PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. By this definition, We see that almost
everything in the universe is made up of matter.

The S.I unit for weight is Newton (N).

The instrument used for measuring weight is the spring balance while chemical balance is the
instrument for measuring mass of a substance.

In general matter is built up of one or more of the following elementary particles, atoms,
molecules and ions.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Substance can be identified by the characteristics they possess. These characteristics are called
properties. E.g Sugar is a white solid which dissolve in water and tastes even sweet while iron
has a metallic lustre.

Physical properties: are properties associated with physical changes. Common physical
properties of a substance include its boiling point, melting point, density, hardness, malleability,
crystalline form, colour, odour and taste.

Chemical properties: are those properties associated with chemical changes e.g rusting of iron.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

1 Physical change: Is a type of change which is easily reversible and no new substances are
formed.

Examples of physical changes are as follows

1. Changes in the state of matter such as the melting, freezing, boiling, vaporization,
condensation/liquification.
2. Separation of mixtures by evaporation, distillation, fractional distillation, sublimation,
crystallization, chromatography.
3. The magnetization and demagnetization of iron rods.
4. Dissolution of common salt/sugar in water. e.g Salt + Water⇌ Salt solution
5. The change in zinc oxide colour from white when heated to yellow when cooled.
6. Thermal dehydration of hydrated salts e.g CUSO4, 5H2O.
7. Heating platinum wire.
 CHEMICAL CHANGES
Chemical change: Is the type of change which is not easily reversible and new substance are
formed. Examples are:

1 Burning/combustion of substances.
2 Rusting of iron.
3 The addition of water to quicklime i.e. slaking of lime. CaO + H2O→ Ca(OH)2
4 Fermentation and decay of substances
5 Electrolytic changes in cells.
6 Dissolution of metals, base or alkalis in acids.
7 Neutralization reactions of acids with bases.
8 Hardening or hydrogenating of fats and oils.
9 Thermal decomposition of compounds e.g. CaCo3.
10 Oxidation & reduction reactions (redox reaction).
11 Bleaching action of chlorine or Sulphur (iv) oxide.
12 Respiration
13 digestion of food.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical change Chemical change

-It is easily reversible. It is not easily reversible.
-No new substances are formed. New substances are formed.
-No change in mass of a substance involved There is a change in the mass of a
in such change. substance that undergoes such a change.
-It does not involve any great heat change. It involves a considerable amount of heat
change.

PARTICULATE THEORY OF MATTER OR ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF MATTER

Matter is made up of particles called molecules or ions or atoms, these molecules cannot be
seen with naked eyes. For example, when a cube of sugar is grinded, particles obtained can be
seen but on dissolving the sugar in water particles disappear.

(i)Atom: Is the smallest indivisible particle of an element, which can take part in a chemical
reaction.
(ii) Molecule: Is a particle of two or more atoms chemically joined together. Or molecule is the
smallest particle of a substance that is capable of independent existence and still retains the
chemical properties of the substance.

A molecule is formed when two or more atoms are chemically joined together.

(a)The combination of atoms of the same type produces molecule of an element e.g O2 , N2 ,
Cl2 , F2 etc.
(b) While the combination of different types of atoms produces molecule of a compound e.g
water H2O, hydrogen chloride HCl, ammonia NH3 , etc

ATOMICITY: is the number of atoms in a molecule of an element or compound. e.g

(a)Monoatomic: consists of single atom e.g He, Ne, Ar

(b)Diatomic: consists of two atoms e.g H2, N2 , Cl2 , O2

(C) Triatomic: consists of three atoms e.g ozone O3

(d)Tetratomic: Consists of four atoms e.g P4

(e) Polyatomic: consists of many atoms e.g S8

Calculating the total no of atoms in a given compounds.

Calculate the total number of atoms present in the following compounds:

(a) 2H2O
(b) H2SO4
(c) Al2 (SO4)3
(d) (NH4)2SO4

SOLUTION:

(a) 2H2O
Elements no of atoms
H = 4
O = 2
TOTAL = 6 atoms
2H2O=2 molecules of water containing 4 atoms of hydrogen, and 2 atoms of oxygen.
(b) H2SO4
Elements no of atoms
H = 2
S = 1
O = 4
TOTAL = 7 atoms
H2SO4=1 molecule of H2SO4 containing 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 atom of Sulphur and four
atoms of oxygen.
(c) Al2 (SO4)3
Elements no of atoms
Al = 2
S = 3
O = 12
TOTAL = 17 atoms.
Al2 (SO4)3=1 molecule of Al2 (SO4)3 containing 2 atoms of aluminium, 3 atoms of Sulphur
and 12 atoms of oxygen
(d) (NH4)2SO4

Elements no of atoms
 N = 2
H = 8
S = 1
O = 4
TOTAL = 15 atoms
(NH4)2SO4 = 1 molecule of (NH4)2SO4 containing 2 atoms of nitrogen, 8 atoms of hydrogen,
one atom of sulphur, and 4 atoms of oxygen.

(iii) An Ion: is a single atom or a group of atoms that carries an electric charge..

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Matter may be classified into elements, compounds and Mixtures.

Elements, compounds and mixtures

ELEMENTS: an element is a substance which cannot be broken down or split into simpler units
by known chemical process. An element is a substance containing only one type of atoms in its
structure.

Carbon element contains only carbon atom , sodium element contains only sodium atom , Gold
element contains only gold atoms , sulphur element contains only sulphur atoms, an hydrogen
element contains only hydrogen atoms etc.

NOTE: If the atoms of the same elements joined together they form molecules of the elements
e.g F2 , N2, O2, H2 etc.

There are 109 known elements in the periodic table.

Elements can be grouped in the periodic table. There are six types of elements: the reactive
metals, transition metals, lanthanide and actinide, pure metals, non- metals and noble gases.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Elements are classified as metals, metalloids and non-metals.

METALS: are those elements with 1,2,3 electrons in their outermost shell, they ionize by
electron loss and they are good conductor of electricity. e.g Calcium Ca, Magnesium Mg, iron
Fe, Zinc Zn, Sodium Na etc.

NON-METALS: are those elements with 4,5,6, 7 electrons in the outermost shell. They ionize by
electron gain and they are poor conductor of electricity. e.g Chlorine Cl, Oxygen O, Nitrogen N,
iodine I , Phosphorous P etc.

METALLOIDS: These are elements that exhibits properties of metals and non-metals. Examples
are boron B, germanium Ge, Silicon Si, tellurium Te, Polonium Po and antimony Sb.
Metalloids are also called semi conductors because they neither good nor poor conductor of
electricity. They conduct electricity better than non-metals but not as good as metals.

COMPOUNDS:

A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined

together. A compound is formed as a result of chemical change.

A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together.

Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means.

A compound is a substance made up of two or more different atoms bonded together i.e
chemically combined together.

NOTE: if atoms of two or more elements are joined together, they form molecules of a
compound. e.g HCl, SO2, H2O, etc.

COMPOUNDS COMPONENTS ELEMENTS CHEMICAL FORMULA

Water Hydrogen, Oxygen H2O
Sand Silicon, Oxygen SiO2
Limestone Calcium, carbon, oxygen CaCO3
Common Salt Sodium, Chlorine NaCl
Sugar (glucose) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen C6H12O6
Ethanol Carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen C2H5OH
Washing Soda Sodium, Carbon, Hydrogen, Na2CO3.10H2O
Oxygen.
Hard Soap Sodium, hydrogen, carbon, C17H35COONa
oxygen
Caustic soda Sodium, oxygen, hydrogen NaOH
Calcium hydroxide (Slaked Calcium, hydrogen and Ca(OH)2
lime) oxygen
Quick lime Calcium, Oxygen CaO

MIXTURES: A mixture contains two or more Substances or constituents physically combined

together. Mixtures Can be separated by physical means.

Mixtures consists of two or more elements or compounds which are not chemically bonded
together.
NOTE: If there are two or more different atoms, but they are not combined, they are a mixture
of different elements.

NOTE: Impure elements and compounds can also be regarded as a mixture.

Examples:

MIXTURES CONSTITUENTS
1. Air Oxygen, carbon(iv) oxide, nitrogen, rare
gases, dust, moisture.
2. Soil Sand, Clay, humus, Water, air, mineral salts
3. Urine Urea, Water, mineral salts.
4, Palm wine Water, Sugar, ehanol, mineral salts, Vitamins,
yeast, proteins, fat.
5. Coca Cola Water, sugar, Carbon(iv) oxide, Coca cola
concentrate.
6. Milk Water, sugar, fat, proteins, mineral salts,
vitamins.
7 Sea water Water, mineral salts, bacteria, remains of
organic matter
8. Blood Water, proteins, fat, oil, sugar, mineral salts,
vitamins, hormones, enzymes, blood., cells ,
haemoglobin.
9.Crude oil or petroleum Petrol, heavy oil, gas oil, kerosene, naptha,
bitumen, gas etc.
10. Brass Copper and Zinc
11.Bronze Copper and tin.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

MIXTURES COMPOUNDS
1.Mixtures are either homogenous or Compounds are always Homogenous
heterogenous.
2. Their constituents can be separated by Their constituents cannot be separated by
physical means. physical means.
3. Component or constituents are present in Constituents are present in a fixed ratio by
any ratio by mass. Hence, it cannot be mass. Hence, it can be represented by a
represented by a chemical formula. chemical formula.
4. The properties of a mixture are the sum of The properties of a compound are entirely
the properties of the constituents of the different from those constituent elements.
mixture.
5. They are not chemically combined They are chemically combined together.
together.
6. The composition of constituents varies (not The composition of the elements is always
fixed). fixed.
7.Mixtures is not usually accompanied by It is usually accompanied by heat.
heated.

HOMOGENOUS AND HETEROGENOUS SUBSTANCE

Homogenous substance: Is a type of substance which has a uniform composition throughout
the substance. The individual components have the same properties. Example are:

1 Elements e.g Zinc (Zn), tin (Sn), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), aluminum (Al) etc.
2 Compounds e.g salt (NaCl) and sugar (C6H12O6) etc.
3 Solution e.g pure sugar or salt properly dissolves in pure water.

Heterogenous substance: Is the type of substance, which has different composition throughout
the substance. The various constituents can be seen with the naked eye or under the
microscope. A heterogenous materials contains more than one type of substance. Examples:
Mixtures like milk, cement, concrete, and palm wine.