Basic Electronics
Basic Electronics
Solids or solid state materials are commonly categorized based on their ability to
conduct electricity into three groups;
(a) conductors,
(b) semiconductors
(c) Insulators.
(a) Conductors
In a conductor there are no band gaps between the valence and conduction bands. In
some metals the conduction and valence bands partially overlap. This means that
electrons can move freely between the valence band and the conduction band. The
conduction band is only partially filled. This means there are spaces for electrons to
move into. When electrons from the valence band move into the conduction band they
are free to move and this allows conduction.
An insulator has a large gap between the valence and conduction band. The valence
band is full as no electrons can move up to the conduction band. As a result, the
conduction band is empty.
Only the electrons in a conduction band can move easily, so because there are no
electrons in an insulator's conduction band, the material can't conduct.
□ Insulators, such as fused quartz and glass, have very low conductivities, on the order of
10−18 to 10−10 siemens per centimeter.
(c) Semiconductors
N/B: The difference between insulators and semiconductors is due to a small amount of impurity
added to a semiconductor which affects the energy bands. This process is called doping.
□ The elemental semiconductors are those composed of single species of atoms, such
as silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) and tin (Sn) in column IV and selenium (Se)
and tellurium (Te) in column VI of the periodic table.
□ Compound semiconductors are composed of two or more elements; Gallium
arsenide (GaAs), for example, is a binary III-V compound, which is a combination
of Gallium (Ga) from column III and Arsenic (As) from column V.
Ternary compounds can be formed by elements from three different columns—for
instance, mercury indium telluride (HgIn2Te4), a II-III-VI compound.
□ They also can be formed by elements from two columns, such as aluminum gallium
arsenide (AlxGa1 − xAs), which is a ternary III-V compound, where both Al and Ga are
from column III and the subscript x is related to the composition of the two elements
from 100 percent Al (x = 1) to 100 percent Ga (x = 0).
Applications of semiconductors
(i) Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication; Pure silicon is the most
important material for integrated circuit applications.
(ii) Group III-V binary and ternary compounds are most significant for light
emission. Gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes.
The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution in science.
□ The electrons in an atom are present in different energy levels. When we assemble a
lattice of a solid with N atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N
levels in the solid. This splitting up of sharp and tightly packed energy levels
forms Energy Bands.
Electrons orbit the positive nucleus of an individual atom in permitted energy levels. In
a large collection of atoms in a crystal, two continuous energy bands exist (CB and VB),
separated by a forbidden band, which is not accessible for electrons. This forbidden
region is called the gap and its width Eg is a characteristic of the material. Electrons
can’t exist in the energy 'gap' between bands. Thus for a semiconductor crystal, the
energy levels become reorganized into two bands;
(a) Valence band: This is the lower energy levels of electrons. it is the energy band
involving the energy levels of valence electrons.
(b) Conduction band: This is the higher energy levels of electrons. The conduction
band in semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.
The lowest energy level of the conduction band is denoted EC and the highest energy
level of the valence band is called EV so that we have the relationship;
Eg=EC-EV.
The conduction and valence bands CB and VB represent the energies accessible to
electrons, or the energies of the states potentially occupied by electrons: they do not
provide any information about the effective occupation of the energy states by
electrons.
An empty energy band (in which there is no free electron) does not participate in the
formation of an electric current. It is also the case for a fully occupied band. Indeed, an
electron can move provided that, whenever it leaves its site, it can find some free space
elsewhere (another available site within its energy band, called a “hole”), where it can go.
Insulator: A material with fully occupied or empty energy bands is then an insulator.
This is the case when the gap energy exceeds ~9 eV, because for such gaps, the thermal
energy at 300K (~25 meV) is clearly insufficient to allow electrons from the valence band
to be promoted to the conduction band. In this case the valence band (and all bands of
lower energy) is fully occupied, and the conduction band is empty.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is primarily an insulator at 0K. However, since the
energy gap is lower compared to insulators (~1eV), the valence band is slightly
thermally populated at room temperature, whereas the conduction band is slightly
depopulated. Since electrical conduction is directly connected to the number of
electrons in the “almost empty” conduction band and to the number of holes in the
“almost fully occupied” valence band, it can be expected that the electrical conductivity
of such an intrinsic semiconductor will be very small.
Conductor: For a conductor, conduction bands and valence bands are not separated
and there is therefore no energy gap. The conduction band is then partially occupied
(even at low temperatures), resulting in a “high” electrical conductivity.
Representation of energy bands of insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Band theory models the behavior of electrons in solids by postulating the existence of
energy bands. It successfully uses a material’s band structure to explain many physical
properties of solids. Bands may also be viewed as the large-scale limit of molecular
orbital theory.
□ Holes are the positively charged charge carriers whereas electrons are the negatively
charged particles.
□ Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
□ Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band.
□ The elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells results in the
creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes experience stronger atomic
force by the nucleus than electrons, holes have lower mobility.
For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500 cm2 (V∙s)-1 and the mobility
of holes is 475 cm2 (V∙s)-1.
Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:
□ Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the
temperature, it works as a conductor.
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:
● Intrinsic Semiconductor
● Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
□ At absolute zero Kelvin temperature, the covalent bonds are very strong and
there are no free electrons and the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
□ Above absolute temperature: When the temperature rises, few electrons are
unbounded and become free to move through the lattice, thus creating a hole.
These free electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the
semiconductor.
Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor
(a) Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like an insulator (b) At t>0, four
thermally generated electron pairs
□ In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons as
well as holes. The total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to
thermally generated electrons and the hole current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
Doping
The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called doping.
Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped semiconductor.
● Entirely neutral
● I = Ih and nh >> ne
Donor impurity
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a free
electron for conduction in the lattice and is called “Donar“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative
charge carriers increase. Hence, it is called n-type semiconductor.
N-type semiconductors
Fig.7 : Representation of electronic bonds in a Silicon crystal doped with Arsenic As (n doping)
From figure 7, we see that a n-type semiconductor has a higher electron density n and a
lower hole density p than the same intrinsic semiconductor. Holes are said to be
the minority carriers whereas electrons are the majority carriers.
● I = Ih and nh >> ne
Acceptor atoms
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the
three valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of
the semiconductor. This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These
impurity atoms which are ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
These impurities are called acceptors since once they are inserted in the crystalline
lattice, they lack one or several electrons to realize a full bonding with the rest of the
crystal.
□ A p-type semiconductor has a lower electron density n and a higher hole density
p than the same intrinsic semiconductor. Electrons are said to be the minority
carriers whereas holes are the majority carriers.
Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
These includes;
(a) Transistors: Transistor and MOSFET used as a switch in electrical circuits are
manufactured using the semiconductors.
(b) Diodes,
(d) Microcontrollers,
Advantages of semiconductors
● Low cost
Worked Examples
[1] Pure Silicon semiconductor at 500K has equal electrons and holes (1.5 × 10 16 m-3).
Doping by Indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m-3. Calculate the type and electron
concentration of doped semiconductor.
Since, n2i = ne nh
(1.5 × 1016)2 = ne (4.5 × 1022)
Therefore, ne = 5 × 109
Given nh = 4.5×1023
⇒ nh >> ne
Therefore, the semiconductor is p-type and ne = 5 × 109 m-3.
[2] Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction
band is partially filled at room temperature?
In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely filled
at Zero Kelvin. No electron from valence band can cross over to conduction band at this
temperature. But at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band jump over to
the conduction band due to small forbidden gap i.e. 1 eV.
[3] In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3. Find the total
number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1cm × 1 mm.
In an intrinsic semiconductor; ne = nhGiven, ne = 7 × 1019
per m3
Therefore, nh = ne = 7 × 1019 m3
So, the total current carrier density = ne + nh = 7×1019 + 7×1019 = 14×1019 per m3.Now, the total
number of current carrier = Number density × volume
= (14 × 1019 per m3 ) × (10-2m × 10-2m × 10-3m) = 14×1012.
[4] The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. What is the maximum wavelength at whichsilicon will
begin absorbing energy?
hc/E
= [(6.628 × 10-34) × (3×108)]/1.14×1.6×10-19J
Problems
[1] The energy of a photon of sodium light (λ = 589 nm) equals the band gap ofsemiconducting
material. Find,
(i) The minimum energy E required to create a hole-electron pair. (5890 A0)
[2] A P-type semiconductor has acceptor level 57 meV above the valence band. What isthe maximum
wavelength of light required to create a hole? (217100 A0).
Transistors
A Transistor is a semiconductor device that is used to either amplify signals or as a switch. It is a three
terminal device in which a small current/voltage at one terminal controls a large flow of current
between the other two terminals. The three terminals of a transistor are;
(a) Emitter
(b) Base
(c) Collector
Transistors are small in size, requires low energy for operation and has low power dissipation. The
most commonly used semiconductor materials for manufacturing transistors are Silicon, Germanium
and Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs).
The Transistor is one of the important active components which produce an output signal of higher
power than that in the input signal. It is an essential component in almost every electronic circuit
which includes amplifiers, switching, oscillators, voltage regulators, power supplies and most
importantly, the digital logic ICs.
Types of Transistors
Transistors are classified into different types depending either on their construction or operation. Two
basic families of transistors are;
(a) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Junction Transistors are generally called Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The term ‘Bipolar’ means both
electrons and holes are required for conducting current and the term ‘Junction’ means it contain PN
Junction (two junctions). Bipolar Transistors are "CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating devices
that control the amount of current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing
current applied to their base terminal.
There are two types of bipolar (BJTs) transistors; NPN and PNP, which basically describes the
physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.
(i) NPN: In this transistor, the base is at a higher voltage than the emitter, current flows from collector
to emitter. A small amount of current also flows from base to emitter. NPN Voltage at base controls
amount of current flow through transistor (collector to emitter).
(ii) PNP transistors: In PNP, the base is at a lower voltage than the emitter, current flows from emitter
to collector. A small amount of current also flows from emitter to base. Voltage at base controls
amount of current flow through transistor (emitter to collector). The arrow represents the direction of
current flow.
The principle of operation of the two transistor types; NPN and PNP is exactly the same, the only
difference is in the biasing (base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type. The
direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the base and emitter terminal,
pointing from the positive P type region to the negative N-type region, exactly the same as for the
standard diode symbol.
For normal operation, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased.
(b) Unipolar or Field Effect Transistors (FET)
Field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the shape and electrical
conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material. FETs are also known
as unipolar transistors as they involve single carrier-type operation.
The FET has several forms, but all have high input impedance. While the conductivity of a non-FET
transistor is regulated by the input current (the emitter to base current) and so has a low input
impedance, a FET's conductivity is regulated by a voltage applied to a terminal (the gate) which is
insulated from the device. The applied gate voltage induces an electric field into the device, which in
turn attracts or repels charge carriers to or from the region between a source terminal and a drain
terminal. The density of charge characters in turn influences the conductivity between the source and
drain.
The FET’s have three terminals like BJTs. The three terminals are; Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).
(a) Source (S): The Source terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers
enter the channel. This is similar to the emitter terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor. The Source
terminal can be designated as S.
(b) Drain (D): The Drain terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers
leave the channel. This is analogous to the collector terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
The Drain terminal can be designated as D. The Drain to Source voltage is designated as VDS. The
current leaving the channel at Drain terminal is indicated as ID.
(c) Gate (G): The Gate terminal in a Field Effect Transistor plays a key role in the function of FET by
controlling the current through the channel. By applying an external voltage at Gate terminal, the
current through it can be controlled. Gate is a combination of two terminals connected internally that
are heavily doped. The channel conductivity is said to be modulated by the Gate terminal. This is
analogous to the base terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
The Gate terminal is designated as G. The current entering the channel at the Gate terminal is
indicated as IG.
The Field Effect Transistor (FET) transistors are classified into Junction Field Effect transistors (JFET)
and Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistors (IG-FET) or Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistors (MOSFET).
The Junction-Field-Effect transistor (JFET) is an earliest and simple type of Field Effect Transistor. This
transistor is a voltage-controlled device. It doesn’t need any biasing current. The voltage applied
between gate and source controls the flow of electric current between source and drain of the
transistor. The JFETs are used as switches, amplifiers and resistors.
Junction FET transistors are further classified into N–Channel JFET and P–Channel JFET depending
on their construction.
The JFET in which electrons are primarily composed as the charge carrier is termed as N-channel
JFET. Hence, if the transistor is turned on, then we can say that the current flow is primarily because
of the movement of electrons. Thus, in N–Channel JFET, the current flow is due to the electrons.
When voltage is applied between gate and source, a channel is formed between source and drain for
current flow. This channel is called N–Channel. Nowadays, N–Channel JFETs are preferable type than
P–Channel JFET. The symbol for N-channel JFET transistor is given below.
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used and
popular type among all transistors. The name ‘Metal Oxide’ indicates that the Gate region and the
channel are separated by a thin layer of metal oxide (usually, SiO 2). Hence, MOSFET is also known as
Insulated Gate FET as the Gate region is completely insulated from the Source-Drain region.
There is an extra terminal known as Substrate or Body, which is the main Semiconductor (Silicon) in
which the FET is fabricated. So, the MOSFET has four terminals drain, source, gate and body or
substrate.
MOSFET has many advantages over BJT and JFET, mainly it offers high input impedance and low
output impedance. It is used in switching and power circuits and it is a main component on
Integrated Circuit designing technologies.
The MOSFETs are classified into Depletion and Enhancement modes. Depletion and enhancement
mode transistors are further classified into respective N–Channel and P–Channel types.
N-Channel MOSFET
The MOSFET having N-channel region between source and drain is called N-channel MOSFET. Here,
the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with n-type materials situated in a heavily doped p-
type semiconductor material (substrate). The current flow between source and drain is because of
electrons. The gate voltage controls the current flow in the circuit. N–Channel MOSFET is most
commonly used than P–Channel MOSFET because the mobility of electrons is high than mobility of
holes.
The symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors are given below (both Enhancement
and Depletion mode).
Symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors (Enhancement and Depletion mode
P–Channel MOSFET
The MOSFET having P–Channel region between source and drain is called as P–Channel MOSFET.
Here, the source and drain terminals are heavily doped with P-type material and the substrate is
doped with N-type material. The current flow between source and drain is because of holes
concentration. The applied voltage at gate will controls the flow of current through channel region.
The symbols and structures for P–Channel MOSFET transistors are given below (both Enhancement
and Depletion mode)
Symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors (Enhancement and Depletion mode
The basic operation of bipolar and FETs are the same. FETs are more popular, waste less power, and
are cheaper than bipolar. However, FETs can be easily damaged by static electricity, so this explains
why bipolar types are used for teaching and training students.
Physically and structurally, the difference between BJT and FET is that in BJT both majority and minority
charge carriers are required to operate, whereas in FETs, only majority charge carriers are required. The
current condition in unipolar transistor is due to only one type of charge carriers, majority carriers.
Based on their properties and characteristics, some transistors are primarily used for switching
purpose (MOSFETs) and on the other hand, some are transistors are used for amplification purpose
(BJTs). Some transistors are designed for both amplification and switching purposes.
Questions
(a) What is the difference between MOSFET and BJT transistors?
The difference between BJT and FET is that in BJT both majority and minority charge carriers are required
to operate, whereas in FETs, only majority charge carriers are required.
(b) What is meant by bipolar as used in transistors? The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and
electrons as current carriers in the transistor structure.
BJTs are essentially current-controlled devices. A small amount of current flows through the base of a
BJT transistor, which then causes a flow of large current from emitter to collector.
In bipolar transistor the current condition is due to both types of charge carriers, holes and electrons.
So it is called bipolar. These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped
semiconductor material; electrons are majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductors, whereas
holes are majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors. In contrast, unipolar transistors that is
the field-effect transistors have only one kind of charge carrier.
The symbols and structure for NPN transistors are given below.
The flow of electrons from emitter to collector is controlled by the current flow in the base terminal. A
small amount of current at base terminal causes a large amount current to flow from emitter to
collector. The most commonly used bipolar transistor is NPN transistor, because the mobility of electrons is
greater than mobility of holes. The standard equation for the currents flowing in the transistor is;
The arrow in the emitter terminal of transistor indicates the flow of conventional current. In PNP
transistor, the current flows from Emitter to Collector.
Transistor Structure
The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions
separated by two p-n junctions. If a p-region is sandwiched between two n-regions like shown in
figure (b), then its n-p-n transistor. If a n-region is sandwiched between two p-regions like shown in
figure (c), then its p-n-p transistor. The three regions are called emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C).
Physical representations of the two types of BJTs are shown below. One type consists of two n regions
separated by a p region (npn), and the other type consists of two p regions separated by n region
(pnp).
Basic BJT construction
The p-n junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emitter junction.
The p-n junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the base-collector junction,
as indicated in figure (b) above. A wire lead connects to each of the three regions, as shown. These leads
are labeled E, B, and C for emitter, base, and collector, respectively.
Parts of transistors
1. Base- It is the middle region of the transistor. It is lightly doped and it is very thin compared to the
heavily doped emitter and the moderately doped collector regions.
2. Emitter and Collector: These are the other two regions of transistors. They are heavily doped.
Emitter’s doping level is slightly greater than that of collector.
Transistor is used for voltage and current amplification according to particular configuration. At base
input signal of small amplitude is given and magnified output signal is collected at collector. Thus
transistors help in achieving amplification of signal.
The figure below show the proper bias arrangement for both npn and pnp transistors for active operation
as amplifier. Notice that in both cases, the base-emitter (BE) junction is forwarded-biased and the base-
collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased.
Forward and reverse bias of a BJT
Transistor Currents
The directions and schematic symbol of the currents in an npn transistor and those for a pnp
transistor are shown below. Notice that the arrow on the emitter of the transistor symbols points in
the direction of convention current. These diagrams show that the emitter current (I E) is the sum of
the collector current (IC) and the base current (IB), expressed as IE = IC + IB
When the transistor is connected to dc bias voltage, as shown in Figure (a) below for NPN and
Figure(b) for PNP types, VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and VCC reverse-biases the
base-collector junction.
Transistor Parameters
Current gain,
is usually designated as an equivalent hybrid (h) parameter, hFE, on transistor data sheets.
Therefore,
The ratio of the dc collector (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha ( ). The alpha is a
less-used parameter than beta in transistor circuits.
or
Example 1: Determine the dc current gain and the emitter current IE for a transistor where the
base current IB = 50 μA and IC = 3.65 mA.
Solution
or
But by definition,
Example 2: In a Common Emitter transistor circuit if β = 100 and IB = 50μA, compute the values of α,
IE and IC.
From ,
We have;
From
We have;
or 5.05 mA.
Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration shown in figure below. Three transistor dc
currents and three dc voltages can be identified.
VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction and VCC reverse-biases the base-collector junction. When
the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a nominal
forward voltage drop of VBE=0.7 V. Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the
voltage across RB is
Solving for ,
The voltage is
The voltage at the collector with respect to the emitter can be written as
Example 3: Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit. Assume βDC = 150.
Solution:
Thus,
Example 4: Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit. Assume βDC = 150.
Solution:
But
Example 5: The diagram below show a possible voltage amplifier. Given that for the transistor
Solution
Transistor Configurations
There are three possible configurations when a transistor is connected in a circuit:
(a) Common emitter:
(b) Common base
(c) Common collector
(a) Common Emitter Transistor Characteristics
In a common emitter configuration, emitter is common to both input and output. The N-P-N
transistor in CE configuration is shown below;
The behavior of a transistor can be represented by d.c. current-voltage (I-V) curves, called the static
characteristic curves of the device. These characteristics give information about various transistor
parameters, e.g. input and out dynamic resistance, current amplification factors. The three
important characteristics of a transistor are:
Input Dynamic Resistance (ri): This is defined as the ratio of change in base emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to
the resulting change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This is dynamic
and it can be seen from the input characteristic, its value varies with the operating current in the
transistor:
The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand ohms.
In a common emitter transistor collector current is output current and collector-to emitter voltage is
the output voltage.
Output Dynamic Resistance (ro): This is defined as the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage
(ΔVCE) to the change in collector current (ΔIC) at a constant base current IB.
The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the order of 100 kW) is due to the reverse-biased state
of this diode.
Collector Characteristics Curves
Using a circuit like the one shown in figure below, a set of collector characteristic curves that explain
how IC varies with VCE, for specific values of IB is generated. Notice in the circuit diagram that both VBB
and VCC are variable source of voltage.
BJT circuit with variable voltage sources
Collector characteristics curves: From the figure above, assume that VBB is set to produce a certain
value of IB and VCC is zero. For this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the base-collector
junction are forward-biased because the base is at approximately 0.7 V (for Si) while the emitter and
the collector are at 0 V. Here, the base current is through the base-emitter junction because the low
impedance path to ground, and IC is zero. When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in
the saturation region of its operation.
As VCC is increased, VCE increases gradually as the collector current increases. When VCE exceeds VK
(0.7 V for Si), the base-collector junction becomes reverse-biased and the transistor goes into the active
or linear region of its operation. Once the base-collector junction is reverse-biased, IC remains essentially
constant for a given value of IB as VCE continues to increase. For this region of the characteristic curve, the
value of IC is determined only by the relationship expressed as IC =βDCIB.
When VCE reaches a sufficiency high voltage, the reverse-biased base-collector junction goes into
breakdown; and the collector current increases rapidly. A transistor should never be operated in this
breakdown region.
A family of collector characteristics curves is produced when IC versus VCE is plotted for several
values of IB, as shown in Figure below. When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region although
there is a very small collector leakage current.
Solution:
Using the relationship IC =βDCIB =100 IB, values of IC are calculated and tabulated in table below. The
resulting curves are plotted in figure below.
IB IC
5 μA 0.5 mA
10 μA 1.0 mA
15 μA 1.5 mA
20 μA 2.0 mA
25 μA 2.5 mA
This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large. Since IC increases with IB almost
linearly, the values of both βdc and βac are nearly equal.
(a) Cut-off Region: Here the transistor is in ‘OFF’ state i.e., the current flowing through the
transistor is zero. In the Cut Off region the base current is almost zero. Therefore, collector current
also becomes zero even at higher output voltage. To operate a transistor in the cut off region, both of
emitter junction and collector junction should be in the reverse bias condition. In the cut off region a
transistor acts like the OFF stage of a switch.
Thus, in this region, both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased and the
transistor acts like an open switch. (IC = 0).
When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is shown in Figure below with
the base lead open, resulting in a base current of zero. Under this condition, there is very small value
of collector leakage current, ICEO, mainly due to thermally produced charge carriers. Because, I CEO is
extremely small, it will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE = VCC.
Moreover, in cutoff mode, both the base-emitter and the base-collector junction are reverse-biased.
This is the region on the output curve of a transistor where the output current is almost constant and
independent on output voltage. If the base resistance be greater than the maximum allowed value then the
transistor operates in Active region. Here the transistor acts as an amplifier. Thus One can use Transistor
as an Amplifier only if it operates in active region.
In this region, the base emitter junction is forward biased and the base-collector junction is reverse
biased. This region is the normal transistor operation mode for amplification, and is characterized by
the transistor current gain value, beta. This parameter is defined as the ratio between IC to IB and
typically called the factor. Similarly a factor is defined as the ratio between IC to IE. Thus;
and
As a rule of thumb, the larger the value of β, the higher the gain obtainable from the transistor, i.e. the
better the transistor. Typical values for β ranges from about 80 to 300 or higher.
(c) Saturation Region
Saturation region is the region on the output curve of transistor where the collector current increases rapidly
with the slight increase in output voltage. To operate the transistor in saturation region, the base resistance
should be smaller than the maximum allowed value. Also, for the operation in saturation region, both of
emitter junction and collector junction should be in forward bias. In saturation region, transistor acts like ON
stage of a switch.
Here the transistor is in fully ‘ON’ state and also works as a closed switch. In this region, both base
emitter and base-collector junctions are forward biased and the transistor acts like a closed switch.
(VCE = 0).
When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base-current is increased, the
collector current also increases and VCE decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor
(VCE = VCC – ICRC). This is illustrated in Figure below.
Saturation mode
When VCE reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat) , the base-collector junction becomes forward-biased
and IC can increase no further even with a continued increase in IB. And VCE(sat) is usually only 0.2 –
0.3 V for silicon transistors.
DC Load Line
A load line is a line drawn over collector curves to show every possible operating points of a transistor.
The DC load line contains possible DC values of IC and VCE for a given amplifier.
To draw a line, two points are required. The load line is drawn between these two extremes; the
saturation point and the cut-off point. There is need to find out at what point collector current is
maximum (that is the saturation point) at VCE =0. And the second point is the maximum possible
collector to emitter voltage at IC = 0 (that is the cut-off point).
Cutoff and saturation mode can be illustrated in relation to the collector characteristics curves by the
use of a load line. The Figure below shows a dc load line drawn on a family of curves connecting the
cutoff point and the saturation point. The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC = 0 and
VCE = VCC. The top of the load line is at saturation where IC = IC (sat) and VCE = VCE(sat).
In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the active region of the transistor’s operation.
DC load line on a family of collector characteristic curves illustrating the cutoff and saturation
conditions.
Significance of load line: it gives the valid values of IC and VCE, and hence the possible operating point
of a transistor.
Steps
1) First, determine at what point collector current is maximum (that is the saturation point).
2) And the second point is the maximum possible collector to emitter voltage (that is the cutoff
point).
Methods
The saturation and cut off point are located with the help of circuit analysis methods that is KVL and
KCL. Consider the circuit figure below. The DC equivalent of this circuit is given below.
DC equivalent circuit
Equation 1 is the equation for the load line. This equation is drawn over output characteristicscurves.
y = mx + c
Here, c = VCC/RC
IC = VCC/RC … Point 1
Point 2: is the extreme of the cut off region. It intersects the curve at the cut off region of collector
curves. This point gives the maximum collector-emitter voltage for the circuit.
The load line is plotted by joining Point 1 and Point 2 over the characteristic curves. The line
intersects the curve at the Q point. It means the Q point is determined by IC and VCE.
Plotting the Q Point: After drawing a load line, the second step is to locate a Q point.
Example 8: Find Q-point when VBB = 1V, 2 V and 3 V. And then construct DC load line for this
transistor. Assume VCE (sat) = 0 V.
Solution
A DC load line can be drawn onto the output characteristics curves of the transistor to show all the possible
operating points of the transistor from fully "ON" at to fully "OFF" that is . The
quiescent operating point or Q-point is a point on this load line which represents the values of I C and VCE that
exist in the circuit when no input signal is applied. Knowing V B, IC and VCE can be calculated to locate the
operating point of the circuit as follows:
using gives
and
using gives
and
using gives
and
0 VCC=10V
0.75 mA 9.25 V
3.25 mA 6.75 V
5.75 mA 4.25 V
10 mA 0
In part (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction and the base-collector
junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large enough to cause the collector to reach its
saturation value.
In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter, as indicated by the switch
equivalent. Actually, a voltage drop of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs, which is the
saturation voltage, VCE(sat) .
Conditions in Cutoff:
As mentioned before, a transistor is in the cutoff region when the base-emitter junction is not forward-
biased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents are zero, and V CE is equal to VCC. Or VCE(cutoff) =
VCC
Conditions in Saturation:
When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base current to produce a maximum
collector current, the transistor is saturated. The formula for collector saturation current is
is very small and can usually be neglected. The minimum value of base current needed to
produce saturation is
IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to keep the transistor well into saturation.
POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies power to an electrical load. The primary
function of a power supply is to convert current from a source to the correct voltage, current
and frequency to power the load. Power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power
converters. Some power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built
into the appliances that they power. Examples of built-in power supplies includes those found in
desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Functions of power supplies: The complete power supply circuit can perform these functions:
(i) Step voltages up or down, by transformer action, to the required ac line voltage.
(ii) Provide some method of voltage division to meet equipment needs.
(iii) Change ac voltage to pulsating dc voltage by either half-wave or full-wave rectification.
(iv) Filter pulsating dc voltage to a pure dc steady voltage for equipment use.
(v) Regulate power supply output in proportion to the applied load.
eneral classification of power supplies
Power supplies are categorized in various ways which includes by functional features.
(ii) Open frame power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure, sometimes consisting of only a
mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or other equipment.
(iii) Rack mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard electronic equipment racks.
(iv) Integrated power supply is one that shares a common printed circuit board with its load.
(v) An external power supply, AC adapter or power brick, is a power supply located in the load's AC
power cord that plugs into a wall outlet; a wall wart is an external supply integrated with the outlet
plug itself.
An AC-to-DC power supply operates on an AC input voltage and generates a DC output voltage.
Depending on application requirements the output voltage may contain large or negligible amounts AC
frequency components known as ripple voltage, related to AC input voltage frequency and the power
supply's operation.
(c) AC adapter
This is a power supply built into an AC mains power plug. AC adapters are also known by variousother
names such as "plug pack" or "plug-in adapter", or by slang terms such as "wall wart". AC adapters
typically have a single AC or DC output that is conveyed over a hardwired cable to a connector, but some
adapters have multiple outputs that may be conveyed over one or more cables. "Universal" AC adapters have
interchangeable input connectors to accommodate different AC mains voltages.
This is one that allows remote control of its operation through an analog input or digital interface such
as RS232 or GPIB. The controlled properties of this supply may include voltage, current, and inthe case
of AC output power supplies, frequency. They are used in a wide variety of applications, including
automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, semiconductor fabrication and x-ray
generators.
Generally, programmable power supplies use an integral microcomputer to control and monitor power
supply operation.
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is
usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should
there be a failure of the mains, the battery takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption.
Thus, a UPS is an electrical device that permits a personal computer to keep working forsome time as the
main power supply is lost. It includes a battery to store the energy when the devicedetects a power loss
from the main source.
A high-voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts. A special output
connector is used that prevents arcing, insulation breakdown and accidental human contact.
High-voltage power supplies are commonly used to accelerate and manipulate electron and ion
beams in equipment such as x-ray generators, electron microscopes, and focused ion beam.
– An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously, while
charging a storage battery. Should there be a failure of the mains, the battery takes over so that the
load never experiences an interruption.
– A high-voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts
During the first half cycle, point A is positive. The diode conducts, producing a voltage drop across
resistor R equal to IR. During the second half cycle, point A is negative. The diode anode is also
negative. No conduction takes place, and no IR drop appears across R.
Rectified Output waveform
An oscilloscope connected across R produces the waveform shown. The output of this
circuit consistsof pulses of current flowing in only one direction and is at the same
frequency as the input voltage.The output is a pulsating direct current.
Output voltage
The output voltage of this full-wave rectifier is taken from across R. It consists of direct
current pulses at twice the frequency of input voltage.To produce this full-wave
rectification in this circuit, the secondary voltage was cut in half by the center tap.
Bridge Rectifiers
It is not always necessary to use a center-tapped transformer for full-wave
rectification. Full secondary voltage can be rectified by using four diodes in a circuit