iii iii iii

Hydraulic Structures Hydraulic

HydraulicStructures
Structures

1995 1995
1995

(Previous Editions 1965, 1969, 1974, 1978, 1985, 1992) (Previous

(Previous
Editions
Editions
1965,
1965,
1969,
1969,
1974,
1974,
1978,
1978,
1985,
1985,
1992)
1992)

Minor revisions in 2002 MinorMinor

revisions
revisions
in 2002
in 2002
Chapter 2 – Part I – Auxiliary Spillway, added in 2008 Chapter
Chapter
2 – 2Part
– Part
I – Auxiliary
I – Auxiliary
Spillway,
Spillway,
added
added
in 2008
in 2008
Chapter 7 – Part E – Rock Spurs, revised in 2010 Chapter
Chapter
7 – 7Part
– Part
E – ERock
– Rock
Spurs,
Spurs,
revised
revised
in 2010
in 2010
Minor revisions in 2011 MinorMinor
revisions
revisions
in 2011
in 2011

Copyright © 1995 by C.D. Smith. Copyright

Copyright
© 1995
© 1995
by C.D.
by C.D.Smith.
Smith.
Printed in Canada. Printed
Printed
in Canada.
in Canada.
This book, or any part thereof, ThisThis
book,
book,
or any
or any
partpart
thereof,
thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form maymaynot not
be reproduced
be reproduced
in any
in any
formform
without the written permission of the author. without
without
the written
the written
permission
permission
of the
of author.
the author.

ISBN 0-199-029288 ISBN

ISBN
0-199-029288
0-199-029288

University of Saskatchewan Printing Services University

University
of Saskatchewan
of Saskatchewan
Printing
Printing
Services
Services
and and and
Universal Bindery, Saskatoon Universal
Universal
Bindery,
Bindery,
Saskatoon
Saskatoon
 2-38 2-382-38
+0.74 in front of the basin blocks, measured from the floor of the stilling basin +0.74
+0.74
in front
in front
of the
of the
basin
basin
blocks,
blocks,
measured
measured
fromfrom
the the
floorfloor
of the
of the
stilling
stilling
basin
basin
(note that the maximum possible coefficient with tailwater removed, (note
(note
thatthat
the the
maximum
maximum possible
possible
coefficient
coefficient
withwithtailwater
tailwater
removed,
removed,
would be +1.00, corresponding to stagnation pressure); would
would
be +1.00,
be +1.00,
corresponding
corresponding
to stagnation
to stagnation
pressure);
pressure);
+0.12 behind the basin blocks, measured from the floor of the basin. +0.12
+0.12
behind
behind
the basin
the basin
blocks,
blocks,
measured
measured
fromfrom
the floor
the floor
of the
of basin.
the basin.
The means by which the floor blocks are able to reduce the tailwater depth needed TheThe
means
means
by which
by which
the floor
the floor
blocks
blocks
are able
are able
to reduce
to reduce
the tailwater
the tailwater
depthdepth
needed
needed
to produce a hydraulic jump can be shown by application of the momentum equation, to produce
to produce
a hydraulic
a hydraulic
jump
jumpcan can
be shown
be shown
by application
by application
of the
of the
momentum
momentum equation,
equation,
including the drag forces due to the presence of the blocks. The drag force FB is given by including
including
the drag
the drag
forces
forces
due due
to the
to presence
the presence
of the
of blocks.
the blocks.
TheThe
dragdrag
force
force
FB isFBgiven
is given
by by
the drag equation the drag
the drag
equation
equation
[35] F = C A ρv /2 [35][35] F =
F C= A A ρv
C ρv /2 /2
in which Ab is the projected area of the blocks perpendicular to the direction of flow, and in which
in whichAb isAbthe
is projected
the projected
areaarea
of the
of blocks
the blocks
perpendicular
perpendicular to the
to direction
the direction of flow,
of flow,
and and
for each row of blocks is equivalent to d1/2 m per metre of basin width. The coefficient for each
for each
rowrowof blocks
of blocks
is equivalent to dto
is equivalent d1/2 m
1/2 m per per
metremetre
of basin
of basin
width.
width.TheThecoefficient
coefficient
of drag is much larger for the basin blocks than the chute blocks because of the high of drag
of drag
is much
is much larger
larger
for for
the the
basin
basin
blocks
blocks
thanthan
the the
chute
chute
blocks
blocks
because
becauseof the
of the
highhigh
pressure which occurs on the vertical upstream face of the basin blocks. The coefficient pressure
pressure
whichwhich
occursoccurs
on the
on the
vertical
vertical
upstream
upstream
faceface
of the
of the
basin
basin
blocks.
blocks. TheThecoefficient
coefficient
is about 0.3 for the chute blocks and close to 1.3 for the basin blocks. However, while is about
is about
0.3 0.3
for for
the the
chute
chute
blocks
blocks
and and
closeclose
to 1.3
to 1.3
for for
the the
basinbasin
blocks.
blocks.However,
However,whilewhile
the reference velocity V in [35] is equal to v for the chute blocks, it is only about 3/4 of the the
reference
reference
velocity
velocity
V inV[35]
in [35]
is equal to vtofor
is equal v the
for the
chutechute
blocks,
blocks,
it isitonly
is only
about
about
3/4 3/4
of of
v for the basin blocks because of the head loss at the chute blocks and the expansion of v for
v for
the the
basinbasin
blocksblocks
because
because
of the
of the
headhead
lossloss
at the
at the
chute
chute
blocks
blocks
and and
the the
expansion
expansion
of of
the jet before it reaches the basin blocks. The combined effect of the two rows of blocks the the
jet before
jet before
it reaches
it reaches
the the
basin
basin
blocks.
blocks.
TheThe
combined
combined effect
effect
of the
of the
twotworowsrows
of blocks
of blocks
is to produce a total drag of is toisproduce
to producea total
a total
dragdrag
of of
[36] F = ρd v /4 [36][36] F =
F ρd v /4
= ρd v /4
The momentum equation for the jump, including this force, is TheThe
momentum
momentum
equation
equation
for the
for jump,
the jump,
including
including
this this
force,
force,
is is
[37] γd ⁄2 + qρv = γd ⁄2 + qρv + ρd v /4 [37][37] ⁄2 +
γd γd ⁄2qρv
+ qρv = γd
= γd ⁄2 ⁄
+2 qρv
+ qρv
+ ρd v /4
+ ρd v /4

If [37] is solved for d , it will be found that this depth is substantially less than given by If [37]
If [37]
is solved
is solved
for dfor d
, it will
, it will
be found
be found
thatthat
this this
depthdepth
is substantially
is substantially
lessless
thanthan
given
given
by by
[33] or [34], and is typically about 0.85d with the toe of the jump at the downstream [33][33]
or [34],
or [34],
and and
is typically
is typically
aboutabout
0.85d0.85d with with
the the
toe toe
of the
of the
jumpjump
at the
at the
downstream
downstream
face of the chute blocks. With the tailwater at 0.8d the toe of the jump will move faceface
of the
of the
chute
chute
blocks.
blocks.WithWiththe the
tailwater
tailwaterat 0.8d
at 0.8dthe the
toe toe
of the
of the
jump jump
willwill
movemove
downstream and the block drag force will increase. At a depth less than 0.8d the blocks downstream
downstream and and
the block
the block
dragdrag
forceforce
willwill
increase.
increase. At aAtdepth
a depth
lessless
thanthan
0.8d0.8dthe blocks
the blocks
will not be submerged and the portion of the jet striking the face of the blocks will be willwill
not not
be submerged
be submerged and and
the the
portion
portion
of the
of the
jet striking
jet striking
the the
faceface
of the
of the
blocks
blocks
willwill
be be
deflected vertically upward, reaching an elevation above the height of the sidewalls. deflected
deflected
vertically
vertically
upward,
upward,reaching
reaching
an elevation
an elevation aboveabove
the height
the height
of the
of sidewalls.
the sidewalls.

29. Uplift Pressure 29. 29. Uplift

Uplift
Pressure
Pressure

The possible existence of uplift pressure under a stilling basin while operating TheThepossible
possibleexistence
existence of uplift
of uplift
pressure
pressureunderunder
a stilling
a stilling
basinbasin
whilewhile
operating
operating
with a hydraulic jump in the basin has frequently been overlooked by inexperienced withwith
a hydraulic
a hydraulicjump jump
in the in the
basinbasin
has has
frequently
frequently beenbeenoverlooked
overlooked by inexperienced
by inexperienced
designers. Tailwater surrounds the basin at the end and two sides, and may be considered designers.
designers.Tailwater
Tailwater surrounds
surrounds the basin
the basin
at the
at end
the end
and and
twotwosides,
sides,
and and
maymaybe considered
be considered
as a head of water standing over the downstream and side cutoff. The potential uplift as aashead
a head
of water
of water standing
standing overover
the the
downstream
downstream and and
sideside
cutoff.
cutoff.
TheThe potential
potential
uplift
uplift
pressure head under the stilling basin slab is equal to the depth of the tailwater above the pressure
pressure
headhead
underunderthe the
stilling
stilling
basinbasin
slabslab
is equal
is equal
to the
to the
depth
depth
of the
of the
tailwater
tailwater
aboveabove
the the
bottom of the slab. When the spillway is operating with a hydraulic jump in the basin, bottom
bottomof the
of the
slab.slab.
When When the the
spillway
spillway
is operating
is operating withwith
a hydraulic
a hydraulicjump jump
in the
in the
basin,
basin,
the downward force is equal to the weight of the jump and the weight of the floor slab. the the
downward
downward forceforce
is equal
is equalto the
to the
weight
weightof the
of the
jump jump
and and
the the
weight
weight
of the
of the
floorfloor
slab.slab.
Since the toe of the jump is depressed well below the tailwater level, the downward force SinceSince
the toe
the of
toethe
of jump
the jump is depressed
is depressedwellwell
belowbelow
the tailwater
the tailwaterlevel,
level,
the downward
the downward forceforce
may not balance the uplift force. Neglect of this fact may lead to an uplift failure of the maymaynot not
balance
balance
the the
upliftuplift
force.force.
Neglect
Neglect
of this
of this
factfact
maymay leadlead
to anto uplift
an uplift
failure
failure
of the
of the
stilling basin floor slab. There are several cases on record of a failure of this type. The stilling
stilling
basinbasin
floorfloor
slab.slab.
There There
are are
several
several
casescases
on record
on recordof aoffailure
a failure
of this
of this
type.type.
TheThe
result of such a failure is shown in Figure 20. result
result
of such
of such
a failure
a failure
is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure
20. 20.
 9-30 9-309-30

[17] h=Η−D [17][17] h =hΗ=−ΗD− D

[18] V = 0.98 2gh [18][18] V =V0.98
= 0.98
2gh2gh
[19] d = q⁄V [19][19] d =d q=⁄V
q⁄V
[20] γD ⁄2 + qρV = γD /2 + ρqV [20][20] ⁄2 +
γD γD ⁄2 qρV
+ qρV = γD
= γD /2 +
/2ρqV
+ ρqV

Equation [20] is the momentum equation written from the position of the Equation
Equation [20][20]
is the
is the
momentum
momentum equation
equation written
written
fromfromthe the
position
position
of theof the
contracted jet dj downstream from the gate, to the end of the structure. The equation contracted
contracted
jet djet
j
d
downstream
j
downstream from from
the the
gate,
gate,
to the
to the
end end
of the
of the
structure.
structure.
The The
equation
equation
applies only to the case of a basin without floor baffles. If floor baffles are used, the applies
applies
onlyonly
to the
to the
casecase
of aofbasin
a basin
without
withoutfloorfloor
baffles.
baffles.
If floor
If floor
baffles
baffles
are are
used,used,
the the
added drag force must be added to the right hand side of the equation. The reference added
added
dragdrag
forceforce
mustmustbe added
be addedto the
to the
rightright
handhand sidesideof the
of the
equation.
equation.TheThereference
reference
velocity for the drag equation will be about 0.9Vj for this situation, and in combination velocity
velocity
for for
the the
dragdrag
equation
equation
willwill
be about
be about0.9V0.9V
j forj for
this this
situation,
situation,
and and
in combination
in combination
with a drag coefficient greater than unity and a block height, width, and spacing of dj, the withwith
a drag
a drag
coefficient
coefficient
greater
greater
thanthan
unityunity
and and
a block
a blockheight,
height,
width,
width,
and and
spacing
spacing j, the
of dof dj, the
drag may be represented by d V ⁄4, and [20] would become dragdrag
maymay
be represented
be represented by dbyV d⁄V4, ⁄and
4, and
[20][20]
wouldwouldbecomebecome

[21] γD ⁄2 + qρV = γD /2 + ρqV + ρd V ⁄4 [21][21] ⁄2 +

γD γD ⁄2 qρV
+ qρV = γD
= γD /2 +
/2ρqV
+ ρqV + Vρd⁄V4 ⁄4
+ ρd

Given q and D1, the corresponding values of V1, D2 and V2 may be calculated and Given
Given
q and
q and
D1 , D
the
1
, corresponding
the corresponding
values
values
of Vof
1
,V
D12, and
D2 and
V2 may
V2 may
be calculated
be calculated
and and
[16] to [20] may be reduced to one equation with D as the unknown. Once D is [16][16]
to [20]
to [20]
maymaybe reduced
be reduced to one
to one
equation
equation
withwith
D asD the
as the
unknown.
unknown.OnceOnce
D isD is
determined dj can be evaluated for use in [14]. determined dj can
determined dj can
be evaluated
be evaluated for use
for use
in [14].
in [14].

Example 2: Example
Example 2: 2:
The gates of a radial gate check are set to maintain an upstream depth of 1.81 m TheThegates gates
of aofradial
a radial
gategate
checkcheckare are
set to
setmaintain
to maintainan upstream
an upstream depth
depth
of 1.81
of 1.81
m m
when the unit discharge is 0.88 m3/s/m. The depth D immediately downstream from the whenwhenthe the
unitunit
discharge
dischargeis 0.88
is 0.88 3
m /s/m. 3
m /s/m. TheThedepthdepth
D immediately
D immediately downstream
downstream fromfrom
the the
gate is 0.9 m. If the canal discharge increases 20% during the operators absence, by what gategate
is 0.9
is 0.9
m. m. If the
If canal
the canal
discharge
dischargeincreases
increases
20%20% during
during
the operators
the operators
absence,
absence,
by what
by what
percentage will the upstream depth increase? What would be the corresponding change if percentage
percentage willwill
the upstream
the upstream depthdepth
increase?
increase?
What What
wouldwould
be thebe corresponding
the corresponding change
change
if if
a stoplog check was used? a stoplog
a stoplog
check checkwaswasused?used?
When the discharge increases the canal depth downstream and the depth in the When When the the
discharge
dischargeincreases
increases the the
canalcanal
depthdepth
downstream
downstream and andthe the
depthdepth
in the
in the
structure downstream from the gate will also increase. In the absence of a more precise structure
structure
downstream
downstream fromfromthe the
gategate
willwillalsoalso
increase.
increase.
In the
In the
absence
absence
of aofmore
a more
precise
precise
analysis it may be assumed that these depths increase in proportion to the square root of analysis
analysis
it mayit maybe assumed
be assumed thatthat
thesethesedepths
depths
increase
increase
in proportion
in proportion to the
to the
square
square
rootroot
of of
the discharge. Hence, the new depth downstream from the gate will become 0.9 1.2 = the the
discharge.
discharge. Hence,
Hence,
the the
newnew depth depth
downstream
downstream fromfrom
the the
gategate
willwill
become
become0.9 0.91.2 1.2
= =
0.986 m. Since the gate opening remains unchanged, the head h across the gate will also 0.986
0.986
m. m.Since Since
the the
gategate
opening
openingremains
remains unchanged,
unchanged, the the
headheadh across
h across
the the
gategate
willwill
alsoalso
increase from 1.81 - 0.9 = 0.91 m to a value of 0.91 x 1.22 = 1.310 m, and therefore D1 = increase
increase
fromfrom 1.811.81
- 0.9- 0.9
= 0.91
= 0.91
m tomato value
a value
of 0.91
of 0.91
x 1.2x21.2 2
= 1.310
= 1.310
m, and
m, and
therefore
therefore
D1 =D1 =
0.986 + 1.310 = 2.296 m. This is an increase of 27%. 0.986
0.986
+ 1.310
+ 1.310= 2.296
= 2.296m. This
m. Thisis anisincrease
an increaseof 27%.
of 27%.
In the case of the stoplog check, the head would be (0.88/1.837)2/3 = 0.613 m, for In the
In the
casecaseof the
of the
stoplog
stoplog
check,
check,the the
headhead
wouldwouldbe (0.88/1.837)
be (0.88/1.837)2/3 2/3
= 0.613
= 0.613
m, for
m, for
which approximately 1.81 - 0.61 = 1.20 m of stoplogs would be in place. This exceeds which
whichapproximately
approximately 1.811.81
- 0.61- 0.61
= 1.20
= 1.20m ofmstoplogs
of stoplogswould wouldbe in
beplace.
in place.
ThisThis
exceeds
exceeds
the downstream depth so the structure would operate as a free flow vertical weir without the the
downstream
downstream depthdepth
so the
so the
structure
structurewouldwould
operate
operate
as aasfreea free
flowflow
vertical
vertical
weirweir
without
without
submergence. When the discharge increases 20% the head would increase to 0.613 submergence.
submergence. When Whenthe the
discharge
discharge increases
increases
20%20% the the
headhead would
wouldincrease
increase
to 0.613
to 0.613
(1.2)2/3 = 0.692 m, and the upstream depth would become 0.69 + 1.20 = 1.89 m. This is 2/3 2/3
(1.2)(1.2)= 0.692
= 0.692 m, and
m, and
the the
upstream
upstreamdepth depth
wouldwould
become
become 0.690.69
+ 1.20
+ 1.20
= 1.89
= 1.89
m. m.ThisThis
is is
an increase of 4.4%. an increase
an increase of 4.4%.
of 4.4%.

20. Breastwall Check 20. 20. Breastwall

Breastwall
Check
Check

If a small drop in the canal is needed in the vicinity of a check it is possible to If a If

small
a small
dropdrop
in the
in canal
the canal
is needed
is needed
in the
in vicinity
the vicinity
of aof
check
a check
it isitpossible
is possible
to to
combine the check and drop in a single structure and thereby save duplication of combine
combine
the check
the check
and and
dropdrop
in ain
single
a single
structure
structure
and and
thereby
thereby
savesave
duplication
duplicationof of
 10-7 10-710-7

Many CSP culverts are laid with the opening flush with the shoulder of the road, ManyManyCSPCSP culverts
culverts
are are
laidlaid
withwith
the the
opening
openingflushflush
withwiththe the
shoulder
shoulderof the
of the
road,
road,
as in Figure 3(c). In effect, the projecting part of the culvert is eliminated. Initially, it as inasFigure
in Figure
3(c).3(c).
In effect,
In effect,
the the
projecting
projectingpartpart
of the
of the
culvert
culvert
is eliminated.
is eliminated. Initially,
Initially,
it it
was believed that this would increase the discharge capacity because of the larger waswas believed
believedthatthat
this this
wouldwouldincrease
increasethe the
discharge
dischargecapacity
capacitybecause
because of the
of thelarger
larger
entrance area. In fact, the tapered inlet conditions are even worse than the plain entrance
entrance
area.area.In fact,
In fact,
the the
tapered
taperedinletinlet
conditions
conditions
are areevenevenworseworsethanthanthe the
plainplain
projecting inlet. In addition, the tapered inlet is structurally weaker than the projecting projecting
projecting
inlet.
inlet.
In addition,
In addition,
the the
tapered
tapered
inletinlet
is structurally
is structurallyweaker
weaker
thanthanthe the
projecting
projecting
inlet due to loss of ring strength. In some cases, the loss of strength has resulted in inletinlet
due due
to loss
to loss
of ring
of ring
strength.
strength.In some
In some cases,
cases,
the the
lossloss
of strength
of strengthhas hasresulted
resulted
in in
inward collapse of the sides of the inlet. The stepped taper, shown in Figure 3(d) inward
inward
collapse
collapseof the
of the
sidessides
of the
of the
inlet.
inlet.
TheThestepped
steppedtaper,
taper,
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 3(d)3(d)
represents a compromise between the projecting and tapered inlet. The tapered portion of represents
represents
a compromise
a compromise between
betweenthe projecting
the projectingand and
tapered
taperedinlet.
inlet.
TheThetapered
tapered
portion
portion
of of
the pipe ends abruptly at a position 1.2 to 1.5 diameters downstream from the inlet edge the the
pipepipe
endsends
abruptly
abruptly
at aatposition
a position
1.2 1.2
to 1.5
to 1.5
diameters
diameters
downstream
downstream fromfromthe the
inletinlet
edgeedge
at the invert. The stepped taper is somewhat stronger than the full taper, but the at the
at the
invert.
invert.TheThe stepped
steppedtapertaper
is somewhat
is somewhat stronger
strongerthanthanthe the
full full
taper,
taper,
but but
the the
hydraulics is basically unchanged. hydraulics
hydraulics
is basically
is basically
unchanged.
unchanged.
Figure 3(e) shows the Armetc inlet. This inlet is a commercially available culvert Figure
Figure
3(e)3(e)
showsshows
the Armetc
the Armetc inlet.
inlet.
ThisThis
inletinlet
is a is
commercially
a commercially available
available
culvert
culvert
end section which can be used at either end of the culvert. For pipe sizes up to 1000 mm end end
section
section
whichwhich
can can
be used
be used
at either
at either
end end
of the
of culvert.
the culvert.For For
pipepipe
sizessizes
up to
up1000
to 1000
mmmm
in diameter, the Armtec end section has a length of 1.75 D and a width at the mouth, or in diameter,
in diameter,
the the
Armtec
Armtec
end end
section
section
has has
a length
a length
of 1.75
of 1.75
D andD and
a width
a width
at the
at the
mouth,
mouth,
or or
inlet, of 2.14 D. Larger sizes are somewhat shorter and narrower. This inlet is advertised inlet,
inlet,
of 2.14
of 2.14
D. Larger
D. Larger
sizessizes
are somewhat
are somewhat shorter
shorterand and
narrower.
narrower.ThisThis
inletinlet
is advertised
is advertised
as improving the hydraulics at the inlet and reducing scour at the outlet. For part full as improving
as improving the the
hydraulics
hydraulicsat the
at the
inletinlet
and and
reducing
reducingscourscour
at the
at the
outlet.
outlet.
For For
partpart
full full
flow with the inlet unsubmerged, the streamlining effect of the inlet gives some increase flowflow
withwith
the the
inletinlet
unsubmerged,
unsubmerged, the the
streamlining
streamlining effect
effect
of the
of the
inletinlet
givesgives
some some
increase
increase
in hydraulic efficiency, but much of this benefit is lost when the pipe becomes submerged in hydraulic
in hydraulic
efficiency,
efficiency,
but but
much much
of this
of this
benefit
benefit
is lost
is lost
whenwhen
the pipe
the pipe
becomes
becomes
submerged
submerged
because the end section does not extend around the crown of the pipe. Use of the end because
because
the the
end endsection
section
doesdoes
not not
extend
extend
around
aroundthe the
crowncrownof the
of the
pipe.pipe.
UseUseof the
of the
end end
section at the outlet does not produce a reduction in channel scour. section
section
at the
at outlet
the outlet
doesdoes
not not
produce
produce
a reduction
a reduction
in channel
in channelscour.
scour.
Figure 3(f) shows the cylinder inlet, developed by Smith for Saskatchewan Figure
Figure3(f)3(f)
shows
showsthe the
cylinder
cylinder
inlet,
inlet,
developed
developedby bySmithSmithfor for
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan
Highways and Transportation. The cylinder inlet consists of a short length of larger Highways
Highways and and
Transportation.
Transportation. TheThe cylinder
cylinder
inletinlet
consists
consists
of aofshort
a shortlength
length
of larger
of larger
diameter pipe which projects upstream from the normal projecting inlet. A common diameter
diameter
pipepipewhichwhich
projects
projects
upstream
upstreamfromfromthe the
normal
normalprojecting
projectinginlet.
inlet.
A common
A common
invert is used for the culvert and the cylinder. The cylinder diameter is approximately invert
invert
is used
is used
for for
the the
culvert
culvert
and and
the the
cylinder.
cylinder.
TheThecylinder
cylinder
diameter
diameter is approximately
is approximately
1.25 D in diameter, and extends upstream 0.2 D in front of the normal inlet. A crescent 1.251.25
D inDdiameter,
in diameter, and and
extends
extends
upstream
upstream0.2 0.2
D inDfront
in front
of the
of the
normal
normalinlet.
inlet.
A crescent
A crescent
shaped steel plate can be welded in place to seal the space between the cylinder and the shaped
shaped
steelsteel
plateplate
can can
be welded
be weldedin place
in place
to seal
to seal
the the
space
space
between
betweenthe the
cylinder
cylinder
and and
the the
pipe, or the cylinder can be telescoped a short distance over the pipe and the annulus pipe,pipe,
or the
or the
cylinder
cylinder
can can
be telescoped
be telescoped a short
a short
distance
distance
overover
the the
pipepipeand and
the the
annulus
annulus
sealed with concrete, asphalt or other mastic sealant. Unlike the Armtec inlet, the sealed
sealed
withwith
concrete,
concrete,
asphalt
asphalt
or other
or other
mastic
mastic
sealant.
sealant.Unlike
Unlike
the the
Armtec
Armtec inlet,
inlet,
the the
cylinder gives minimal benefit for shallow flows, but produces a marked increase in cylinder
cylinder
givesgives
minimal
minimalbenefit
benefit
for for
shallow
shallowflows,
flows,
but but
produces
produces
a marked
a marked increase
increase
in in
discharge when it becomes submerged. discharge
discharge
when when
it becomes
it becomes
submerged.
submerged.
Figures 4 and 5 show examples of the Armtec inlet and cylinder inlet. Figures
Figures
4 and
4 and
5 show
5 show
examples
examples
of the
of Armtec
the Armtec
inletinlet
and and
cylinder
cylinder
inlet.
inlet.

5. Basic Equation 5. 5. Basic

Basic
Equation
Equation
When the upstream water level submerges the pipe at the inlet orifice type flow WhenWhen
the the
upstream
upstream
water
water
levellevel
submerges
submerges
the the
pipepipe
at the
at the
inletinlet
orifice
orifice
typetype
flowflow
will develop. The contraction of flow at the inlet will become fully developed when H/D willwill
develop.
develop.
TheThecontraction
contraction
of flow
of flow
at the
at inlet
the inlet
willwill
become
become
fullyfully
developed
developedwhenwhen
H/DH/D
≥ 1.5, in which H is the head above the invert at the culvert inlet and D is the pipe ≥ 1.5,
≥ 1.5,
in which
in whichH isHtheis the
headhead
aboveabove
the the
invert
invert
at the
at the
culvert
culvert
inletinlet
and and
D isDthe
is the
pipepipe
diameter. In this case, the classical orifice equation applies diameter.
diameter.
In this
In this
case,case,
the classical
the classical
orifice
orifice
equation
equation
applies
applies

[3] Q = CA 2gh [3] [3] Q =QCA

= CA
2gh2gh

in which Q is the discharge (m3/s), C is the coefficient of discharge, A is the pipe area in which
in which Q isQthe
is the
discharge (m3/s),
discharge (m3/s),
C isCthe
is the
coefficient
coefficient
of discharge,
of discharge,A isAthe
is the
pipepipe
areaarea
(m2), h is the effective head on the opening at the inlet (m) and g is the acceleration due 2
(m ), 2
(mh ),ishthe
is the
effective
effective
headhead
on the
on the
opening
opening
at the
at the
inletinlet
(m) (m)
and and
g isgthe
is the
acceleration
acceleration
due due
to gravity (9.81 m/s2). For a true orifice which discharges into atmosphere, the effective to gravity
to gravity(9.81 m/s2m/s
(9.81 ). 2For
). For
a true
a true
orifice
orifice
whichwhich
discharges
dischargesintointo
atmosphere,
atmosphere,the the
effective
effective
head is the vertical height from the upstream energy level (usually the water surface) to headhead
is theis the
vertical
vertical
height
height
fromfrom
the the
upstream
upstream
energy
energy
levellevel
(usually
(usually
the the
waterwater
surface)
surface)
to to
the center of the opening, from which the center
the center
of the
of opening,
the opening,fromfrom
which
which
[4] h = H - D/2 [4] [4] h = hH=- H
D/2
- D/2