Bones

Definition
DEFINITION- The skeletal system is the
structural framework that supports a body.
It also provides protection for a so tissues
and internal organs and serves as an
attachment for the body's muscles that
push against it and apply force, resulting
in movements.
⚫Bone-Bone is the connective tissue
specialized for bearing the weight and
giving strength. Total number of bones in
the body is 206.
Characteristics

⚫ Bone is a highly vascular living tissue, It is

rigid, but also slows tensile strength and
some elasticity.
⚫ It has a high capacity for regeneration,
because of which it heals, if fractured.
⚫ The bones are remodelled throughout life.
Types

⚫ Long bones- They show the following

characteristics. They are much longer than wide.
They have sha and two ends. The ends bear the
articular surfaces. The sha has marrow cavity
filled with yellow marrow in adult. Humerus,
radius, femur and tibia belong to this group.
⚫ Miniature long bones - These differ from the long
bones as they have no marrow cavity and have
secondary centre of ossification only for one end,
e.g., metatarsals and metacarpals.
⚫ Short bones- These are mostly cubical in shape
with trabecular bone inside and thin cortical bone
outside. Tarsals and carpals belong to this group.
⚫ Flat bones- They include the ribs and skull bones.
⚫ Irregular bones- They are the bones that cannot
be categorized in any of the previously mentioned
⚫ Pneumatic bones They contain air cavities
(sinuses), e.g.. maxilla, sphenoid and
ethmoid. Air cavities make the bones
lighter. They give resonance to the voice.
They provide additional area for warming
and humidifying the air inhaled. They
produce mucus, which entraps foreign
particles in the inspired air.
⚫ Sesamoid bones- They are the small bones
that develop in tendons, e.g.. patella and
pisiform.
Functions of skeleton and bones

⚫ Formation of framework of the body - The bones

give form to the body
⚫ Support to the body is given by bones.
⚫ Protection -The bones articulate to form cavities that
accommodate and protect viscera, e.g., the cranium
protects the brain.
⚫ Muscle attachment- The bones provide the surface
for muscle attachment.
⚫ Movement- The bones articulate to form joints,
which permit movements.
⚫ Haemopoiesis -The production of blood cells occurs
in red bone marrow found in the ends of long bones,
ribs, sternum and flat bones of the skull.
⚫ Storage of calcium- About 99% of the calcium in the
body is stored in the bones.
STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE
These have a diaphysis or sha and two
epiphyses or extremities . The diaphysis is
composed of compact bone with a central
medullary canal, contain yellow bone
marrow. The epiphyses consist of an outer
covering of compact bone with spongy
(cancellous) bone inside. The diaphysis and
epiphyses are separated by epipyseal
cartilages, which ossify when growth is
complete. Thickening of a bone occurs by
the deposition of new bone tissues under
periosteium. Long bones are almost
completely covered by vascular membrane,
the periosteum which has two layers. The
outer layer is tough and fibrous, and
protects the bone
The inner layer contains osteoblasts and
osteoclast the cells responsible for bone
production and breakdown (see below),
and is important in repair and
remodelling of the bone. The periosteum
covers the whole bone except within joint
cavities, allows attachments of tendons
and is continuous with the joint capsule.
Hyaline cartilage replaces periosteum on
bone surfaces that form joints.
Blood and nerve supply

Blood supply to the sha of the bone

derives from one or more nutrient arteries;
the epiphyses have their own blood
supply, although in the mature bone the
capillary networks arising from the two
are heavily interconnected. The sensory
supply usually enters the bone at the same
site as the nutrient artery, and branches
extensively throughout the bone.
Development of bone tissue
⚫ In long bones the focal points from which
ossification begins are small areas of
osteogenic cells, or centres of ossification
in the cartilage model. This is
accompanied by development of a bone
collar at about 8 weeks of gestation.
⚫ Later the blood supply develops and bone
tissue replaces cartilage as osteoblasts
secrete osteoid components in the sha .
⚫ The bone lengthens as ossification
continues and spreads to the epiphyses.
⚫ Around birth secondary centres of
ossification develop in the epiphyses, and
the medullary canal forms when osteoclasts
break down the central bone tissue in the
middle of the sha . During childhood, long
bones continue to lengthen because the
epiphyseal plate at each end or the bone,
which is made of cartilage, continues to
produce new cartilage on its diaphyseal
surface (the surface facing the sha of the
bone, Fig. 16.6). This cartilage is then turned
to bone. As long as cartilage production
matches the rate of ossification, the bone
continues to lengthen.
⚫ Once the whole epiphy- seal plate is turned
Bone cells
⚫ Osteoblasts : These bone-forming cells
secrete both the organic and inorganic
components of bone. They are present: in
the deeper layers of periosteum.
⚫ Osteocytes : As bone develops, osteoblasts
become trapped within the newly formed
bone. They stop forming new bone at this
stage and are called osteocytes. These are
the mature bone cells that monitor and
maintain bone tissue.
⚫ Osteoclasts: Their function is resorption of
bone to maintain the optimum shape. This
takes place at bone surfaces: Spongy bone
under the periosteum, to maintain the
shape of bones during growth and to