, indicative of synsedimentary tectonism. To the northeast of
particularly within their basal successions (Hitzman et al., Enterprise the top of the Mwashya Subgroup contains up
2012). The economically most important and hence best- to 150 m of weakly metamorphosed basaltic flows and sills.
studied depocenters are those in the Zambian Copperbelt Limited drill data indicate that these volcanic rocks thicken
and the Congolese Copperbelt (Fig. 1). The geologically less adjacent to Mwashya-age synsedimentary faults. These rocks
well-known North-Western Province of Zambia where the are probably equivalent to the mafic volcanic rocks mapped to
Enterprise deposit is located (Fig. 2) contains a sequence of the west of the Kabompo dome in the Mwinilunga area (Key
Katangan Supergroup rocks that is broadly correlative with et al., 2001). The Grand Conglomérat diamictite unit of the
those known in the Zambian and Congolese Copperbelts Nguba Group is recognized regionally to overlie the Mwashya
(Hitzman et al., 2012). Subgroup.
The Katangan Supergroup within the Central African Cop-
perbelt has been subdivided into three main sequences. The Structural geology of the Enterprise deposit area
lowermost sequence, termed the Roan Group, includes initial The Enterprise deposit occurs along the southeast side of
rift-stage siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, postrift evaporite- the Kabompo dome on the southeast limb of a less than 1-km-
bearing carbonate rocks, and sedimentary rocks deposited wide syncline of Katangan Supergroup rocks (Fig. 3). In the
during a later extensional event together with mafic igneous immediate deposit area, rocks of the Lower Roan Subgroup
flows and sills. The overlying Nguba Group is composed of are capped by polylithic breccia and rocks of both the Upper
siliciclastic and carbonate metasedimentary rocks and includes Roan and Mwashya subgroups are thin to locally absent (Figs.
at its base the Grand Conglomérat diamictite, a regional 3, 4). Drilling and mapping suggest that these rocks were
marker unit. The siliciclastic-dominant Kundelungu Group removed by low angle faulting at the level of the polylithic
comprises the uppermost unit in the Katangan Supergroup breccia.
sequence. The maximum age of the basal Roan Group strata The Lower Roan Subgroup sequence at the Enterprise
is constrained in the Zambian Copperbelt by the unconform- deposit is characterized by rapid lateral lithological changes.
ably underlying 883 ±10 Ma Nchanga granite (Armstrong et Drilling indicates that zones of rapid lithologic change occur
al., 2005). across vertically oriented, planar zones, at least some of which
appear to correspond to the location of steeply dipping,
Stratigraphy of the eastern Kabompo dome NE-trending faults. These faults contain abundant talc and
The geology of the eastern Kabompo dome area (Fig. 3) is appear to be extremely narrow (<0.5 m). The most southeast
known from recent geological mapping, geophysical surveys, of these faults sharply juxtaposes basement rocks against the
and drilling by First Quantum Minerals Ltd. The Katangan Katangan metasedimentary sequence (Fig. 5) and displays an
sequence in this area contains a basal package of metamor- apparent normal offset. The more northwest of these faults
phosed, kyanite- and talc-bearing siliciclastic rocks up to have down to the southeast displacement. Sedimentary units
600 m thick. This sequence shares lithologic similarities with thicken toward several of these apparent normal faults (Fig.
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 13

280 000 mE 300 000 mE 320 000 mE

LEGEND
Mafic meta-igneous rocks
Katangan Supergroup

Mwashya Subgroup and Nguba Group

Upper Roan Subgroup carbonates
Upper Roan Subgroup evaporitic siltstones
Lower Roan Subgroup
Undifferentiated Roan Group
Basement metamorphic rocks

8 660 000 mN
Low angle fault
E
High angle fault M
O
Fold axis D
O
Outline of Figure 4 P
M
O
B
A
K Enterprise
Sentinel Ka
lum
bil
aF
au
lt

8 640 000 mN
0 20 Km

Fig. 3. Generalized bedrock geology map of the eastern Kabompo dome showing the locations of the Enterprise nickel
and Sentinel copper deposits. The Enterprise deposit is located within a major synform. Within the map area the Katangan
Group metasedimentary rocks overlie Paleoproterozoic metamorphic rocks, commonly along a low angle structure. The
Upper Roan and Mwashya subgroup sequences appear to be locally cut out in numerous areas due to movement along low
angle structures, several of which are occupied by stratiform, apparently halokinetic polylithic breccias. The Sentinel copper
deposit contains minor nickel, primarily adjacent to the Kalumbila fault.

5) indicating some of these structures may have been active at The low angle shear zones at the base of the Katangan
the time of sedimentation. The faults appear to form a narrow sequence and the polylithic breccia are cut by a series of NW-
(<200-m-wide) graben-like structure that has been termed trending, steeply dipping faults (Fig. 4) that have dip-slip dis-
the Enterprise graben by First Quantum geologists. placements of several tens to hundreds of meters.
The NE-trending normal faults appear in some locations to
terminate at depth along the basement-Katangan Supergroup Metamorphism
contact (Fig. 5), which is observed to be a low angle shear The ~590 to 500 Ma Lufilian orogeny resulted in inversion
zone in several drill holes in the Enterprise area, particularly and deformation of the Katangan succession throughout the
those near the axis of the Enterprise graben. The NE-trending Central African Copperbelt. Metamorphism and deformation
normal faults do not cut the breccia (Figs. 4, 5). The polylithic associated with the Lufilian event are regionally heteroge-
breccia forms a low angle sheet along which the Upper Roan neous. From the Zambian Copperbelt to the Kolwezi area of
and Mwashya subgroup rocks have been structurally removed DRC the Lufilian orogeny produced an arcuate belt of open
in the Enterprise area (Fig. 4). The low angle structures at to tight folds and reverse faults (Cahen et al., 1984; Kam-
Enterprise are interpreted as Lufilian in age as they are paral- punzu and Cailteux, 1999; Rainaud et al., 2005). Katangan
lel to the metamorphic fabric dated with monazite by John et rocks in the Congolese Copperbelt generally display lowest
al. (2004). greenschist facies mineral assemblages whereas rocks in the
 14 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

305 000 mE
8 652 500 mE

A
LEGEND
Mwashya Subgroup
meta-siltstones and
meta-carbonate
Upper Roan Subgroup
dolomitic and biotitic marbles

Polylithic breccia

Lower Roan Subgroup

talc-rich meta-siltstone

A’
Pre-Katangan
schists and gneisses
high angle fault
(dashed under cover)

low angle fault

drillholes examined for this study

other drillholes (logs utilized)
0m 500m river

8 651 500 mE
306 500 mE
Fig. 4. Bedrock geologic map of the Enterprise area based on drill hole data. The polygonal shape of the map reflects the
area drilled.

Zambian Copperbelt contain biotite- and phlogopite-bearing Supergroup (Lower Roan Subgroup), and rocks belonging to
assemblages and attained greenschist to lower amphibolite the Mwashya Subgroup (Fig. 4).
facies (Ramsay and Ridgeway, 1977).
Lufilian deformation in the Domes region resulted in at least Pre-Katangan basement
local decoupling of the basement rocks from the overlying Mapping of the eastern Kabompo dome by Geological Sur-
Katangan sequence (e.g., Bernau, 2007). Rocks in the Domes vey of Zambia (Klinck, 1977; Appleton, 1978; Key et al., 2001)
region locally contain garnet- and/or kyanite-bearing assem- and First Quantum Ltd. geologists demonstrates that the
blages (Cosi et al., 1992; Barron, 2003) typical of greenschist basement sequence consists of schist, paragneiss, and orthog-
to amphibolite metamorphic assemblages. Kyanite-bearing neiss. U-Pb laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass
assemblages are best developed in rocks of the Lower Roan spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis of zircons within base-
Subgroup along and adjacent to the low angle contact with ment rocks from the eastern Kabompo dome (G. Begg, pers.
the basement and in the immediate vicinity of the Enterprise commun., 2011) yields a range of ages indicating that these
deposit. The age of metamorphism in the Enterprise area is rocks were derived from both igneous (~2.22–1.83 Ga) and
constrained to approximately 546 Ma from U-Pb dates on mon- sedimentary rocks that underwent metamorphism at approxi-
azite intergrown with metamorphic minerals from the hanging mately 1.9 to 1.8 Ga and again during a Lufilian metamorphic
wall of the Sentinel deposit (Steven and Armstrong, 2003). event at approximately 550 to 530 Ma.
Drilling at Enterprise has intersected several tens of meters
Lithology in the Enterprise Deposit Area of basement rocks. Basement rocks furthest from the contact
Drilling in the Enterprise area has intersected base- with the overlying Katangan Supergroup rocks are domi-
ment schists, metasedimentary rocks of the basal Katangan nantly medium-grained, well-foliated quartz-biotite schists


A A’ LEGEND
Enterprise Graben Structure
NORTHWEST SOUTHEAST
7
03 8 41 D 000
009 37 93 31 10 55 D00 TD Meta-siltstone
D01 D D01 D00 D01 7 0 4
EN D00 3 TD EN
TD TD TD TD TD D00 008
TD
N EN
EN EN E N E N EN TD DD D 012 D 008 D0 E
TD DD000
T
EN NT D D 019
E N
E ENT ENT

Dolomitic and
biotitic marble

Polylithic breccia
Upper Roan Subgroup Mwashya Subgroup

Mafic meta-igneous
rock

Carbonaceous
meta-carbonate

Carbonaceous
quartz-rich rock

Dark-gray quartz-
Katangan Supergroup

rich rock
Enterprise Graben Sequence

Meta-carbonate rock
Lower Roan Subgroup

100m
Talc-rich meta-siltstone

Quartz-rich
meta-sandstone
Basal Siliciclastic Sequence

0 Pre-Katangan
100m schist and gneiss

shear zone Ni > 0.5%

syn-sedimentary
normal fault Cu Zone
GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA

Fig. 5. NW-trending cross section through the Main zone at the Enterprise deposit showing the location of the nickel (0.5% Ni cutoff) and copper (visual sulfide)
mineralized zones. The locations of faults on this section are based on drill core logging and cross-section construction. Early normal faults appear to have controlled the
thickness and facies architecture of the Lower Roan Subgroup sequence. These faults are apparently cutoff at depth by a shear zone along the contact between basement
schists and the overlying Katangan Supergroup sequence though there are very few drill hole control points. The normal faults do not cut the overlying polylithic brec-
cia. Nickel sulfides are concentrated in dark gray, quartz-rich rock and metacarbonate rock. The distribution of mineralized zones suggests the normal faults may have
provided hydrothermal fluid conduits. A copper zone underlies the nickel zone.
15
16 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

with lesser amounts of potassium feldspar, plagioclase, mus- may represent a low angle structure in some locations. The
covite, and epidote and minor garnet, dolomite, tourmaline, metasandstone is white to pink in color and is generally sugary
rutile, and apatite. Macroscopically, two foliations are some- textured and well banded. The banding is defined primarily
times apparent in these rocks. An early, high-angle foliation, by variable concentrations of hematite. Some bands appear to
largely defined by biotite, is occasionally noted; this foliation represent primary bedding with individual beds up to 20 cm
probably resulted from Paleoproterozoic deformation. The thick. Structures that may represent tabular crossbedding are
dominant foliation is flat lying and generally parallel to the locally evident.
contact between the basement rocks and the overlying Katan- The metasandstone is composed of equant, sometimes
gan Supergroup rocks; this foliation is interpreted to be Lufil- undulose quartz grains 700 to 1,000 µm in diameter. Con-
ian in age. tacts between quartz grains may display dissolution on faces
Within basement rocks, kyanite abundance steadily increases parallel to foliation; preserved rounded detrital shapes are
toward low angle contacts with the overlying Katangan Super- rare. Talc, Mg-chlorite, kyanite, specular hematite, and locally
group metasedimentary rocks in step with a decrease in mus- phlogopite and albite occur interstitially to quartz grains and
covite. Biotite abundance also decreases approaching the comprise up to 20% of the rock by volume. Rutile, tourmaline,
contact; its decrease is matched by an increase in phlogopite. and apatite are common accessory minerals and rare zircon is
Apatite and rutile are increasingly common in rocks closer to sometimes present; these minerals could represent detrital
the contact. Within approximately one meter of the contact grains. The metasandstone unit becomes progressively more
talc is present within the basement schists. Talc is both inter- talc-rich up section.
grown with and replaces small crystals of kyanite that grew Within a hundred meters of the Enterprise deposit, quartz-
parallel to the foliation. Biotite/phlogopite and any remaining rich rocks of the basal siliciclastic sequence become paler
muscovite were largely replaced by chlorite immediately adja- in color, due primarily to the loss of specular hematite and
cent to the contact. A several-cm-thick assemblage of strongly an increase in talc. Macroscopic kyanite is not abundant in
foliated, coarse-grained, phlogopite-rich schist with talc, quartz-rich rocks beneath the Enterprise deposit but is pres-
Mg-chlorite, fine-grained kyanite, and sometimes abundant ent as small (50–300 µm) grains that are typically rimmed by
apatite generally occupies low angle contacts between the very fine grained talc. Quartz-rich rocks beneath and immedi-
pre-Katangan basement and the overlying Katangan Super- ately laterally adjacent to the deposit contain relatively more
group metasedimentary package. talc and Mg-chlorite than quartz-rich basal siliciclastic rocks
The mineral assemblage in basement rocks adjacent to the away from the deposit.
contact with the overlying Katangan sequence rocks indicates The uppermost portion of the basal siliciclastic sequence at
that magnesian metasomatism occurred along the contact Enterprise consists of a massive to banded talc-rich unit that
prior to or during the Lufilian metamorphic event. A simi- is interpreted to represent a metamorphosed siltstone. This
lar increase in magnesium through the basement toward the unit varies in thickness from 5 to over 200 m. It is composed
contact with Katangan Supergroup rocks has been observed primarily of talc (70–45%), quartz (15–30%), and kyanite
at the Lumwana Malundwe deposit (R. Scott, pers. commun., (5–25%) with banded zones of disseminated specular hema-
2009). tite and subsidiary Mg-chlorite, albite, rutile, and tourmaline.
Quartz grains are commonly subangular to subrounded and
Katangan Supergroup-Lower Roan Subgroup occur as single grains or grain aggregates. Kyanite grains aver-
basal siliciclastic sequence age 50 to 200 µm in cross section and 1 mm in length. Kya-
The lowermost portion of the Katangan Supergroup nite, talc, and chlorite display weak to strong alignment that
sequence in the Enterprise graben consists of an upward- defines a foliation. Hematite is most abundant in the upper
fining succession of metamorphosed hematitic conglomer- portions of the unit. Talc-rich bands tend to be light tan to
ates, sandstones, and siltstones. This sequence displays lateral pink in color, whereas more hematite-rich bands are dark gray
thickness changes in the deposit area from approximately to purplish. This variability gives the rocks a banded appear-
100 to over 500 m (Fig. 5). Metamorphosed conglomer- ance (Fig. 6C).
ate beds that occur locally along the base of the succession The talc-rich metasiltstones of the basal siliciclastic
have a maximum thickness of 20 m. These metaconglomer- sequence display marked mineralogical and texture variations
ates are matrix-supported with pebble to small cobble-sized beneath and adjacent to the Enterprise deposit. Kyanite in
clasts (2 mm–3 cm) of quartzite, schist, and gneiss (Fig. 6A). the metasiltstones beneath the Enterprise deposit is signifi-
Clasts comprise approximately 10 to 35% of the rock, are sub- cantly finer grained than away from the deposit. Unlike the
rounded to rounded, and are commonly flattened and elon- metasandstones there does not appear to be a significant dif-
gated parallel to the metamorphic fabric. The matrix of these ference in the abundance of kyanite in the metasiltstones with
beds consists of moderately fine grained (500–1,000 µm) proximity to the deposit. Mg-chlorite is more abundant within
quartz intergrown with muscovite, kyanite, talc, phlogopite, the talc-rich rocks close to the Enterprise deposit where it
and minor specular hematite. rims kyanite grains and forms distinctive foliation-parallel
The dominant lithotype at the base of the Katangan bands within talc-rich bands. Minor albite present in both
sequence in the Enterprise area is a banded quartz-rich rock the metasandstones and metasiltstones appears to be progres-
(Fig. 6B) that is interpreted as metamorphosed silty sand- sively replaced by talc or intergrown talc–Mg-chlorite with
stone to quartz-rich siltstone. This unit attains thicknesses proximity to the orebody.
of over 250 m to the north of the deposit (Fig. 5) and com- The metasiltstone unit at Enterprise is compositionally sim-
monly directly overlies basement rocks, though this contact ilar to talc- and hematite-rich siltstones and sandstones of the
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 17

C
Fig. 6. Lower Roan Subgroup basal siliciclastic rocks. (A) Metaconglomerate with clasts of quartz, quartzite, and schist
in a groundmass composed of quartz, biotite, muscovite, and kyanite. ENT DD0012, 649 m. (B) Metasandstone displaying
banding that is the result of variable amounts of disseminated hematite; some of this banding probably represents bedding.
ENT DD0012, 345 m. (C) Banded metasiltstone with the dark bands containing abundant specular hematite. ENT DD0014;
224.86-228.58 m.

R.A.T. Subgroup in the DRC (Cailteux et al., 2005b) although the “Ore Shale” sequence of dolomitic siltstone, dolostones,
it lacks dolomite and magnesite that are commonly present in and arkosic sandstones in the upper portion of the Lower
the R.A.T. The talc-rich composition of the metasiltstones at Roan Subgroup in the Zambian Copperbelt.
Enterprise suggests that like the R.A.T. it underwent extreme Metasiltstones within this sequence are lithologically simi-
metasomatism (Cluzel, 1985; Moine et al., 1986; Kampunzu lar to the talc-rich metasiltstones of the basal siliciclastic
et al., 2005). sequence but generally lack hematite and thus do not display
banding. These metasiltstones may be composed primarily of
Katangan Supergroup-Roan Group Enterprise kyanite or talc at the expense of quartz. Kyanite-rich meta-
graben sequence siltstones contain coarse blue clots of kyanite crystals up to
Overlying the basal siliciclastic sequence in the immedi- 2 mm in diameter that give the rock a distinctive bluish tan
ate Enterprise deposit area is a distinctive, heterogeneous, color (Fig. 7A). The Enterprise graben sequence also contains
and laterally discontinuous sequence of interlayered meta- several laterally discontinuous pods of metasandstone that are
siltstones, metasandstones, dark gray, quartz-rich laminated typically massive and commonly kyanite rich compared to
rocks, black carbonaceous quartz-rich rocks, metacarbonate stratigraphically lower metasandstones.
rocks, and altered mafic metaigneous rocks (Fig. 5), termed A common rock type within the Enterprise graben sequence
the Enterprise graben sequence by First Quantum Ltd. geol- is dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock. This unit is distin-
ogists. In a stratigraphic sense this sequence is equivalent to guished from metasandstones in the underlying and laterally
18 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

A
500μm

tal

ky

qtz
C
500μm

tal

ky
qtz

D
500μm

qtz

carbon
tal qtz
ky
ca

F ky
rb
on

500μm
qtz

carbon
tal qtz
ky
ca

B E G ky
rb
on

Fig. 7. Enterprise graben sequence rocks. (A) Image of drill core of quartz-rich metasandstone with light blue clots of
kyanite. These rocks are similar to metasandstones in the basal siliciclastic sequence (Fig. 6B) but lack abundant hematite
that results in the banded texture in stratigraphically lower metasandstones. ENT DD0120, 284.3 m. (B) Laminated dark
gray, quartz-rich rock with crinkly bands and nodules of paler colored kyanite and quartz. The bronze colored bands contain
disseminated sulfides. The rock is also cut by irregular veins and pods of white quartz with minor kyanite. ENT DD0019,
128.8 m. (C) Plane-polarized photomicrograph of the paler portion of B showing that the rock is dominantly composed of
fine-grained quartz with lesser elongate lenses of kyanite (dark) and minor talc. (D) Crosspolarized photomicrograph of C.
The rock is composed of a fine-grained mosaic of subrounded to irregular and sutured quartz grains. The highly birefrin-
gent grain in the upper center is tourmaline. (E) Moderately mineralized black carbonaceous quartz-rich rock that is cut by
multiple banding parallel veinlets of quartz, kyanite, and sulfides. This sample contains 8.98% total organic carbon. ENT
DD00120, 251.2 m. (F) Plane-polarized photomicrograph of the black carbonaceous quartz-rich rock in E. The groundmass
of the rock is composed of fine-grained quartz and opaque carbonaceous material. The banding-parallel veinlet is composed
of coarse-grained kyanite and quartz with minor talc and Mg-chlorite. (G) Cross-polarized photomicrograph of E illustrating
the fine-grained quartz in the groundmass. Abbreviations: ky = kyanite, qtz = quartz, tal = talc.

adjacent basal siliciclastic sequence by its generally dark gray that could represent algal lamination. Dark layers are com-
color, lack of hematite, commonly well-laminated texture, posed primarily of fine-grained (30–100 µm) polygonal quartz
fine-grain size, and abundant fine-grained blue-gray kyanite with minor phlogopite, kyanite, and albitic plagioclase con-
(Fig. 7B-D). This rock displays conspicuous millimeter to taining abundant inclusions of pyrite, rutile, and tourmaline.
approximately 1 cm scale dark and light bands that resemble The light bands are composed of quartz and kyanite (Fig. 7
bedding. The bands sometimes have a crinkled appearance C, D). Total organic carbon (TOC) analyses of the dark rocks
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 19

indicate they contain less than 0.06% TOC as measured utiliz- carbonaceous quartz-rich rocks are composed of quartz and
ing a LECO Carbon Analyzer (Capistrant, 2013), suggesting kyanite with lesser Mg-chlorite, rutile, tourmaline, and pyrite
that the dark color of these rocks is not caused by carbona- and interstitial carbonaceous matter and contain thin (300–
ceous matter but rather by phlogopite and the inclusions of 700 µm) bands composed almost entirely of carbonaceous mat-
pyrite, rutile, and tourmaline in quartz. ter (Fig. 7F, G). Rock-Eval analyses (Capistrant, 2013) indicate
Kyanite in the dark, quartz-rich laminated rocks is signifi- that this carbonaceous material contains trace amounts of
cantly finer grained than in the basal siliciclastic rocks. The hydrogen and is not graphite. The carbonaceous bands may
kyanite is generally concentrated along bands; its distribution represent bedding but they rarely display the crinkled appear-
suggests it formed along originally argillaceous layers. Mg- ance typical of banding in the dark gray, quartz-rich rock.
chlorite locally cuts and replaces kyanite and albitic plagio- Quartz in the black carbonaceous quartz-rich rocks has a
clase. Minor talc is also generally present and is often spatially similar texture to that in the dark gray, quartz-rich laminated
associated with Mg-chlorite (Fig. 7 C, E, F). rock unit but has a variable grain size from very fine-grained
The dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rocks are commonly (typically <50 µm) to medium grained where intergrown
cut by pale gray to blue colored kyanite-quartz veins (Figs. with carbonaceous material (Fig. 7F, G). Kyanite forms
7B, 8). These veins display an irregular, often wavy pattern minor, fine-grained (<50 µm) aggregates that define a band-
and vary in width from millimeters to several centimeters. ing or foliation in the rock. Crosscutting veinlets containing
Quartz in these veins is typically coarser grained than in the coarse-grained quartz (up to 250 µm diam) and kyanite (up to
surrounding groundmass, displays a polygonal to occasion- 500 µm in length) are common, though rarely abundant (Fig.
ally sutured texture, and is intergrown with coarse, radiating 7F, G); these veinlets may contain minor Mg-chlorite, talc,
blades of kyanite that give the veins a bluish color (Fig. 8). rutile, tourmaline, and pyrite. Black carbonaceous quartz-rich
Kyanite in the veins ranges from fine to coarse grained with rocks have total organic carbon contents ranging from approx-
individual crystals up to a centimeter in length. The veins imately 9 to 17% (Capistrant, 2013).
commonly contain rutile and tourmaline though these miner- Near the base of the Enterprise graben sequence both the
als are less abundant in the veins than in the dark layers of dark gray, quartz-rich rock and the carbonaceous quartz-rich
the laminated dark gray, quartz-rich rock. The quartz-kyanite rock are locally altered to an assemblage of talc and dolomite.
veins may contain sulfides. Contacts between unaltered and talc-dolomite altered rocks
The quartz-kyanite veins are cut by quartz-dolomite veins are commonly gradational. Remnants of unaltered quartz-
that may in turn be cut by highly irregularly shaped albite- rich rocks, sometimes with kyanite laminations, appear as gray
apatite-muscovite-phlogopite-talc-(chlorite) veins (Fig. 8). colored nodules within talc-dolomite zones. Kyanite in these
Thin late chlorite veinlets containing subsidiary muscovite zones was replaced by talc; talc replacement was accompa-
and minor kyanite as well as even later talc veinlets cut the nied by quartz dissolution. Intensely altered rocks are com-
albite-bearing veins. These late veins display highly irregular posed of medium- to coarse-grained white talc and dolomite
geometries and generally lack sulfides. with abundant quartz inclusions. The zone of talc-dolomite
Individual layers of the dark gray, quartz-rich laminated alteration lies above the zone of intense talc alteration in the
rock unit have a maximum thickness of approximately 60 m underlying basal siliciclastic sequence.
in the deposit area (Fig. 5). They are discontinuous along The Enterprise graben sequence contains relatively abun-
strike but display greater extents parallel to northeast-striking dant metacarbonate rocks that become thicker (individual
normal faults. The dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock unit beds up to 40 m) and more common with stratigraphic height
grades into both metasiltstones of the underlying basal silici- within the graben sequence (Fig. 5). Metacarbonate rocks in
clastic unit and metacarbonate layers within the Enterprise the Enterprise graben sequence are generally composed of
graben sequence. Dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock also dolomite with subsidiary magnesite, phlogopite, Mg-chlorite,
grades into black carbonaceous quartz-rich rock. and chlorite. Metacarbonates may display laminar banding
Black carbonaceous quartz-rich rocks (Fig. 7E) form lenses somewhat similar to that in the dark gray, quartz-rich rocks
1 to 10 m thick within or adjacent to the dark gray quartz-rich (Fig. 9A, D). Some of the metacarbonate layers are carbona-
laminated rock. These lenses are discontinuous and can rarely ceous though none appear to have the high TOC contents of
be traced between drill holes, even those 50 m apart. The black the carbonaceous quartz-rich rocks.

Fig. 8. Dark gray, quartz-rich rock cut by a stockwork of blue quartz-kyanite veins. White albite-rich veins cut quartz-
kyanite veins at the top center of the image. ENT DD0019, 123.5-126.4 m.
20 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

qtz

dol
A
B

qtz

dol

C D
Fig. 9. Metacarbonate rocks within the Enterprise graben sequence. (A) Banded pinkish-tan and white metacarbonate
rock composed of dolomite and quartz with subsidiary phlogopite, Mg-chlorite, and talc. The light bands are more talc-rich.
ENT DD0087, 342.4 m. (B) Plane polarized photomicrograph of carbonate rock similar to A composed of fine-grained,
polygonal dolomite intergrown with poikilolitic quartz and minor phlogopite. ENT DD10, 364.5 m. (C) Laminated metacar-
bonate rock displaying white, dolomite-rich bands and darker, phlogopite-rich bands. The rock also contains minor quartz,
magnesite, and Mg-chlorite. ENT DD0019, 254.5 m. (D) Photomicrograph of B under cross polars showing irregular, poi-
kiloblastic quartz grains intergrown with fine-grained carbonate minerals. Abbreviations: dol = dolomite, qtz = quartz.

Stratigraphically lower metacarbonate layers are generally particularly the Roches Siliceuses Feuilletées (R.S.F.) unit (El
pale tan to pinkish in color and are composed of very fine Desouky et al., 2009).
grained aggregates of polygonal dolomite with subsidiary The high concentrations of TOC in the carbonaceous
magnesite, quartz, minor talc, Mg-chlorite, and phlogopite quartz-rich rocks within the Enterprise graben sequence are
(Fig. 9B, C). Rarely, these rocks contain trace amounts of unusual. Relatively high organic carbon is found locally in
hematite. Quartz in these rocks is commonly poikilitic (Fig. siliciclastic rocks within the Zambia Copperbelt and has been
9C, D). Carbonaceous metacarbonate rocks display irregular attributed to migrated hydrocarbons (e.g., Annels, 1979).
patches of quartz and quartz rims around patches of carbona- High TOC values have not been reported from rocks of the
ceous material. Mines Subgroup in the DRC, though few organic carbon
Metacarbonate rocks near the top of the Enterprise gra- analyses have been performed.
ben sequence are sometimes calcite bearing. These rocks vary
from almost pure calcite to calcite-(dolomite) intergrowths Katangan Supergroup-polylithic breccia
with phyllosilicate and silicate minerals. They may be mas- The basal siliciclastic sequence at Enterprise is overlain by
sive or well foliated; the degree of foliation corresponds to a white to pink colored polylithic breccia (Fig. 5). The breccia
the amount of phyllosilicate minerals, dominantly phlogopite, is matrix-supported and contains clasts ranging in size from
present. The transition stratigraphically upward in the Enter- 5 mm to probably over several tens of meters in diameter.
prise graben sequence from dolomitic or magnesite-bearing The clasts are rounded and commonly have diffuse edges sug-
metacarbonate rocks to calcitic metacarbonate rocks suggests gestive of in situ alteration (Fig. 10). Clasts are dominantly
the rocks were subjected to a magnesian alteration event with marble and dolostone but also include rocks that are com-
fluids coming from below. monly highly chloritic or composed of variable assemblages
The quartz-rich rocks in the Enterprise graben sequence of chlorite, biotite, actinolite, scapolite, albite, and magnetite
could have been derived from chert; however, chert is not rec- that were likely derived from mafic igneous rocks. The pink to
ognized elsewhere in the Lower Roan Subgroup of the Katan- white matrix consists of medium- to coarse-grained dolomite
gan basin. The textural and mineralogical similarities between and albite with subsidiary quartz, phlogopite, magnesite, and
partially silicified metacarbonate rocks and the dark gray, muscovite. Albite is most abundant in the lower portion of the
quartz-rich laminated rocks suggest the later may have been polylithic breccia. The polylithic breccia is cut by dolomite
derived from the metacarbonate rocks by complete silicifica- and albite-dolomite-(chlorite) veins.
tion. The quartz-rich rocks at Enterprise are somewhat similar The polylithic breccia forms a grossly stratiform and strat-
in texture to the silicified, formerly evaporite-rich carbonate abound sheet within the Enterprise deposit area (Fig. 5). It is
rocks of the Mines Subgroup of the Congolese Copperbelt, overlain either by Upper Roan Subgroup marble or dolostone
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 21

Fig. 10. Polylithic breccia containing clasts of marble (pale gray), dolostone (pale gray to brownish), and probable mafic
igneous rocks (black) with biotite, chlorite, and dolomite. Most clasts have a rounded shape and display diffuse edges indica-
tive of in situ alteration. The matrix of the breccia is composed dominantly of dolomite with minor phlogopite and chlorite.
ENT DD0012, 140 m.

or dolomitic siltstones of the Mwashya Subgroup. These rela- of the metacarbonate rocks contain minor to locally abundant
tionships indicate that the boundaries of the polylithic brec- medium- to coarse-grained biotite/phlogopite that defines a
cia represent low angle shear zones. The polylithic breccia is weak to well developed foliation. Scapolite is sometimes pres-
interpreted as a replacement of an original halite-anhydrite ent in the carbonate rocks, especially in proximity to the poly-
bearing diapiric mass derived from halokinetic movement of lithic breccia. These metacarbonate rocks are probably the
evaporite deposits within the Upper Roan Subgroup (Hitzman stratigraphic equivalent of the Upper Roan Subgroup.
et al., 2012).
Katangan Supergroup-Mwashya Subgroup siltstone
Katangan Supergroup-Upper Roan Subgroup Phyllitic siltstones overlying the Upper Roan Subgroup
carbonate rocks metacarbonate rocks or the polylithic breccia are lithologically
The polylithic breccia (Fig. 5) and, locally, the Lower Roan similar to rocks of the upper Mwashya Subgroup observed
Subgroup basal siliciclastic sequence outside of the immediate elsewhere along the eastern margin of the Kabompo dome.
deposit area (Fig. 4) are overlain by metamorphosed carbon- The siltstones and diamictites above the Upper Roan Sub-
ate rocks. In the Enterprise deposit area the basal portion of group are highly weathered in the Enterprise deposit area.
this carbonate sequence contains a laminated, blue-gray mar-
ble consisting of anhedral calcite with abundant inclusions of Mafic meta-igneous rocks
carbonaceous material and clots of amorphous carbonaceous Generally unfoliated rocks rich in chlorite, actinolite, and
material. Overlying the laminated, blue-gray marble and over- albite, and generally lacking kyanite, occur from within the
lying the basal siliciclastic sequence outside of the Enterprise basal siliciclastic sequence up to the base of the Mwashya Sub-
graben area is a massive, pink, dolomitic marble that is turn group siltstones at Enterprise (Fig. 5). Such rocks are most
overlain by a blue-gray biotitic dolostone. The Upper Roan common within the Enterprise graben sequence and within
Subgroup marbles and dolostones are medium to coarsely crys- and adjacent to the polylithic breccia. These rocks display a
talline; carbonate minerals display granoblastic textures. Many range of textures and mineral assemblages (Fig. 11). Many
b
+car
+epi

scap
scap

bio
A

Fig. 11. Mafic meta-igneous rocks in the Enterprise graben sequence.

(A) Metamorphosed mafic igneous rock displaying a relict porphyritic
igneous textures with white albite-scapolite grains after plagioclase phe-
nocrysts and black biotite grains probably after pyroxene or amphibole
phenocrysts. The fine-grained matrix is composed of chlorite with lesser
rutile and biotite, and minor quartz and magnetite. ENT DD0010, 117
act m. (B) Probable metamorphosed mafic igneous rock composed almost
chl+phg entirely of radiating actinolite with lesser chlorite, biotite, and magne-
tite; white clots are dolomite. ENT DD0103, 245 m. Abbreviations: act
= actinolite, bio = biotite, carb = carbonate mineral, chl = chlorite, phg =
B phlogopite, scap = scapolite.
22 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

are dark green in color, and contain coarse (1–3 mm) grains × 100 to 400 m wide and over 10 m thick. Mineralized zones
of albite (Fig. 11A) and/or biotite-phlogopite with scapolite, are thickest (~80 m) adjacent to the northernmost of the nor-
dolomite, and actinolite (Fig. 11B) in a fine-grained ground- mal faults defining the southeastern edge of the Enterprise
mass. Coarse albite grains resemble igneous plagioclase graben (Figs. 5, 12). A more poorly defined and thinner (~5 m
phenocrysts (Fig. 11A) while some large biotite-phlogopite thick) mineralized zone is present to the southwest of the
porphryoblasts may be after igneous ferromagnesian miner- Main zone (Fig. 12). A small copper sulfide zone underlies
als. The fine-grained groundmass is composed dominantly of the Main zone (Fig. 5).
iron-rich chlorite with relatively abundant rutile (up to 5%) The main nickel sulfide minerals at Enterprise in order of
and locally magnetite. Though demonstrably relict igneous decreasing abundance are bravoite (nickeliferous pyrite), vae-
textures are rare, the mineralogy of these rocks suggests they site, and millerite. The deposit also contains pyrite with lesser
are metamorphosed and metasomatized mafic igneous flows chalcopyrite, molybdenite, pyrrhotite, and carrollite. A pale,
or sills, though some probably also formed from metamor- silver-colored iron-nickel sulfide is also observed intergrown
phism of argillaceous dolomitic beds. with semimassive bravoite and may be an extremely nickelif-
erous pyrite. Bravoite, millerite, and pyrite all display a simi-
Sulfide Mineralization lar bronze color in drill core, making discrimination between
The Enterprise deposit consists of two irregularly shaped them difficult. Millerite, however, tarnishes with time while
zones (Fig. 12). The largest, termed the Main zone, is located pyrite and bravoite typically maintain a bronze color. Vaesite
between normal faults cutting the Lower Roan Subgroup is distinctive. It forms dark gray to almost black, commonly
sequence (Enterprise graben). It is approximately 1 km long euhedral dipyramidal crystals. Chalcopyrite is generally very

305 000 mE
8 652 500 mE

50 60
70 80
90

40 120

30

20
10

LEGEND
drillholes examined for this study
other drillholes (logs utilized)
high angle fault
(dashed under cover)
river
8 651 500 mE

0m 500m

Nickel thickness contours.

305 500 mE 306 000 mE
Fig. 12. Map of the Enterprise deposit showing the location of faults and contours (in 10-m intervals) of the thickness of
the Main and Southwest zones. The polygonal shape of the map reflects the area drilled.
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 23

fine grained in nickel zones making it difficult to see mac- nickel-mineralized zones average approximately 7% iron. In
roscopically. Molybdenite typically forms coarse masses. Pyr- well-mineralized intervals there is approximately 1 ppm As
rhotite is relatively rare though its presence can be discerned for each percent nickel. One-meter-thick nickel-mineralized
in hand specimen by its weak magnetism. Carrollite has been intervals can contain up to 3,000 ppm Mo though most 1-m
observed macroscopically but was not identified in thin sec- nickel-mineralized intervals contain less than 100 ppm Mo.
tion during this study. Phosphorous in zones with greater than 0.5% Ni averages
The highest nickel grades at Enterprise are hosted in lenses 360 ppm while the average phosphorus content of the rocks
of dark gray, quartz-rich rocks. Although assays indicate that at Enterprise is approximately 550 ppm.
significant nickel is locally present in carbonaceous quartz- Mineralized rock assayed to date has very low platinum group
rich rocks, petrographic studies and QEMSCAN® analysis element values. There is a reasonable correlation between Pd
identified few nickel sulfides suggesting that some of the and Pt for samples that have assay values greater than 7 ppb
nickel could be bound organically. Minor nickel sulfides occur Pd. In general, there is a poor correlation between PGE val-
within metacarbonate rocks and to a much lesser degree in ues and nickel grade, although intervals with the highest nickel
mafic meta-igneous rocks (Fig. 5). grades do generally contain 5 to 100 ppb combined palladium
Nickel sulfides in the dark gray, quartz-rich rocks occur and platinum; high-grade copper intervals beneath the nickel
as disseminated grains along laminations, as semimassive zone also display weakly anomalous PGE values. A very few of
replacements of the host rock, and within veins. In carbona- the samples assayed to date have elevated Ir (up to 24 ppb), Os
ceous quartz-rich rocks fine-grained pyrite occurs as dissemi- (up to 15 ppb), and Ru and Rh (both up to 66 ppb). Ir/Ni and
nations in quartz-rich bands. Sulfides in the metacarbonate Pd/Ni values do not display well-defined trends, though there
rocks occur as disseminations and within veins. Pyrite in mag- is a poorly defined correlation of Pd with Ni at Ni grades above
nesite veins and pods found along the margins of metacarbon- 3%. Gold values of well nickel-mineralized rocks averages less
ate lenses forms grains interstitial to the magnesite crystals or than 20 ppb, while silver is commonly below detection. Ura-
as discontinuous veins that cut magnesite. nium values in nickel-mineralized zones rarely exceed 20 ppm.
Nickel grades in well-mineralized zones range up to 17%
Ni over a 1-m interval with relatively high grade 1-m intervals Nickel-mineralized zones
ranging between 3 and 10% nickel. The highest copper grade Disseminated pyrite appears to be the paragenetically
in a 1-m-thick nickel-mineralized interval is 2.5% though the earliest-formed sulfide mineral in the rocks at Enterprise.
vast majority of nickel-mineralized intervals average less than Early disseminated pyrite is extremely fine grained (generally
0.2% Cu over a meter. The highest cobalt values in nickel- <25 µm; Fig. 13) and displays rounded to subrounded shapes
mineralized zones are 0.2% over a meter; the majority of 1 m that may represent original framboidal pyrite. In the dark
nickel-mineralized intervals average less than 0.05% Co. Well gray, quartz-rich rocks this early pyrite forms inclusions in

1mm
1m qtz
Quartz
50
0μμm
m
Kyanite
ky
Chlorite

mus Rutile
rut Muscovite
ky
Albite

Apatite

Dolomite
Mg-chl Phlogopite
Talc
py
py Tourmaline

Pyrite
mil
Millerite
qtz
Chalcopyrite

Fig. 13. QEMSCAN® images of dark gray, quartz-rich rock from the Enterprise graben sequence showing fine-grained
early pyrite. (A) Dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock with poikiloblastic kyanite grains. Quartz-rich layers contain minor
rutile and abundant small (5–50 µm) ovoid grains of pyrite that are morphologically similar to framboids. The rock also con-
tains coarse (>1 mm) subhedral to anhedral pyrite grains. Kyanite porphyroblasts appear to overgrow muscovite, quartz, and
pyrite. Kyanite is partially replaced by talc and chlorite. ENT DD0055, 133 m. (B) Enlarged view of A showing the abundance
of fine-grained rounded pyrite grains with most grains having diameters of less than 25 µm. Abbreviations: ky = kyanite, Mg-
chl = magnesian chlorite, mil = millerite, mus = muscovite, qtz = quartz, py = pyrite, rut = rutile.
24 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

both quartz and kyanite indicating it was present in the rocks foliation (Figs. 7B, 8). Nickel sulfides in quartz-kyanite veins
prior to metamorphism. Fine-grained disseminated pyrite is always appear to cut or replace quartz and kyanite (Figs. 15D,
also observed in the carbonaceous quartz-rich rocks and to a 16B, C). Quartz-kyanite and kyanite–Mg-chlorite veins (Fig.
lesser degree in some metacarbonate rocks. 17B) cut nickel sulfide mineralized rock. Nickel sulfides are
Crosscutting relationships indicate nickel mineraliza- commonly intergrown with Mg-chlorite and vanadian mus-
tion occurred in two main stages: a vaesite-millerite-coarse covite (Figs. 15D, 16C). These textural relationships indicate
pyrite (Ni-Fe) stage (Figs. 14–16) and a bravoite-millerite- that nickel mineralization occurred at similar P/T conditions
(molybdenite) (Fe-Ni-Mo) stage (Fig. 17). Minor chalcopy- to the main Lufilian metamorphic event.
rite precipitated during both stages and continued to form The initial Ni-Fe stage of nickel sulfide precipitation
after nickel mineralization. Disseminated nickel sulfides and resulted in the formation of both vaesite-millerite (Fig. 14)
late pyrite locally cut aligned kyanite (Figs. 16, 17). Nickel and millerite-pyrite assemblages (Figs. 15, 16). The vaesite-
sulfides are not observed as inclusions in quartz or kyanite. millerite assemblage is largely restricted to dark gray, quartz-
Thus, textures of the nickel sulfides do not suggest they were rich rocks and most commonly occurs in vuggy zones (Fig.
present in the rocks prior to metamorphism. 14A). Petrography indicates that the vugs represent zones of
Quartz-kyanite veins, some of which contain nickel sulfides, leached quartz. Vaesite cut and overgrew quartz (Fig. 14B);
cut aligned kyanite, presumably formed along metamorphic kyanite is also locally cut and apparently replaced by sulfides

mil + vae

vae

A
2mm
dol
vae

qtz
ky
Mg-chl

tal
ky
vae
B
Quartz Chlorite V-mica Plagioclase Apatite Vaesite Bravoite

Kyanite Rutile Talc Tourmaline Dolomite Millerite Pyrrhotite

Fig. 14. Vaesite-millerite assemblage in dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rocks. (A) Brecciated and vuggy dark gray,
quartz-rich laminated rock that contains abundant vaesite (dark gray) and minor bronze colored millerite. ENT DD0019, 112
m. (B) QEMSCAN® image of a portion of A. The dark gray quartz-rich laminated rock is composed of quartz with apparently
randomly oriented fine- to coarse-grained kyanite grains. Open space (white in the image) appears to have been produced
by quartz dissolution. Quartz is cut by intergrown vaesite and millerite. Kyanite is overgrown by and locally replaced by the
nickel sulfides and cut and replaced by talc and Mg-chlorite that also appear to cut the nickel sulfides. ENT DD0019, 112
m. Abbreviations: dol = dolomite, ky = kyanite, Mg-chl = magnesian chlorite, mil = millerite, qtz = quartz, tal = talc, vae =
vaesite)
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 25

rut

qtz
ky

mil

500 μm
B

mil

ky
py

qtz
C 1mm
A
ky+Mg chl rim
py

mil
ky
cpy

V-mica

rut
Mg chl
2mm
D
Quartz Chlorite V-mica Plagioclase Apatite Millerite Chalcopyrite Vaesite

Kyanite Rutile Talc Tourmaline Pyrite Bravoite Pyrrhotite

Fig. 15. Disseminated millerite-coarse pyrite within dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock. ENT DD0055, 133.2 m. (A)
Dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock containing abundant white kyanite porphyroblasts together with clots of coarse-grained
pyrite and millerite. (B) Cross-polarized with reflected-light photomicrograph of coarse millerite overgrowing kyanite and
disseminated pyrite in the surrounding quartz-rich material. (C) Plane-polarized with reflected-light photomicrograph show-
ing abundant fine-grained, subrounded pyrite in the quartz-rich portions of the rock and large subhedral to anhedral pyrite
grains with ragged grains of millerite within or adjacent to kyanite porphyroblasts. Note that all the sulfides in this image
have a similar reflectance and color. (D) QEMSCAN® image of laminated dark gray, quartz-rich rock with disseminated iron
and nickel sulfides. The rock displays quartz-rich domains containing abundant rounded grains of disseminated pyrite and
irregularly shaped rutile grains. The rock also contains ragged, elongate kyanite porphyroblasts up to 4 mm in length that
have overgrown quartz and contain fine grains of rutile but rarely pyrite. The rock contains subhedral to anhedral grains of
coarse pyrite that appear to overgrow kyanite. Millerite precipitated preferentially within or adjacent to kyanite and locally
replaces it. Millerite also replaced early fine-grained pyrite. Millerite is intergrown with Mg-chlorite (difficult to distinguish in
this image due to close colors of the two minerals). Minor chalcopyrite is present as replacements of fine-grained early pyrite
and as very fine grains in and adjacent to millerite. Irregular grains of vanadian muscovite (V-mica) are intergrown vaesite
and display a texture similar to millerite. Abbreviations: cpy = chalcopyrite, dol = dolomite, ky = kyanite, Mg-chl = magnesian
chlorite, mil = millerite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, V-mica = vanadian muscovite).
26 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

qtz V-mica

py

ky mil

A
V-mica

qtz+ py
ky v mil
ein

B
2mm

qtz

ky+Mg chl

dol void py
ica

py mil
V-m

cpy

C
Quartz Chlorite Rutile Dolomite Millerite Chalcopyrite Vaesite

Kyanite V-mica Talc Pyrite Bravoite Pyrrhotite

Fig. 16. Semimassive millerite-coarse pyrite replacing dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock. (A) Dark gray quartz-rich
laminated rock with irregular kyanite-quartz veins that are cut by a millerite (dark bronze color) and pyrite (brassy color)
assemblage with vanadian muscovite (green). ENT DD0019, 138 m. (B) Dark gray, quartz-rich rock with laminations of
porphyroblastic bluish white kyanite that are cut by quartz-kyanite veins. An assemblage of semimassive millerite and pyrite
replaces the wall rock and cuts the quartz-kyanite veins. ENT DD0055, 133 m. (C) QEMSCAN® image of a portion of B.
The left side of the image displays kyanite porphryroblasts in a quartz-rich matrix that were locally overgrown by coarse pyrite
grains and in other places replaced by vanadian muscovite. The sulfide-rich portion of the sample consists of intergrown
pyrite and millerite with inclusions of kyanite. The millerite contains chalcopyrite and minor pyrite along cleavage planes.
The millerite-pyrite assemblage also contains large grains of vanadian muscovite (V-mica) with inclusions of kyanite and small
grains of dolomite. Most kyanite grains display late replacement by chlorite and talc. ENT DD0055, 133 m. Abbreviations:
brav = bravoite, cpy = chalcopyrite, ky = kyanite, Mg-chl = magnesian chlorite, mil = millerite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz,
V-mica = vanadian muscovite.

(Fig. 15B, D). Vaesite also grew as euhedral crystals into vugs intergrowths in semimassive replacements of wall rock (Fig.
(Fig. 14A) indicating that the rocks in these zones were able 16). The intense quartz dissolution present in the vaesite-
to maintain open space at the time of mineralization. The millerite mineralized zones does not appear to have occurred
vaesite-millerite zones represent some of the highest-grade in zones that contain the millerite-coarse pyrite assemblage.
portions of the Enterprise deposit and commonly occur adja- Both millerite and coarse pyrite overgrew and replaced
cent to the normal faults toward the margin of the Enterprise early, fine-grained pyrite. Millerite appears to have pref-
graben. erentially replaced kyanite (Fig. 15A, B, D). Semimassive
Millerite and coarse pyrite occur both as separate and replacements of the host rock by millerite and coarse pyrite
rarely intergrown disseminated grains (Fig. 15D) and as are most common in dark gray, quartz-rich rocks, but have
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 27

qtz

brav

mil

brav
A 50μm

V-mica
cpy
qtz
mil

brav
ky+Mg-chl

cpy py
B 2mm

Quartz Chlorite Rutile Pyrite Bravoite Pyrrhotite

Kyanite V-mica Dolomite Millerite Chalcopyrite Vaesite

Fig. 17. Bravoite assemblage in the dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rocks. (A) Cross-polarized with reflected light image
of millerite (pale brown) being cut and replaced by darker brown-colored bravoite (nickeliferous pyrite). The sulfides are
intergrown with or replace quartz. ENT DD0084, 162.3m. (B) QEMSCAN® image of a dark gray, quartz-rich laminated rock
composed of quartz with small grains of kyanite and several large grains of millerite. The millerite is overgrown and cut by
bravoite that is in turn cut by pyrite veinlets with minor chalcopyrite. Minor vanadian muscovite (V-mica) forms part of this
assemblage. The bravoite, and to a lesser extent the later pyrite, is cut by extremely thin veinlets of Mg-chlorite and kyanite.
ENT DD0084, 162.3 m. Abbreviations: cpy = chalcopyrite; ky = kyanite; Mg-chl = magnesian chlorite; mil = millerite; py =
pyrite; qtz = quartz; rut = rutile; V-mica = vanadian muscovite.

also been observed in adjacent metacarbonate rocks. Miller- Sulfides precipitated during the later Ni-Fe-Mo stage of
ite and coarse pyrite in semimassive replacement zones con- mineralization occur as disseminated grains, as massive to semi-
tain inclusions of kyanite; only millerite appears to contain massive replacements of earlier formed sulfides, and locally in
significant quartz inclusions (Fig. 16C). Fine grains of chal- veins (Fig. 17A). Bravoite is the most common sulfide dur-
copyrite occur along cleavage planes in millerite (Fig. 16C). ing this mineralization stage. Bravoite may contain irregularly
Millerite-coarse pyrite mineralized rocks commonly contain shaped inclusions of quartz and kyanite (Fig. 17B). Millerite
coarse grains of emerald-green, vanadium-rich muscovite up is commonly present in bravoite-rich assemblages though the
to 5 mm in diameter (Fig. 16A-C). The vanadian muscovite bravoite clearly cuts and replaces millerite (Fig. 17A). Bravoite-
may contain kyanite and more rarely vaesite inclusions (Fig. dominant assemblages also contain chalcopyrite, molybdenite,
16C). and a pale silver Ni-Fe sulfide, as well as vanadian muscovite.
28 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

A late stage of minor pyrite-(chalcopyrite) precipitation the Katangan sequence in the Domes area underwent signifi-
occurred locally within nickel-mineralized zones at Enter- cant exchange with heavier δ34S during metamorphism. The
prise. Veins of kyanite and Mg-chlorite locally cut this pyrite. most likely source of this isotopically heavier sulfur was sedi-
mentary anhydrite within the Katangan sequence, which has
Copper mineralization δ34S values that average approximately 17‰ in Upper Roan
The Enterprise deposit contains a small zone with abun- Subgroup rocks (Selley et al., 2005) to 20‰ within Mwashya
dant copper sulfides beneath the nickel-mineralized zone at Subgroup rocks (Schmandt et al., 2013); the estimated sul-
the base of the Enterprise graben sequence (Fig. 5) within fur isotope composition of seawater during deposition of the
hematite-poor, talc-rich and/or silicified and albitized meta- lower Nguba Group was +15 to +25‰ CDT (Claypool et al.,
siltstones. Pyrite and chalcopyrite are the primary sulfides in 1980; Strauss et al., 2001). Movement and dissolution of evap-
the copper zone, but minor bornite is also present intergrown orite minerals, including anhydrite, indicated by the presence
with chalcopyrite. The copper sulfides occur as lamination- of the polylithic breccia at Enterprise, suggests that Neopro-
parallel disseminated grains, irregularly distributed dissemi- terozoic sulfate was locally available. If the sulfur in the sul-
nated grains—many of which appear to replace fine-grained fides at Enterprise was derived largely from Neoproterozoic
pyrite—and within veinlets. marine sulfate, the sulfate must have undergone significant
fractionation by thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR)
Sulfur isotopes prior to or during the Lufilian event.
Sulfide mineral separates from Enterprise were analyzed The relative homogeneity of sulfide sulfur isotope values
for sulfur isotopes. Samples included coarse pyrite, nickel at Enterprise is unusual compared to most of the copper
sulfides, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and molybdenite (n = 61); deposits of the Central African Copperbelt (e.g. Selley et al.,
the early fine-grained pyrite was too fine grained to sample. 2005) other than Kansanshi (Torrealday, 2000) and Kamoa
The sulfides display a range of values from –12‰ to +17‰, (Schmandt et al., 2013). The more restricted sulfur isotope
though most values fall between –1‰ and +7‰ (Fig. 18A; range of the Enterprise sulfides suggests the deposit had a less
Table 1). Sulfides from stratigraphically lower in the Enter- complex paragenetic sequence of mineralization compared to
prise graben sequence display slightly heavier average values many other Copperbelt deposits. The similarity of copper sul-
than those from higher in the sequence (Fig. 18B). A single fide sulfur isotope values at Enterprise to those at Kansanshi,
very light value of –12‰ comes from pyrite within a mag- a deposit where sulfide-bearing veins cut Lufilian age meta-
nesite vein cutting carbonaceous quartz-rich rock within the morphic fabrics (Torrealday, 2000; Torrealday et al., 2000),
Main zone. This pyrite may have inherited part of its sulfur suggests metamorphic homogenization of the ore fluids.
from fine-grained, framboid-like pyrite in the carbonaceous
quartz-rich rock. Copper sulfides and pyrite from within the Age of Mineralization
copper zone (n = 7) display a similar range of values (0–8‰) A molybdenite separate from a quartz-kyanite-sulfide vein
as sulfides in lower portion of the nickel-mineralized zone cutting dark gray, quartz-rich rock within the Enterprise
(Fig. 18B). graben sequence (ENT DD0019, 141.3m) was dated using
Diagenetic pyrite from elsewhere in the Central African Re-Os. The coarse-grained molybdenite occurs along the
Copperbelt generally has sulfur isotope values of <0‰ (e.g., margins of kyanite in the center of the vein. The vein also
McGowen et al., 2003; Schmandt et al., 2013). However, the contains millerite with intergrown bravoite; the bravoite con-
isotopic δ34S value of disseminated, possibly diagenetic pyrite tains minor chalcopyrite inclusions.
in marbles in the Upper Roan Subgroup marble at Enterprise Molybdenite from the vein contained >300 ppm Re,
is +3‰ (Fig. 18B). Apparently diagenetic pyrite and pyr- >1,750 ppb radiogenic Os, and a few ppb common Os (Table
rhotite in Mwashya Subgroup carbonate-bearing siltstones at 2). Common Os in molybdenite is almost always insignificant
Enterprise have isotopic values between +2 and +3‰ (n = to the Re-Os age calculation (Stein et al., 2001). Two separate
3). The fine-grained pyrite in the Enterprise area may be dia- Re-Os analyses were made from the same molybdenite pow-
genetic pyrite that had relatively heavy sulfur isotope values, der to correct for overspiking in the first run MD-1289 (Table
recrystallized diagenetic pyrite that acquired heavier sulfur 2). Nevertheless, the Re-Os age for the optimally spiked
during metamorphism, or nondiagenetic pyrite. run MD-1300 agrees with the less precise age of MD-1289.
Pyrite within mafic meta-igneous rocks at Enterprise (n The reported 2σ uncertainties in the calculated ages include
= 10) has sulfur isotope values that cluster between –1 and propagation of all analytical errors, and the uncertainty in the
+7‰ with one outlier at +16‰ (Fig. 18B). These values are 187Re decay constant. Additional analytical details are found

within the range observed in basaltic rocks (–6‰ to +14‰; in the footnotes to Table 2. The Re-Os dating of molybdenite
Schneider, 1970). Disseminated pyrite in the polylithic brec- from Enterprise shows that this mineral formed at 540.6 ±
cia (n = 3) has isotopic values between 2 and 6‰. 1.8 Ma. Intergrown Ni sulfides indicate this is the age of the
The absence of significant sulfides at Enterprise with light later bravoite-millerite-(molybdenite) (Fe-Ni-Mo) stage of
sulfur isotope values suggests that either that diagenetic pyrite mineralization.
was not the primary source of reduced sulfur for the Enterprise Geochronology in the Central African Copperbelt indicates
deposit or that diagenetic pyrite at Enterprise was unusually a protracted period of mineralization (Hitzman et al., 2010).
heavy. Probable relict diagenetic sulfides at Enterprise have An approximate 816 Ma Re-Os isochron age for chalcopyrite in
sulfur isotope values similar to interpreted diagenetic sulfides evaporitic nodules in the hanging wall of the Konkola deposit
from the Kansanshi deposit to the east (1.4–6.6‰; Torreal- in the Zambian Copperbelt (Barra et al., 2004) is the earli-
day, 2000). These data suggest that diagenetic sulfides within est date for copper mineralization in the district. A uranium
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 29

A
16

14 Pyrite
Millerite
12 Ni-Pyrite (Bravoite)
Vaesite
Number of Samples

10
Silver Ni-Sulfide
Cu Sulfides
8
Molybdenite
6 Pyrrhotite

0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
δ34S Value (‰)

B
16

14
Mwashya Subgroup
12 Upper Roan Subgroup
Enterprise Graben Sequence
Number of Samples

10
Main Ni
Cu Zone
8
Lower Ni
6

0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
δ34S Value (‰)
Fig. 18. Enterprise sulfide sulfur isotope data. (A) Histogram plotted by sulfide mineral. (B) Histogram plotted by host
rocks and mineralized zone. The Main Ni zone is the larger zone in the upper portion of the Enterprise graben (Fig. 5), while
the Lower Ni zone is represented by the two areas of >0.5% Ni in the lower portion of the graben.

mineralization episode took place in the Congolese Copper- estimates for peak metamorphism in the Domes region based
belt at ~652 Ma (Decrée et al., 2011). Copper mineralization on a 207Pb/235U age of monazite from the Kabompo dome of
at 576 ± 41 Ma is recorded by Re-Os isochron ages on Cu-Co 525 ± 2 Ma, though 206Pb/238U ages are ~540 Ma (John et al.,
sulfides from two arenite- and one argillite-hosted deposits of 2004). Monazite in quartz-kyanite-muscovite schist from the
the Zambian Copperbelt (Barra et al., 2004). Uranium min- structural hanging wall of the nearby Sentinel copper deposit
eralization occurred in the Domes region at ~530 Ma (Cahen yielded a 207Pb/206Pb age of 548.6 ± 7.6 Ma and a 208Pb/232Th
et al., 1971; Meneghal, 1981). This age matches the best age of 546.1 ± 6.5 Ma (Steven and Armstrong, 2003).
30 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

Table 1. Sulfide Sulfur Isotope Data from the Enterprise Deposit, Zambia
δ34SV-CDT
Sample no. Mineral Host lithology Unit/ore zone Description (‰)
ENT12, 43m Pyrite Calcareous siltstone Mwashya Subgroup Disseminated grains of (magnetic) pyrrhotite 2.9
ENT12, 80.65m Pyrhottite Calcareous siltstone Mwashya Subgroup Disseminated grains of (magnetic) pyrrhotite 3.1
ENT12, 81.5m Pyrhottite Calcareous siltstone Mwashya Subgroup Disseminated grains of (magnetic) pyrrhotite 2.5
ENT10, 45.1m Pyrite Phlogopitic marble Upper Roan Disseminated grains of pyrite in poorly foliated marble 3.3
  Subgroup
ENT10, 71.2m Pyrite Polylithic breccia Upper Roan Coarse grains of pyrite in coarsely crystalline 5.5
  Subgroup   groundmass of breccia
ENT10, 105.8m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Upper Roan Subhedral, coarse pyrite crystals in foliated 2.6
  Subgroup   groundmass of dolomite and iron-rich chlorite
ENT10, 163.9m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Upper Roan Fine, disseminated grains of pyrite in albitized altered 1.9
  Subgroup   mafic rock
ENT55, 35m Pyrite Polylithic breccia Upper Roan Coarse pyrite grains in chlorite-dolomite clast within 1.8
  Subgroup   polylithic breccia
ENT131, 69m Pyrite Polylithic breccia Upper Roan Disseminated pyrite in dolomitic groundmass of 5.7
  Subgroup   polylithic breccia
ENT14, 138.7m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Disseminated pyrite in fine-grained groundmass of 0.3
  sequence   dolomite-phlogopite–Mg-chlorite
ENT19, 64.9m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Disseminated pyrite on the margin of a mafic meta- 6.1
  sequence   igneous rock layer within dolomitic groundmass
  containing minor actinolite
ENT55, 57m (A) Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Coarse pyrite grains in dolomite-actinolite–Fe-chlorite 1.1
  sequence   groundmass
ENT55, 57m (B) Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Coarse pyrite grains in dolomite-actinolite–Fe-chlorite –0.1
  sequence   groundmass
ENT55, 156.1m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Disseminated pyrite in dolomite-magnesite- –1.1
  sequence   phlogopite–Mg-chlorite
ENT87, 273m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Disseminated pyrite grains in dark-green chloritic 1.5
  sequence   groundmass with some bladed actinolite and coarse
  grains of subhedral magnetite
ENT87, 274.1m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Disseminated pyrite grains in black-brown phlogopitic 7.0
  sequence   groundmass with lesser actinolite and Mg-chlorite
ENT87, 318.5m Pyrite Mafic meta-igneous rock Enterprise graben Disseminated pyrite in actinolite-dolomite-quartz- 16.1
  sequence   (kyanite) rock
ENT03, 75m (B) Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive millerite 0.4
ENT10, 198.8m Pyrite Metacarbonate Main Ni Fine-grained disseminated pyrite 0.1
ENT10, 206.5m Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Intergrown millerite and pyrite in a veinlet containing 1.9
  vandian mica, quartz, talc, and kyanite
ENT10, 208m Pyrite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Pyrite within a quartz-kyanite vein 5.6
ENT10, 211.9m Pyrite Magnesite vein in dark-gray Main Ni Intergrown coarse-grained pyrite and millerite 3.0
  quartz-rich rock
ENT10, 216.5m (A) Pyrite (Ni?) Metacarbonate Main Ni Intergrown coarse-grained pyrite and millerite within –1.0
  a vein with dolomite, vanadian mica, and Mg-chlorite
ENT10, 216.5m (B) Millerite Metacarbonate Main Ni Intergrown coarse-grained millerite and pyrite within –1.2
  a vein with dolomite, vanadian mica, and Mg-chlorite
ENT19, 112.43m Vaesite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Fine-grained vaesite infilling vugs –1.6
ENT19, 122m (A) Pyrite (Ni?) Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Intergrown coarse-grained pyrite and millerite 4.6
ENT19, 122m (B) Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Intergrown coarse-grained millerite and pyrite 6.0
ENT19, 128.8m (A) Pyrite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Disseminated pyrite –1.1
ENT19, 128.8m (B) Pyrite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Fine grains of pyrite in kyanite aggregate 9.8
ENT19, 138m (A) Pyrite (Ni?) Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Coarse grains of intergrown pyrite (bravoite?) and –0.3
  millerite within an irregular quartz-kyanite vein
ENT19, 138m (B) Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Coarse grains of intergrown pyrite (bravoite?) and 6.6
  millerite within an irregular quartz-kyanite vein
ENT19, 152.5m Pyrite Metacarbonate Main Ni Fine, disseminated pyrite within dolomite 5.0
ENT19, 166.4m Pyrite (Ni?) Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Lamination parallel, disseminated pyrite 5.2
ENT19, 199m (A) Pyrite Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse grains of intergrown pyrite (Ni?) and millerite 2.4
  in phlogopitic rock
ENT19, 199m (B) Millerite Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse grains of intergrown millerite and pyrite Ni?) 3.6
  in phlogopitic rock
ENT19, 203.7m (A) Vaesite Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse grains of vaesite intergrown with quartz and 2.5
  dolomite and a bronze colored sulfide (Ni-pyrite or
  bravoite?) in a vein
ENT19, 203.7m (B) Pyrite (Ni?) Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse grains of pyrite (bravoite?) intergrown with 7.0
  quartz and dolomite and vaesite in a vein
ENT19, 235.5m (A) Molybdenite Magnesite vein in dark-gray Main Ni Molybdenite intergrown with pyrite and quartz-kyanite- 6.9
  quartz-rich rock   (magnesite) in a vein
ENT19, 235.5m (B) Pyrite Magnesite vein in dark-gray Main Ni Pyrite intergrown with molybdenite and quartz-kyanite- 4.5
  quartz-rich rock   (magnesite) in a vein
ENT55, 67m Pyrite Graben carbonate Main Ni Disseminated pyrite 11.7
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 31

Table 1. (Cont.)
δ34SV-CDT
Sample no. Mineral Host lithology Unit/ore zone Description (‰)
ENT55, 91.7m Vaesite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Very fine grained disseminated vaesite in brecciated matrix 4.6
  of vuggy dark-gray quartz-rich rock
ENT55, 104.2m Pyrite Metacarbonate Main Ni Disseminated pyrite 3.6
ENT55, 133.2m (A) Pyrite (Ni?) Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacement pyrite 2.2
ENT55, 133.2m (B) Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacement pyrite 4.2
ENT55, 145.2m Pyrite Graben carbonate Main Ni Disseminated pyrite 1.9
ENT55, 172.5m Pyrite Magnesite vein in dark-gray Main Ni Coarse pyrite grains along the margins of coarsely crystalline
  quartz-rich rock   magnesite vein –11.6
ENT55, 179m Pyrite Carbonate-talc schist Main Ni Fine-grained disseminated pyrite 1.9
ENT55, 203.8m (A) Millerite Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse-grained millerite intergrown with pyrite and silver –1.4
  Fe-Ni sulfide (bravoite?) in magnesite vein
ENT55, 203.8m (B) Pyrite (Ni?) Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse-grained pyrite intergrown with millerite and silver 5.6
  Fe-Ni sulfide (bravoite?) in magnesite vein
ENT55, 203.8m (C.) Silver Fe- Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse-grained silver Fe-Ni sulfide intergrown with pyrite 12.8
Ni sulfide   and millerite in magnesite vein
ENT55, 203.9m (A) Silver Fe- Metacarbonate Main Ni Silver Fe-Ni sulfide (bravoite?) intergrown with pyrite in 1.6
Ni sulfide   vein cutting phlogopite-rich dolomite-magnesite rock
ENT55, 203.9m (B) Pyrite (Ni?) Metacarbonate Main Ni Pyrite intergrown with silver Fe-Ni sulfide (bravoite?) in –0.2
  vein cutting phlogopite-rich dolomite-magnesite rock
ENT84, 138m Pyrite Metacarbonate Main Ni Fine-grained disseminated pyrite 5.2
ENT84, 162.3m (A) Bravoite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive bravoite intergrown with millerite 4.7
ENT84, 162.3m (B) Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive millerite intergrown with bravoite 4.5
ENT84, 168.3m Pyrite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Coarse pyrite grains cutting kyanite 16.8
ENT84, 192.8m (A) Millerite Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse grains of intergrown millerite and pyrite 4.9
ENT84, 192.8m (B) Pyrite (Ni?) Metacarbonate Main Ni Coarse grains of intergrown pyrite and millerite 10.2
ENT84, 218.5m (A) Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive millerite intergrown with silver 7.1
  Fe-Ni sulfide (bravoite?)
ENT84, 218.5m (B) Silver Fe- Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive silver Fe-Ni sulfide (bravoite?) 2.0
Ni sulfide   intergrown with millerite
ENT84, 221.5m Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Millerite vein on contact between dark-gray quartz-rich rock 5.7
  and coarsely crystalline magnesite vein
ENT87, 177.8m Pyrrhotite Carbonaceous calcareous Main Ni Very fine grained disseminated pyrrhotite 7.5
  metacarbonate
ENT120, 165.3m Pyrite (Ni?) Carbonaceous quartz- Main Ni Fine-grained pyrite intergrown with kyanite in an irregular, 6.1
  rich rock   discontinuous veinlet
ENT120, 167.3m Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive millerite with coarse-grained 3.8
  vanadian mica
ENT120, 167.6m Millerite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive millerite with coarse-grained 3.6
  vanadian mica
ENT120, 246.2m Pyrite (Ni?) Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Coarse pyrite grains in coarsely crystalline magnesite vein 5.5
ENT120, 251.2m Pyrite Carbonaceous quartz- Main Ni Semimassive replacive millerite with coarse-grained 1.1
  rich rock   vanadian mica
ENT131, 230.1m Pyrite Talc-CO3 altered dark-gray Main Ni Coarse disseminated grains of pyrite in talc-dolomite altered 5.9
  quartz-rich rock   dark-gray quartz-rich rock
ENT03, 75m (A) Pyrite Dark-gray quartz-rich rock Main Ni Semimassive replacive pyrite –1.3
ENT10, 398.2m (A) Pyrite Talc-CO3 altered dark-gray Cu zone Intergrown coarse grains of pyrite and chalcopyrite 2.3
  quartz-rich rock
ENT10, 398.2M (B) Chalcopyrite Talc-CO3 altered dark-gray Cu zone Intergrown coarse grains of chalcopyrite and pyrite 8.2
  quartz-rich rock
ENT14, 127.5m Chalcopyrite Metacarbonate Cu zone Chalcopyrite intergrown with pyrite in quartz vein 0.0
ENT19, 367.4m Bornite Silicified talc-rich rock Cu zone Medium-grained disseminated bornite 3.6
  (metasiltstone)
ENT87, 342.4m Pyrite Carbonate-talc schist Cu zone Lamination parallel disseminated pyrite 4.7
ENT87, 388.4m (A) Pyrite Silicified talc-rich rock Cu zone Pyrite grain overgrown by chalcopyrite 3.0
  (metasiltstone)
ENT87, 388.4m (B) Chalcopyrite Silicified talc-rich rock Cu zone Coarse pyrite grains overgrown by chalcopyrite 2.2
+ bornite   (metasiltstone)
ENT120, 391.1m Chalcopyrite Silicified talc-rich rock Cu zone Medium-grained disseminated chalcopyrite 2.7
  (metasiltstone)
ENT10, 336.8m Pyrite Silicified talc-rich rock Lower Ni Coarse disseminated pyrite 9.2
  (metasiltstone)
ENT19, 281.1m (A) Vaesite Metacarbonate Lower Ni Vaesite intergrown with pyrite 2.4
ENT19, 281.1m (B) Pyrite Metacarbonate Lower Ni Pyrite intergrown with vaesite 7.9
ENT19, 332.6m Pyrite Carbonaceous quartz- Lower Ni Disseminated pyrite intergrown apparently intergrown 3.6
  rich rock   with quartz and kyanite
ENT55, 223m Pyrite Metacarbonate Lower Ni Coarse pyrite grains 2.2
ENT55, 229.2m Pyrite Carbonate-talc schist Lower Ni Fine-grained pyrite along talc porphyroblast 4.7
ENT87, 288m Pyrite Metacarbonate Lower Ni Pyrite intergrown with purple anhydrite in dolomite vein 7.7
ENT87, 303m Pyrite Metacarbonate Lower Ni Pyrite intergrown with dolomite and talc in vein 1.7
32 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

Table 2. Re-Os Ages for Molybdenite from the Enterprise Deposit, NW Zambia

AIRIE run no. Drill core (depth) Re (ppm) 187Os (ppb) Common Os (ppb) Age (Ma)

MD-1289 ENTDDH19, 141.3 310 (2) 1,775 (1) 4.72 (1) 543.7 ± 4.4
MD-1300 ENTDDH19, 141.3   310.7 (3) 1,767 (1) 4.23 (2) 540.6 ± 1.8

Notes: Second run, MD-1300, adjusts spiking for Re and is the more precise and accurate age; all errors reported at two-sigma, absolute uncertainty for
the last digit(s) reported; sample weights are 40 mg for MD-1289 and 16 mg for MD-1300; nearly pure molybdenite; Re blank = 7.85 ± 1.48 pg, Os blank =
1.86 ± 0.03 pg with 187Os/188Os = 0.322 ± 0.010; initial 187Os/188Os for age calculation is 0.2

An albitization event occurred post peak metamorphism both replace and are cut by metamorphic minerals, indicates
in several portions of the Copperbelt at approximately 512 to that the rocks at Enterprise underwent metasomatism with
500 Ma and is associated with quartz-carbonate veins locally sulfide mineralization during the metamorphic event. The
containing Cu-U-Mo-(Au) (Musoshi, part of the Konkola presence of kyanite-quartz-sulfide veins cutting foliated rocks
deposit, Fig. 1; Richards et al., 1988), Mindola (adjacent to suggests that metasomatism/mineralization occurred post
Nkana deposit, Fig. 1; Darnley et al., 1961), and Kansanshi peak metamorphism. Geochronology of metamorphic and
(Darnley et al., 1961; Torrealday et al., 2000). Concordant sulfide minerals indicates they were formed relatively close in
Rb-Sr and Re-Os ages on sphalerite-bornite and bornite- time (~540–546 Ma).
renierite of approximately 451 Ma (Schneider et al., 2007) at Metasomatism at Enterprise resulted in destruction of
Kipushi (Fig. 1) indicate a late postmetamorphic mineralizing hematite, locally intense magnesian alteration that resulted in
event. The Kipushi ages match Rb-Sr dates for biotite-pla- the growth of talc, Mg-chlorite, and magnesite, and sulfide
gioclase assemblages in the basement rocks of the Kabompo precipitation (Fig. 19). Metacarbonate rocks display evidence
dome that are interpreted to represent the age of metamor- of silicification (Fig. 9B, C). Metasomatic effects are observed
phic cooling (John et al., 2004). within all rock types within the Enterprise graben sequence
As sulfide-bearing veins at Enterprise cut previously meta- and locally within the uppermost portion of the basement
morphosed Katangan sedimentary rocks (~546 Ma age of rocks. The intimate association of metacarbonate rocks with
metamorphism in the Kabompo dome; Steven and Arm- quartz-rich rocks within the Enterprise graben sequence,
strong, 2003) the Re-Os molybdenite age of ~540 Ma rep- together with petrographic evidence indicating progressive
resents this veining episode. The presence of kyanite in the silicification of metacarbonate rocks, suggests that some of
sulfide-bearing veins clearly indicates that vein formation is the quartz-rich rocks in the Enterprise graben sequence rep-
part of the metamorphic history. resent weakly argillaceous carbonate rocks that underwent
significant silicification.
Metamorphism and Metasomatism at Enterprise The close spatial relationship of well-mineralized but
The metamorphic mineral assemblage at Enterprise in both organic carbon-poor rocks with adjacent highly carbonaceous
the Katangan Supergroup and the basement rocks changes rocks suggests that oxidation-reduction reactions were impor-
with distance from the contact between the two rock packages. tant for sulfide precipitation. Vanadian muscovite intergrown
In the basement rocks at Enterprise an assemblage of biotite, with nickel sulfides suggests that the mineralized sequences
quartz, muscovite, calcic plagioclase, potassium feldspar, and may have originally contained organic material or had intro-
epidote is preserved several meters below the contact. This duced mobile hydrocarbons (e.g., Curiale, 1993). Vanadium
apparently in part pre-Lufilian metamorphic assemblage forms a halo around the nickel-mineralized zone at Enterprise
was replaced first by an assemblage lacking muscovite and (Fig. 20) and the shape of this zone suggests that mobile hydro-
containing kyanite and chlorite, then by an assemblage with carbons could have occupied a mixed structural-stratigraphic
phlogopite rather than biotite, and finally by an assemblage trap and that this hydrocarbon reservoir was later the locus of
immediately adjacent to the contact with kyanite, talc, Mg- redox-related reactions that led to nickel sulfide precipitation.
chlorite, quartz, and rutile. Locally along the contact kyanite Sulfide precipitation at Enterprise postdated silicification of
was largely replaced by a talc-(Mg-chlorite-rutile) assemblage. the wall rocks (Fig. 19). Mineralization occurred in two stages
Whereas talc-kyanite assemblages are recognized at the (Ni-Fe and Fe-Ni-Mo). Sulfides in both stages cut quartz
basement-Katangan Supergroup contact in several por- and replaced pyrite and kyanite. The early period of Ni-Fe
tions of the Domes area (e.g., Barron, 2003; Bernau, 2007), mineralization resulted in the formation of both vaesite-
the Enterprise area appears unique, at least along the east- and millerite-rich assemblages. The vaesite-rich assemblage
ern Kabompo dome, in having a well-developed kyanite-talc occurs primarily in rocks where a vuggy texture was produced
assemblage present in the Katangan sequence for hundreds by quartz and probably kyanite dissolution. Vaesite locally
of meters above contact with the basement rocks. While rocks formed euhedral crystals growing into the vugs (Fig. 14A).
along sheared portions of the basement-Katangan Super- The second period of mineralization produced a Fe-Ni-Mo
group contact at Enterprise are well foliated, rocks above the assemblage dominated by bravoite that formed by replace-
contact within the basal portion of the Katangan Supergroup ment of previously deposited sulfides as well as wallrock kya-
sequence locally display randomly oriented kyanite and kya- nite. Quartz-kyanite veins containing sulfides formed during
nite in irregular veins that cut metamorphic foliation. both stages of mineralization. Sulfides in these veins both cut
The heterogeneity in the distribution and textures of meta- and overgrew quartz and replaced kyanite. Late kyanite-bear-
morphic minerals at Enterprise, together with sulfides that ing veins formed after sulfide mineralization.
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 33

Diagenetic Peak Metamorphism Metasomatism

QUARTZ
BIOTITE
MUSCOVITE
EPIDOTE
PLAGIOCLASE
ALBITE
CARBONATE
APATITE
RUTILE
HEMATITE
KYANITE
Mg-CHLORITE
?
SCAPOLITE
TOURMALINE
V-MUSCOVITE
PHLOGOPITE
TALC
PYRITE
CHALCOPYRITE
MILLERITE
VAESITE
BRAVOITE
MOLYBDENITE

TIME
Fig. 19. Paragenetic sequence of mineral formation during diagenesis, Lufilian metamorphism, and metasomatism at
Enterprise. Note that metamorphic mineral (e.g., kyanite) growth continued during the period of nickel mineralization indi-
cating that the mineralization event occurred under similar P/T conditions to Lufilian metamorphism.

The growth of kyanite prior to, during, and after sulfide pre- Tmax values derived from Rock-Eval analysis of carbonaceous
cipitation suggests that elevated P/T conditions were present matter at Enterprise (Capistrant, 2013). Based on thermo-
at Enterprise throughout mineralization event. Premineral- dynamic calculations, Zimba (2012) suggested that reduced
ization kyanite generally grew along a well-defined foliation water activity in dehydration reactions caused by the presence
while kyanite in veins formed during and after the sulfide of hypersaline brines could have extended the stability fields
event is commonly randomly oriented. The quartz-kyanite- of talc and kyanite to lower pressures and temperatures than
sulfide veins at Enterprise do not appear to have a preferred are commonly observed for these minerals, thus allowing for
orientation and have highly irregular geometries typical of their growth in both the wallrocks and veins.
brittle deformation. Sulfides at Enterprise are not obviously Textural relationships indicate that silicification largely
deformed and do not display a foliated texture. These textural preceded magnesian alteration (Fig. 19). However, the age
relationships suggest that a different stress regime was in place relationship between magnesian alteration and sulfide min-
at Enterprise, at least in the area that was mineralized, dur- eralization is poorly understood. Talc and late chlorite clearly
ing the period of mineralization relative to that present dur- cut sulfides in well-mineralized zones. However, talc and Mg-
ing earlier metamorphism. The formation and preservation of chlorite may have formed outside of the mineralized zone
open cavities during the mineralization event at Enterprise during the sulfide precipitation event.
is difficult to reconcile with the high-pressure environment Both silicification and magnesian alteration are recognized
presumed to be required for the growth of kyanite present in in the Congolese Copperbelt deposits, though these alteration
postmineralization veins. events are thought to have largely preceded Lufilian defor-
In a study of fluid inclusions in quartz from the quartz-kya- mation (e.g., Dewaele et al., 2006). In these deposits, early
nite-sulfide veins at Enterprise Zimba (2012) found that fluid magnesian carbonate (principally magnesite, at least at Kol-
inclusions could not be used as accurate geothermometers wezi) crystal growth occurred in carbonate lithologies, while
due to extensive posttrapping modification, the decrepita- Mg-chlorite formed in more argillaceous rocks (Oosterbosch,
tion of fluid inclusions during heating, and the large spread of 1951; Bartholomé et al., 1972; Hoy, 1989; El Desouky et
observed ThLV. However, the composition of the fluids in the al., 2009, 2010). Alternating periods of magnesian alteration
inclusions determined from laser ablation inductively coupled (dolomitization) and silicification were followed by precipita-
plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) allowed estimation tion of sulfides with quartz (Fay and Barton, 2012) or quartz
of formation temperatures of between 300° to 600°C based and dolomite (El Desouky et al., 2009). It is possible that the
on the K/Na geothermometer and NaCl dissolution tempera- metasomatic/mineralization event at the Enterprise nickel
tures (Zimba, 2012). These temperatures are consistent with deposit is analogous to the late mineralization event observed
 34

LEGEND
A Enterprise Graben Structure A’
NORTHWEST SOUTHEAST
7
3 41 D 000
D010 0098 37 93 31 10 55 D D00 TD Meta-siltstone
TD DD D01 D00 D01 0 4
EN T EN
EN T TD TD TD D00 087 TD TD
D00 0003
D EN
EN EN EN EN TD D0 012 008 D0
EN TD TDD TDD 019 EN NTD
E
EN EN EN

Dolomitic and
biotitic marble

Polylithic breccia
Upper Roan Subgroup Mwashya Subgroup

Mafic meta-igneous
rock

Carbonaceous
meta-carbonate

Carbonaceous
quartz-rich rock

Dark-gray quartz-
Katangan Supergroup

rich rock
Enterprise Graben Sequence

Meta-carbonate rock
Lower Roan Subgroup
CAPISTRANT ET AL.

100m
Talc-rich meta-siltstone

Quartz-rich
meta-sandstone
Basal Siliciclastic Sequence

Pre-Katangan
100m 0 schist and gneiss

shear zone Ni > 0.5%

syn-sedimentary
normal fault V > 200ppm

Fig. 20. NW-trending cross section through the Main zone at the Enterprise deposit showing a zone of vanadium enrichment that surrounds the nickel (0.5% Ni
cutoff) mineralized zone. The zone of vanadium enrichment is roughly bound by the polylithic breccia above and the basement rocks to the southeast. It has the form of
a structurally controlled hydrocarbon reservoir.
 GEOLOGY OF THE ENTERPRISE DEPOSIT, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE, ZAMBIA 35

in the Congolese Copperbelt (e.g., El Desouky et al., 2009), nickeliferous pyrite (bravoite) and pentlandite (Püttmann
though alteration in the Congolese deposits clearly occurred et al., 1991). It is unclear whether the nickel in the Kup-
in a lower P/T regime. ferschiefer deposits was sourced from the same fluids that
delivered copper, silver, lead, and zinc or was fixed by organic
Hydrothermal Nickel Deposits matter in the sediments from seawater prior to copper miner-
Currently the vast majority of the world’s nickel is pro- alization (Greenwood et al., 2013).
duced from deposits associated with mafic or ultramafic Nickel is generally uncommon in the copper-(cobalt) depos-
rocks in which nickel was concentrated by sulfide-rich melts its of the Central African Copperbelt (Selley et al., 2005),
(Arndt et al., 2005; Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005) and later- though a number of deposits contain very minor nickel sul-
itic nickel deposits formed from weathering of an ultramafic fides, dominantly millerite and vaesite, in paragenetically late,
protolith (Elias, 2002; Gleeson et al., 2003; Freyssinet et al., albite-dolomite veins. An exception is the Sentinel (Kalum-
2005). Mobilization of nickel during hydrothermal alteration bila) deposit several kilometers east of Enterprise, which was
of magmatic nickel deposits has been recognized and trace cited to have ~3 Mt of 0.67% Ni (Steven and Armstrong,
element abundances, specifically iridium, have been utilized 2003) with the nickel hosted primarily in pentlandite, viola-
to discriminate between magmatic and hydrothermal nickel rite, and siegenite (CoNi2S4).
deposits (Keays, et al., 1982). Interest in additional processes Though grades and tonnages were not reported, signifi-
of hydrothermal nickel migration from igneous rocks has cant nickel was also present in the Shinkolobwe and Swambo
recently been stimulated by the discovery of the Avebury uranium deposits in the southern DRC (Fig. 1) to the north
nickel deposit in Tasmania (29 Mt of 0.9% Ni), which appears of the Domes region (Derriks and Oosterbosch, 1958). The
to have been formed by hydrothermal alteration of ophiol- polymetallic (U-Ni-[Co-Cu]) Shinkolobwe deposit, a major
itic rocks (Keays and Jowitt, 2013). Hydrothermally altered uranium producer in the mid-20th century, is hosted within
mafic and ultramafic rocks are also thought to be the source highly brecciated Mines Subgroup carbonate and siliciclastic
of pentlandite in a large tonnage (>1.5 Bt of 0.22% Ni) black sediments along the margin of a diapiric breccia. Nickel and
shale-hosted deposit in the Outokumpu region of Finland cobalt sulfides at Shinkolobwe occurred within the zone of
(Loukola-Ruskeeniemi and Lahtinen, 2013). uranium mineralization and extended along structures beyond
There has been growing interest in nickel occurrences that the uranium zone. The Ni/Co ratio of the sulfides was high
are not directly related to mafic igneous rocks (González- (3:1) in the uranium ore zone and decreased to approximately
Álvarez et al., 2013). Hydrothermal migration of nickel in rock 1:3 outward (Derriks and Vaes, 1956). The Shinkolobwe ores,
sequences that are not known to contain significant nickel sul- like many of the nickel-rich black shales, but unlike the rocks
fide-bearing mafic or ultramafic rocks appears to have formed at Enterprise, are phosphorous rich and contain significant
the so-called five-element (Ni-Co-As-Ag-Bi) veins (Kissin, et monazite and apatite.
al., 1992). Nickel in these deposits generally resides in Ni-Co Nickel at Shinkolobwe occurs primarily in vaesite (Shinkol-
arsenides. obwe is the type mineral locality) with minor millerite in the
Significant nickel is also present in some unconformity uranium ore zone and siegenite outboard from the area of
uranium deposits, particularly those in the Athabasca Basin uranium mineralization. Nickel sulfides are commonly inter-
of Canada (Jefferson et al., 2007) where no significant mafic grown with dolomite and magnesite. Chloritization is the
or ultramafic rocks occur in close proximity to the deposits. dominant form of hydrothermal alteration described from the
Nickel in these deposits occurs in bravoite, nickeline (NiAs), Shinkolobwe deposit (Derricks and Vaes, 1956); however, it
gersdorffite (NiAsS), and within Ni-Bi minerals. Although the is unclear from available data if chloritization was temporally
genesis of these deposits remains controversial, it is clear that associated with nickel sulfide precipitation. Fluid inclusion
they are were formed by hydrothermal rather than magmatic studies of quartz, dolomite, and magnesite at Shinkolobwe
fluids. yielded homogenization temperatures of ~200°C for highly
Black shales have long been known to be enriched in nickel saline fluids (Ngongo, 1975); it is difficult, however, to relate
(Vine and Tourtelot, 1970). Early Cambrian black shales in the fluid inclusions analyzed in the study to specific parage-
south China (Xu et al., 2013) and Devonian black shales in the netic stages of mineralization.
Yukon of Canada (Hulbert et al., 1992; Orberger et al., 2003) The small Swambo uranium deposit located to the west of
locally contain >1% Ni in addition to high concentrations of Shinkolobwe also contains nickel sulfides. The deposit is also
Mo, PGE, and Zn in thin (<10 cm) organic-rich, phosphatic located within brecciated rocks of the Mines Subgroup adja-
shale horizons that can be traced for kilometers along strike. cent to a diapiric breccia (Derriks and Oosterbosch, 1958).
These black shales are thought to represent starved sedimen- The deposit consisted of several mineralized veins.
tation in highly anoxic basins. Nickel in these deposits occurs Nickel at Shinkolobwe and Swambo, as well as in the five-
primarily in nickeliferous pyrite (bravoite) and vaesite with element vein deposits and unconformity uranium deposits,
minor millerite, pentlandite, and violarite (FeNi2S4). There is is generally paragenetically later than uranium. At Shinkol-
continuing debate as to whether the metals in these deposits obwe, early precipitation of replacive magnesite was followed
were derived from direct scavenging of seawater by organic by deposition of uraninite (Derriks and Vaes, 1956). This was
material or from submarine hydrothermal fluids (Jowitt and followed by precipitation of pyrite, molybdenite, and mona-
Keays, 2011; Xu et al., 2013). zite and then nickel-cobalt sulfides. There was a late period of
Nickel is uncommon in most sedimentary rock-hosted strat- minor chalcopyrite precipitation. At Swambo, paragenetically
iform copper deposits. However, the organic-rich Kupfer- early uraninite was overprinted by pyrite and monazite that
schiefer black shale in Germany and Poland locally contains replaced carbonate wall rocks and were precipitated within
36 CAPISTRANT ET AL.

dolomite veins (Derriks and Oosterbosch, 1958). Pyrite min- Precipitation of metals at the Enterprise deposit appears
eralization was associated with hematization, silicification, and to have been fundamentally controlled by redox reactions.
chloritization of the host rocks. Nickel and cobalt were intro- The highly organic-rich metasedimentary rocks within the
duced following pyrite mineralization. Nickel occurs in both local stratigraphic sequence provided the reductant. Sulfides
vaesite and siegenite. At both Shinkolobwe and Swambo chal- at Enterprise are most abundant in rocks adjacent to highly
copyrite was precipitated largely after nickel sulfides. organic-rich rocks rather than in the most organic-rich rocks
The Enterprise deposit shares similarities with the Shinkol- themselves. This relationship is similar to that observed in the
obwe and Swambo deposits in terms of alteration and miner- copper-cobalt deposits hosted in the Mines Subgroup of the
alization paragenetic sequence. Nickel mineral assemblages Congolese Copperbelt where the highly carbonaceous R.S.F.
are similar in each of the deposits with vaesite being a major unit rocks are much more weakly mineralized than mildly car-
nickel-bearing phase. Bravoite is a major nickel phase at bonaceous, but highly silicified R.S.F. unit rocks (Hitzman et
Enterprise but appears uncommon at Shinkolobwe and al., 2012).
Swambo. The mineral zonation observed at Shinkolobwe Though the Enterprise host rocks were clearly organic car-
from vaesite-millerite in an apparently proximal position out- bon rich, the absence of significant amounts of other metals
board to siegenite has not been demonstrated at Enterprise. such as molybdenum and zinc present in other hydrothermal
The source of nickel at Enterprise, as well as at Shinkol- nickel deposits thought to have formed by seawater scaveng-
obwe and Swambo, is unclear. Some of the host rocks at ing indicates this is not a viable mechanism for the genesis
Enterprise could have been black shales prior to metasoma- of the Enterprise deposit. The reasons remain unclear as to
tism. However, the relatively low levels of Mo, P, PGEs, and why Enterprise contains almost exclusively nickel and lacks
Zn in the Enterprise deposit distinguish it from known black significant copper and cobalt as in many other Central Afri-
shale-hosted nickel deposits (Jowitt and Keays, 2011). While can Copperbelt deposits. The absence of uranium at Enter-
the basal portion of the Katangan Supergroup sequence at prise is also puzzling, given its presence at Shinkolobwe.
Enterprise does contain metamorphosed gabbros or basalts Like the source of the cobalt in many of the deposits in the
that could have served as a source of nickel or have contained Central African Copperbelt, the source of nickel at Enter-
magmatic nickel sulfides, these rocks are volumetrically prise is problematic.
minor and lack significant sulfides. Mafic rocks have not been
described from the Shinkolobwe and Swambo areas. Acknowledgments
Selley et al. (2005) noted that a mafic rock source for Co We thank First Quantum Minerals Ltd. for financially
and Cu in the Zambian Copperbelt deposits is not supported supporting this research and allowing its timely publication.
by lead isotope data (Sweeney et al., 1991; Richards et al., Thanks go especially to Mike Christie and Dr. Amanda Stol-
1988). However, the high concentrations of cobalt in many tze. At Colorado School of Mines, Katharina Pfaff assisted
Copperbelt deposits, particularly those in areas containing with QEMSCAN® analyses and Dr. John Humphrey with
abundant gabbroic bodies (Annels, 1974, 1989; Annels and stable isotope analysis. Aaron Zimmerman, AIRIE Program,
Simmonds, 1984), is highly suggestive of metal derivation Colorado State University, assisted with the Re-Os dating of
from mafic rocks. molybdenite. The paper was much improved by reviews from
Reid Keays, Peter Lightfoot, and David Selley.
Conclusions
The nickel-rich metal suite (Ni, Fe >> Cu, Co) of the REFERENCES
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