Fiber-Optic Technology Tutorial

Definition
Fiber-optic communications is based on the principle that light in a glass medium
can carry information over longer distances than electrical signals can carry in a
copper or coaxial medium. The glass purity of today's fiber, combined with
improved system electronics, enables fiber to transmit digitized light signals well
beyond 100 km (60 miles) without amplification. With few transmission losses,
low interference, and high bandwidth potential, optical fiber is an almost ideal
transmission medium.

Overview
The advantages provided by optical fiber systems are the result of a continuous
stream of product innovations and process improvements. As the requirements
and emerging opportunities of optical fiber systems are better understood, fiber
is improved to address them. This tutorial provides an extensive overview of the
history, construction, operation, and benefits of optical fiber, with particular
emphasis on outside vapor deposition (OVD) process.

Topics
1. From Theory to Practical Application: A Quick History

2. How Fiber Works

3. OVD Process

4. OVD Benefits

5. Fiber Geometry: A Key Factor in Splicing and System Performance

6. How to Choose Optical Fiber

Self-Test

Correct Answers

Acronym Guide

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1. From Theory to Practical Application: A
Quick History
An important principle in physics became the theoretical foundation for optical
fiber communications: light in a glass medium can carry more information over
longer distances than electrical signals can carry in a copper or coaxial medium.

The first challenge undertaken by scientists was to develop a glass so pure that
one percent of the light would be retained at the end of one kilometer (km), the
existing unrepeatered transmission distance for copper-based telephone systems.
In terms of attenuation, this one percent of light retention translated to twenty
decibels per kilometer (dB per km) glass material.

Glass researchers all over the world worked on the challenge in the 1960s, but the
breakthrough came in 1970, when Corning scientists Drs. Robert Maurer, Donald
Keck, and Peter Schultz created a fiber with a measured attenuation of less than
20 dB per km. It was the purest glass ever made.

The three scientists' work is recognized as the discovery that led the way to the
commercialization of optical fiber technology. Since then, the technology has
advanced tremendously in terms of performance, quality, consistency, and
applications.

Working closely with customers has made it possible for scientists to understand
what modifications are required, to improve the product accordingly through
design and manufacturing, and to develop industry-wide standards for fiber.

The commitment to optical fiber technology has spanned more than twenty years
and continues today with the endeavor to determine how fiber is currently used
and how it can meet the challenges of future applications. As a result of research
and development efforts to improve fiber, a high level of glass purity has been
achieved. Today, fiber's optical performance is approaching the theoretical limits
of silica-based glass materials. This purity, combined with improved system
electronics, enables fiber to transmit digitized light signals well beyond 100 km
(more than 60 miles) without amplification. When compared with early
attenuation levels of 20 dB per km, today's achievable levels of 0.35 dB per km at
1310 nanometers (nm) and 0.25 dB per km at 1550 nm, testify to the incredible
drive for improvement.

2. How Fiber Works

The operation of an optical fiber is based on the principle of total internal
reflection. Light reflects (bounces back) or refracts (alters its course while
penetrating a different medium), depending on the angle at which it strikes a

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surface. This occurs because different interfaces between materials refract light in
different ways.

One way of thinking about this concept is to envision a person looking at a lake.
By looking down at a steep angle, the person will see fish, rocks, vegetation, or
whatever is below the surface of the water, assuming that the water is relatively
clear and calm. However, by casting a glance farther out, thus making the angle
of sight less steep, the individual is likely to see a reflection of trees or other
objects on an opposite shore. Because air and water have different indices of
refraction, the angle at which a person looks into or across the water influences
the image seen.

This principle is at the heart of how optical fiber works. Lightwaves are guided
through the core of the optical fiber in much the same way that radio frequency
(RF) signals are guided through coaxial cable. The lightwaves are guided to the
other end of the fiber by being reflected within the core. Controlling the angle at
which the light waves are transmitted makes it possible to control how efficiently
they reach their destination. The composition of the cladding glass relative to the
core glass determines the fiber's ability to refract light. The difference in the
index of refraction of the core and the cladding causes most of the transmitted
light to bounce off the cladding glass and stay within the core. In this way, the
fiber core acts as a waveguide for the transmitted light.

The Design of Fiber

Core and Cladding

An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass to form
the core and cladding. A protective acrylate coating (see Figure 1) then surrounds
the cladding. In some cases, the protective coating may be a dual layer.

Figure 1. Core and Cladding

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A protective coating is applied to the glass fiber as the final step in the
manufacturing process. This coating protects the glass from dust and scratches
that can affect fiber strength. This protective coating can be comprised of two
layers: a soft inner layer that cushions the fiber and allows the coating to be
stripped from the glass mechanically and a harder outer layer that protects the
fiber during handling, particularly the cabling and installation/termination
processes.

Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers

There are two general categories of optical fiber: single mode and multimode (see
Figure 2).

Figure 2. Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers

Multimode fiber was the first type of fiber to be commercialized. It has a much
larger core than single-mode fiber, allowing hundreds of rays or modes of light to
propagate through the fiber simultaneously. Additionally, the larger core
diameter of multimode fiber facilitates the use of lower-cost optical transmitters
and connectors.

Single-mode fiber, on the other hand, has a much smaller core that allows only
one mode of light at a time to propagate through the core. While it might appear
that multimode fibers have higher capacity, in fact the opposite is true. Single-
mode fibers are designed to maintain the integrity of each optical signal over
longer distances, allowing more information to be transmitted.

Its tremendous information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss have made
single-mode fiber the ideal transmission medium for a multitude of applications.
Multimode fiber is used primarily in systems with short transmission distances
(under 2 km), such as premises communications and private data networks.

Optical Fiber Sizes

The international standard outer cladding diameter of most single-mode optical
fibers is 125 microns (µm) for the glass and 245 µm for the coating. This standard
is important because it ensures compatibility among connectors, splices, and
tools used throughout the industry.

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Standard single-mode fibers are manufactured with a small core size,
approximately 8 to 10 µm in diameter. Multimode fibers, with core sizes of 50 to
100 µm in diameter, are used for specific applications, such as short-distance
transmission of data. With its greater information-carrying capacity and lower
intrinsic loss, single-mode fiber is typically used for longer-distance and higher-
bandwidth applications (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Optical Fiber Sizes

3. OVD Process
Optical fiber manufacturing consists of three primary steps: laydown,
consolidation, and draw.

Laydown
In the laydown step, a soot preform is made from ultrapure vapors as they travel
through a traversing burner and react in the flame to form fine soot particles of
silica and germania (see Figure 4).

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 Figure 4. OVD Laydown Process

The OVD process is distinguished by the method of depositing the soot. These
particles are deposited on the surface of a rotating target rod. The core material is
deposited first, followed by the pure silica cladding. As both core and cladding
raw materials are vapor-deposited, the entire preform is extremely pure.

Consolidation
When deposition is complete, the target rod is removed from the center of the
porous preform, and the preform is placed into a consolidation furnace. During
the consolidation process, the water vapor is removed from the preform. This
high-temperature consolidation step sinters the preform into a solid, dense, and
transparent glass. The hole left by the target rod disappears completely; there is
no hole in the finished fiber.

The Draw
The finished glass preform is placed in a draw tower and drawn into a continuous
strand of glass fiber (see Figure 5).

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 Figure 5. Optical Fiber Drawing Process

First, the glass blank is lowered into the top of the draw furnace. The tip of the
blank is heated until a piece of molten glass, called a gob, begins to fall from the
blank—much like hot taffy. It pulls behind it a thin strand of glass, the beginning
of an optical fiber.

The gob is cut off, and the fine fiber strand is threaded into a tractor assembly.
Then, as the diameter is monitored, the assembly speeds up or slows down to
control the size of the fiber's diameter precisely.

The fiber progresses through a laser-based on-line monitor that measures the
diameter hundreds of times per second to ensure specified outside diameter.
Next, the primary and secondary coatings are applied and cured, using ultraviolet
lamps.

At the bottom of the draw, the fiber is wound on spools for further processing.
Fiber on these spools is proof-tested to ensure the strength of each fiber, cut to
length, and measured for performance of relevant optical and geometrical
parameters. With a unique identification number that encodes all relevant
manufacturing data (including raw materials and manufacturing equipment),
each fiber reel is placed into protective shipping containers. Finally, the fiber is
prepared for shipment to customers worldwide.

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4. OVD Benefits
The benefits of fiber produced by the patented OVD process include enhanced
reliability, lower attenuation, and solid geometrical and optical consistency.

Matched-Clad Fiber Consistency

Fibers are made of a core and cladding glass, each with slightly different
compositions. The manufacturing process determines the relationship between
those two glasses. The OVD process produces matched-clad fiber, the single-
mode fiber design that allows for the most consistent fiber (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Matched-Clad Fiber Design

The OVD process produces well-controlled fiber profiles and geometry, both of
which lead to a more consistent fiber. Fiber-to-fiber consistency is especially
important when fibers from different manufacturing periods are united to form
an optical system.

Depressed-Clad Fiber Profile

The inside vapor deposition (IVD) or modified chemical vapor deposition
(MCVD) process produces what is called depressed-clad fiber because of the
shape of its refractive index profile.

Figure 7. Depressed-Clad Fiber Design

Depressed-clad fibers are made with two different cladding glasses that form an
inner and an outer cladding region. The inner cladding region adjacent to the
fiber core has an index of refraction that is lower than that of pure silica, while

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the outer cladding has an index equal to that of pure silica. This depressed region
is typically a design requirement as a result of using the IVD process.

Questions of Strength
One common misconception about optical fiber is that it must be fragile because
it is made of glass. In fact, research, theoretical analysis, and practical experience
prove that the opposite is true. While traditional bulk glass is brittle, the
ultrapure glass of optical fibers exhibits both high tensile strength and extreme
durability.

How strong is fiber? Figures like 600 or 800 thousand pounds per square inch
are often cited, far more than copper's capability of 100 pounds per square inch.
That figure refers to the ultimate tensile-breaking strength of fiber produced
today. This is fiber's real, rather than theoretical, strength, which is 2 million
pounds per square inch.

ABCs of Fiber Strength

The actual strength of optical fiber is determined by the depth of inherent
microscopic flaws on its surface. These microscopic flaws exist in any fiber. As in
a length of chain, the weakest link (or, in fiber's case, the deepest flaw)
determines the ultimate strength of the entire length of fiber.

The OVD process offers a significant benefit in the area of fiber strength. Because
OVD does not start with a bulk-glass or externally manufactured rube, every
millimeter of the fiber is made from the ultrapure vapor-deposition process and
contains fewer surface flaws.

Many fiber manufacturers tensile-load, or proof-test, fiber after production. This

process eliminates the largest flaws, thereby ensuring a strength level to
specification.

Life Expectancy
Fiber is designed and manufactured to provide a lifetime service of twenty years
or more, provided it is cabled and installed according to recommended
procedures. Life expectancy can be extrapolated from many tests. These test
results, along with theoretical analysis, support the prediction of long service life.
Environmental issues are also important to consider when evaluating a fiber's
mechanical performance.

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Bending Parameters
Optical fiber cable is easy to install because of its light weight, small size, and
flexibility. Nevertheless, some people new to fiber express concern over the
precautions required to avoid too-tight bends, which can cause loss of light or
premature fiber breakage.

Experience and testing show that bare fiber can be safely looped with bend
diameters as small as two inches, the recognized industry standard for minimum-
bend diameter. Splice trays and other fiber-handling equipment, such as racks,
are designed to prevent fiber-installation errors.

5. Fiber Geometry: A Key Factor in

Splicing and System Performance
As greater volumes of fiber in higher-fiber-count cables are installed, system
engineers are becoming increasingly conscious of the impact of splicing on their
systems. Splice yields and losses have a profound impact on the quality of system
performance and the cost of installation.

Glass geometry, the physical dimensions of an optical fiber, has been shown to be
a primary contributor to splice loss and splice yield. Early on, one company
recognized the benefits provided by tightly controlled fiber geometry and has
steadily invested in continuous improvement in this area. Its tightly controlled
manufacturing process helps engineers reduce systems costs and yet remain
within the industry's low maximum splice-loss requirement.

Fiber that exhibits tightly controlled geometry tolerances will not only be easier
and faster to splice but will also reduce the need for testing by ensuring
predictable, high-quality splice performance. This is particularly true when fibers
are spliced by passive, mechanical, or fusion techniques for both single fibers and
fiber ribbons. In addition, tight geometry tolerances lead to the additional benefit
of flexibility in equipment choice.

The benefits of tighter geometry tolerances can be significant. In today's fiber-

intensive architectures, it is estimated that splicing and testing can account for
more than 30 percent of the total labor costs of system installation.

Fiber Geometry Parameters

The three fiber geometry parameters that have the greatest impact on splicing
performance are the following:

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 • cladding diameterthe outside diameter of the cladding glass
region

• core/clad concentricity (or core-to-cladding offset)how well

the core is centered in the cladding glass region

• fiber curlthe amount of curvature over a fixed length of fiber

These parameters are determined and controlled during the fiber-manufacturing

process. As fiber is cut and spliced according to needs dictated by each individual
system, it is important to be able to count on consistent geometry along the entire
length of the fiber and not to rely solely on measurements made only at the end of
the fiber.

Cladding Diameter
Cladding diameter tolerances control the outer diameter of the fiber, with tighter
tolerances ensuring that fibers are almost exactly the same size. During splicing,
inconsistent cladding diameters can cause cores to be misaligned where the fibers
join, leading to higher losses.

Cladding diameter tolerances are controlled by the drawing rate. Some

manufacturers are able to control the tolerance of the cladding to a level of 125.0
±1.0 µm. Once the cladding diameter tolerance is tightened to this level,
core/clad concentricity becomes the single largest geometry contributor to splice
loss.

Core/Clad Concentricity
Tighter core/clad concentricity tolerances help ensure that the fiber core is
centered in relation to the cladding. This reduces the chance of ending up with
cores that do not match up precisely when two fibers are spliced together. A core
that is precisely centered in the fiber yields lower-loss splices more often.

Core/clad concentricity is determined during the first stages of the

manufacturing process, when the fiber design and resulting characteristics are
created. During these laydown and consolidation processes, the dopant chemicals
that make up the fiber must be deposited with precise control and symmetry to
maintain consistent core/clad concentricity performance throughout the entire
length of fiber.

Fiber Curl
Fiber curl is the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber that is
exhibited to some degree by all fibers. It is a result of thermal stresses that occur

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during the manufacturing process. Therefore, these factors must be rigorously
monitored and controlled during fiber manufacture. Tighter fiber-curl tolerances
reduce the possibility that fiber cores will be misaligned during splicing, thereby
impacting splice loss.

Typical mass fusion splicers use fixed v-grooves for fiber alignment, where the
effect of fiber curl is most noticeable.

Figure 8. Cladding Diameter, Core/Clad Concentricity, and Fiber

Curl

6. How to Choose Optical Fiber

Single-Mode Fiber Performance Characteristics

The key optical performance parameters for single-mode fibers are attenuation,
dispersion, and mode-field diameter.

Optical fiber performance parameters can vary significantly among fibers from
different manufacturers, in ways that can affect your system's performance. It is
important to understand how to specify the fiber that best meets system
requirements.

Attenuation
Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength or light power over the length of
the light-carrying medium. Fiber attenuation is measured in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km).

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Optical fiber offers superior performance over other transmission media because
it combines high bandwidth with low attenuation. This allows signals to be
transmitted over longer distances while using fewer regenerators (amplifiers),
reducing cost, and improving reliability.

Dispersion
Dispersion is the smearing or broadening of an optical signal that results from
the many discrete wavelength components traveling at different rates (see Figure
9). In digital transmission, dispersion limits the maximum data rate or
information-carrying capacity of a single-mode fiber link. In analog transmission,
dispersion can cause a waveform to become significantly distorted and can result
in unacceptable levels of composite second-order distortion (CSO).

Figure 9. Signal Dispersion

Dispersion vs. Wavelength

Fiber dispersion varies with wavelength and is controlled by fiber design (see
Figure 10). The wavelength at which dispersion equals zero is called the zero-
dispersion wavelength. This is the wavelength at which fiber has its maximum
information-carrying capacity. For standard single-mode fibers, this is in the
region of 1310 nm.

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 Figure 10. Dispersion and Wavelength

Dispersion is expressed as the time increase in signal width (in picoseconds) per
unit divided by the source spectral width (in nm) per unit times the length of
fiber (in km).

Chromatic dispersion consists of two kinds of dispersion. Material dispersion

refers to the pulse spreading caused by the specific composition of the glass.
Waveguide dispersion is the pulse spreading that occurs as the light travels in
both the core and the inner cladding glasses. The two types can be balanced to
produce a wavelength of zero dispersion at 1310 nm.

Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
Optical fibers also can be manufactured to have the zero dispersion wavelength in
the 1550 nm region, which coincides with fiber's lowest attenuation point.
Dispersion-shifted fiber can allow for greater transmission capacity over longer
distances than would be possible with standard single-mode fiber.

Transmission in the 1550 nm Window

Optical fibers also can be manufactured to have the zero dispersion wavelength in
the 1550 nm region, which is also the point where silica-based fibers have
inherently minimal attenuation. These fibers are referred to as nonzero
dispersion-shifted fiber (NZDSF). This fiber is used primarily in applications that
require both long-distance and high-capacity transmission rates.

For applications such as the interconnection of headends, delivery of

programming to remote node sites, high-speed communication networks, and
regional and metropolitan rings (used primarily for competitive access

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applications), NZDSF fiber can improve system reliability, increase capacity, and
lower system costs (see Figure 11).

Figure 11. Wavelength and Dispersion

Mode-Field Diameter
Mode-field diameter (MFD) describes the size of the light-carrying portion of the
fiber. This region includes the fiber core as well as a portion of the surrounding
cladding glass. MFD is an important parameter for determining a fiber's
resistance to bend-induced loss and can affect splice loss as well. MFD, rather
than core diameter, is the functional parameter that determines optical
performance when a fiber is coupled to a light source, connectorized, spliced, or
bent. It is a function of wavelength, core diameter, and the refractive-index
difference between the core and the cladding. These last two are fiber design and
manufacturing parameters.

Cutoff Wavelength
Cutoff wavelength is the wavelength above which a single-mode fiber supports
only one mode or ray of light. An optical fiber that is single-moded at a particular
wavelength has two or more modes at wavelengths shorter than the cutoff
wavelength.

The effective cutoff wavelength of a fiber is dependent on the length of fiber and
its deployment. The longer the fiber, the shorter the effective cutoff wavelength.
Or, the smaller the bend radius of a loop of the fiber is, the shorter the effective
cutoff wavelength will be.

Environmental Performance
While cable design and construction play a key role in environmental
performance, optimum system performance requires the user to specify fiber that
will operate without undue loss from microbending.

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Microbends are small-scale perturbations along the fiber axis, the amplitude of
which are on the order of microns. These distortions can cause light to leak out of
a fiber. Microbending may be induced at very cold temperatures because the
glass has a different coefficient of thermal expansion from the coating and
cabling materials. At low temperatures, the coating and cable become more rigid
and contract more than the glass. Consequently, enough load may be exerted on
the glass to cause microbends. Coating, fiber ribbon, and cabling materials are
selected by manufacturers to minimize loss due to microbending.

Specification Examples of Uncabled Fiber

To ensure that a cabled fiber provides the best performance for a specific
application, it is important to work with an optical fiber–cable supplier to specify
the fiber parameters just reviewed as well as the geometric characteristics that
provide the consistency necessary for acceptable splicing and connectorizing.

Splicers and Connectors

As optical fiber moves closer to the customer, where cable lengths are shorter and
cables have higher fiber counts, the need for joining fibers becomes greater.
Splicing and connectorizing play a critical role both in the cost of installation and
in system performance.

The object of splicing and connectorizing is to match, precisely, the core of one
optical fiber with that of another in order to produce a smooth channel through
which light signals can continue without alteration or interruption.

There are two ways that fibers are joined:

• splices, which form permanent connections between fibers in the

system

• connectors, which provide remateable connections, typically at

termination points

Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing provides a fast, reliable, low-loss, fiber-to-fiber connection by
creating a homogenous joint between the two fiber ends. The fibers are melted or
fused together by heating the fiber ends, typically using an electric arc. Fusion
splices provide the highest-quality joint with the lowest loss (in the range of 0.04
dB to 0.10 dB) and are practically nonreflective.

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Mechanical Splicing
Mechanical splicing is an alternative method of making a permanent connection
between fibers. In the past, the disadvantages of mechanical splicing have been
slightly higher losses, less-reliable performance, and a cost associated with each
splice. However, advances in the technology have significantly improved its
performance. System operators typically use mechanical splicing for emergency
restoration because it is fast, inexpensive, and easy.

Connectors
Connectors are used in applications where flexibility is required in routing an
optical signal from lasers to receivers, wherever reconfiguration is necessary, and
in terminating cables. These remateable connections simplify system
reconfigurations to meet changing customer requirements.

Self-Test
1. A physics principle that became the theoretical foundation of optical fiber
communications holds that ___________ in a __________ medium can
carry more information over longer distances.

a. light; coaxial

b. electrical signals; glass

c. light; glass

d. electrical signals; copper

2. Single-mode fiber was the first type of fiber to be commercialized.

a. true

b. false

3. What are the three primary steps in the optical fiber manufacturing process?

a. laydown, compilation, and draw

b. assembly, consolidation, and pull

c. laydown, consolidation, and draw

d. assembly, compilation, and pull

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4. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the fiber produced by the OVD
process?

a. less attenuation

b. infinite flexibility

c. exceptional strength

d. fewer flaws

5. Fiber curl is exhibited by all fibers.

a. true

b. false

6. Attenuation is which of the following?

a. the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber

b. the wavelength above which a single-mode fiber supports only one

mode or ray of light

c. the reduction of signal strength over the length of the light-carrying

medium

d. smearing an optical signal that results from the many discrete

wavelength components traveling at different rates

7. Controlling the ____________ at which light waves are transmitted makes

it possible to control how efficiently they reach their destination.

a. speed

b. angle

c. time

d. rate

8. Dispersion is which of the following?

a. the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber

b. the wavelength above which a single-mode fiber supports only one

mode or ray of light

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 c. the reduction of signal strength over the length of the light-carrying
medium

d. smearing an optical signal that results from the many discrete

wavelength components traveling at different rates

9. The longer the fiber is, the shorter the effective cutoff wavelength will be.

a. true

b. false

10. Mechanical splicing is the predominant choice of operators for joining fibers.

a. true

b. false

Correct Answers
1. A physics principle that became the theoretical foundation of optical fiber
communications holds that ___________ in a __________ medium can
carry more information over longer distances.

a. light; coaxial

b. electrical signals; glass

c. light; glass

d. electrical signals; copper

See Topic 1.

2. Single-mode fiber was the first type of fiber to be commercialized.

a. true

b. false

See Topic 2.

3. What are the three primary steps in the optical fiber manufacturing process?

a. laydown, compilation, and draw

b. assembly, consolidation, and pull

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 c. laydown, consolidation, and draw

d. assembly, compilation, and pull

See Topic 2.

4. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the fiber produced by the OVD
process?

a. less attenuation

b. infinite flexibility

c. exceptional strength

d. fewer flaws

See Topic 4.

5. Fiber curl is exhibited by all fibers.

a. true

b. false

See Topic 5.

6. Attenuation is which of the following?

a. the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber

b. the wavelength above which a single-mode fiber supports only one

mode or ray of light

c. the reduction of signal strength over the length of the light-

carrying medium

d. smearing an optical signal that results from the many discrete

wavelength components traveling at different rates

See Topic 6.

7. Controlling the ____________ at which light waves are transmitted makes

it possible to control how efficiently they reach their destination.

a. speed

b. angle

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 c. time

d. rate

See Topic 2.

8. Dispersion is which of the following?

a. the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber

b. the wavelength above which a single-mode fiber supports only one

mode or ray of light

c. the reduction of signal strength over the length of the light-carrying

medium

d. smearing an optical signal that results from the many

discrete wavelength components traveling at different rates

See Topic 6.

9. The longer the fiber is, the shorter the effective cutoff wavelength will be.

a. true

b. false

See Topic 6.

10. Mechanical splicing is the predominant choice of operators for joining fibers.

a. true

b. false

See Topic 6.

Acronym Guide
CNR
carrier-to-noise ratio

CSO
composite second-order distortion

IVD
inside vapor deposition

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MCVD
modified chemical vapor deposition

MFD
mode-field diameter

NZDSF
nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber

OVD
outside vapor deposition

RF
radio frequency

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