Lesson 1-II.

The basics of communication

Learning outcomes
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
 demonstrate an understanding of the key ideas in language and communication;
 discuss the principles of communication and their ethical implications;
 demonstrate how to communicate effectively with different kinds of people in
multicultural
Settings and context;
 distinguish verbal communication from non-verbal communication; and
 discuss the varieties and register of spoken and written english.

Definition of language

The world is shrinking rapidly today. Advances in information technology, scientific

knowledge and applications have transformed a sprawling earth into a global village.
People of various cultures and

Nationalities now meet, interact, trade, and socialize with ease on a daily basis. Making
this possible is the use of a common language. What is language? Language is purely
human and non-instinctive

Method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily

produced symbols (sapir, 1921, as cited in madrunio & martin, 2018). It is a system of
communication by sound, operating

Through the organs of speech, among members of a given community, and using vocal
symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meaning (pei, 1966, as cited in madrunio &
martin, 2018).

Language is the ability to produce and comprehend both spoken language is the ability
to produce and comprehend both spoken and written (and in the case of sign language,
signed) words.

Understanding how language works means reaching across many branches of

psychology—everything from basic neurological functioning to high-level cognitive
processing.
Language shapes our social interactions and brings order to our lives. Complex
language is one of the defining factors that make us human. Linguists agree that a
language can only be called a language, if it has a system of rules (also known as
grammar), a sound system (phonology) and a vocabulary (lexicon). These are the
requirements for identifying a means of communication as a language, therefore it is an
exclusively human condition. Other species definitely do communicate through
movements and sounds, but they are definitely not in the same class as humans.
 The language acquired growing up is known as first language (also called as mother
tongue or native language). A first language is the language a person has learned from
birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is
often the basis for sociolinguistic identity. In some countries, the terms native
language or mother tongue refer to the language of one's ethnic group rather than
one's first language. Sometimes, there can be more than one mother tongue, those
children are usually called bilingual. By contrast, a
second language is a language that a person learns in addition to his or her first
language. It may be learned in a formal or informal way, such as at school or in a
family, and this active process is called language learning. People learn
languages as they use them to
communicate their thoughts, feelings, and experiences and establish relationships with
family members and friends. For example, a student may come to school speaking
more than one language, or learn another language in school. In their early years,
children develop language informally. Language development is continuous and
recursive. Students enhance their language learning by using what they know in new
and more complex contexts.

Finally, language is a tool that enables people to communicate, express needs and
wants, issue directives, create and produce through our own tongue.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

The term communication comes from the Latin word “communicare” – which
means to share something in common, to unite, to join, or to have things in
common. It is a process by which people send messages or exchange ideas or
thoughts with one another in a verbal or non-verbal manner. Speech Communication
is a process of transmitting information, thought or feeling from one person to
another through spoken words.
Non-verbal Communication is receiving and transmitting information, thought
or feeling without the use of words. Communication skills are important to everyone-
they are how we give and receive information and convey our ideas and opinions with
those around us.
Communication comes in many forms:
-aural (listening and hearing)
-verbal (sounds, language, and tone of voice)
non-verbal (facial expressions, body language, and posture)
-written (journals, emails, blogs, and text messages)
-visual (signs, symbols, and pictures)

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
The term communication process refers to the exchange of information
(a message) between two or more people. For communication to succeed,
both parties must be able to exchange information and understand each
other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties
cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.

Sender
The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called
the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information—a
command, request, or idea —that he or she wants to share with others. In
order for that message to be received, the sender must first encode the
message in a form that can be understood and then transmit it.
Receiver
The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the
interpreter. In order to comprehend the information from the sender, the
receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then
decode or interpret it.
Message
The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay
to the receiver. It is relayed between the parties. Put all three together and
you have the communication process as its most basic.
Medium
Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message
is transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the
medium of cell phones.
Feedback
The communication process reaches its final point when the message
has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver,
in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be
direct, such as a written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act
or deed in response.
Encoding
It is the process of turning thoughts into communication. The encoder
uses a ‘medium’ to send the message — a phone call, email, text message,
face-to-face meeting, or other communication tool. The level of conscious
thought that goes into encoding messages may vary. The encoder should
also take into account any ‘noise’ that might interfere with his or her
message, such as other messages, distractions, or influences.
Decoding
It is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example,
you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to
your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your
roommate receives the message, he or she decodes your communication and
turns it back into thoughts to make meaning.
1. Communication is transactional It is a two-way process which involves an
exchange of thoughts and ideas. Every message consists of content and feeling. The
content is what the message is about based on the words used. The feeling connected
to the content is expressed through nonverbal cues—body language/gestures, facial
expression, tone of voice/inflection, and voice volume. Whenever there are
discrepancies between a message’s content and feeling, confusion is created for the
listener—especially if the content and feeling seem to contradict each other. A classic
example of this is when one person tells another “I’m not mad at you” (the content) in
a loud angry voice (the tone of voice/feeling). Such a communication cannot help but
results in a certain degree of confusion.

2. Communication is inevitable It is impossible to not communicate. All actions—

both intentional and unintentional—communicate certain messages. For example,
deliberately ignoring someone is not “not communicating.” Quite the contrary (as you
know if you’ve been on the receiving end), this action sends a strong message. Another
is, when the moment you wake up, you already start communicating by merely thinking
of how your day will look like.

3. Communication is goal-oriented When you communicate, you have goals in

mind. You do not just say something or write a message on a piece of paper for no
reason at all. To persuade; to entertain; to inform; to express one’s feeling, ideas, or
emotions; to build and maintain relationships; and to influence others are some of the
purposes of communication.

4. Communication has various levels The various levels of communication are: a.

Intrapersonal Communication- It is the knowledge of and communication with oneself
(introspection-mental/symbolic processing of information without the benefit of getting
the opinion of others). Focus – ways in which we process stimuli, our ability to make
sense out of our experiences, to remember, to retrieve information from memory, and
to create messages.

b. Interpersonal Communication- It is the interaction (speaking and listening/switching

of roles) between two people or relatively small group. It determines our relationships
with others and who we are.

2 kinds of Interpersonal Communication: 1. Dyadic – communication between two

individuals 2. Small group – interaction of three or more persons which permits the
dialogical participation of each person.

c. Extended Communication- It involves the use of electronic media. The description of

extended communication may be expanded as to include television, audio, or phone
conferencing; video- conferencing; Skype calls; other technological means. Language
used may be formal or informal.

d. Organizational Communication- A system of communication should be put in place. A

set of rules or standards for communication protocol should be made clear so that
interaction patterns are established.

There are two types of organizational structure:

1. Formal Structure - It allows the communication to take place via designated

channels of message flow between positions in the organization. Four (4)
approaches a. downward communication - is the type that flows from upper to
lower position. Examples: president to manager or supervisor a manager to an
ordinary staff b. upward communication – is the type that flows from lower to
upper position. Examples: subordinates to superior students to teacher c.
horizontal communication - is lateral in approach as it takes place among people
belonging to the same level but coming from different departments.

d. crosswise communication - is diagonal in nature as employees from different units or

departments working at various levels communicate to each other.

2. Informal Structure - It comes from unofficial channels of message flow. Also

known as 'grapevine,' messages coming from different levels of organization are
transmitted. This occurs due to dissatisfaction of some employees accompanied
by uncertainty, such as superiors playing favorites and unfavorable or
unacceptable company rules and regulations.

5. Communication is complex You may perceive communication as simply sending a

text message, talking over the phone, or using hand gestures. However, communication
is so complex that it entails a lot of processes which can occur simultaneously or
successively.

The clearer your message, the easier it gets for the receiver to decode it according to
your original intent. While this sounds obvious, most communication pitfalls originate
from lack of clarity. Want to deliver an effective message? Start with a clear
communication goal and accurate thoughts. Clear communications build on exact
terminology and concrete words, to reduce ambiguities and confusion in the
communication process.

Correctness

Correct grammar and syntax vouch for increased effectiveness and credibility of your
message. Formal errors might affect the clarity of your message, trigger ambiguity and
raise doubts. They might also have a negative impact on the overall perception of the
message, which could be seen as sloppy or negligent.
7. Communication is relational In any communication setting, aside from sharing
meaning, the process how meaning is created also echoes two vital aspects of
relationships of the communicators: immediacy and control. Immediacy is the degree of
liking or attractiveness in a relationship and control, on the other hand, is the degree
which one participant shows dominance or power.

8. Communication is guided by culture Culture maybe defined as system of

knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people. The system includes shared
beliefs, values, symbols and behaviors. How messages are created and processed is
greatly influenced by the cultural background of communicators.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION

Communication is ethical when it is upfront, honest and cooperative. Communication

that is intended to conceal the truth or harm another person cannot be described as
ethical. While ethics are not the same as morals, there is a strong relationship between
the two: morals are ideas of what is right and wrong, while ethics are behavioral
principles influenced by moral beliefs. The ethics of communication are therefore
strongly influenced by moral principles. Below are principles associated with the 7Cs
and ethical communication. Some of which are the following (Madnelbaum,2019)

1. Be Honest and Truthful. Being honest means communicating what is known to be

true – no more, no less. Ethical communication is based on accurate, factual
information – in other words, do not lie whether the message is directed downward to
employees, upward to management, laterally to other peers and departments, or
externally. Honesty should also prevail when communicating goals, expectations,
decisions, feedback, or judgments to employees.

2. Refrain from Doing Harm. Whether communicating on a corporate or an

individual level, the communication should make every effort to cause no harm. For
instance, tobacco companies are required to communicate that the practice of
consuming their products may lead to physical conditions like emphysema, lung cancer
and other illnesses. A company who is aware of a danger and does not communicate it
would be breaking this rule of ethical communication.

3. Fairness to all Stakeholders. When communicating internally or externally, the

organization should attempt to be fair to its employees, customers, and community. If a
manager were to exert inappropriate control over employees, stockholders or
customers, this would be a violation of this standard. Price fixing, bribery, and insider
training are examples of behaviors and communications that are exerting unfairness to
stakeholders.
4. Be an Active Listener and Strive to Understand. Hearing and listening are two
different things. In order for ethical communication to be effective, the recipient of the
message should know that he (as the listener) and the speaker both have equal
responsibilities in the communication process. The listener should not select the
message that he wants to listen to or to hear only parts of the message. The recipient
may ask questions for clarification to fully understand the message. While it is
important to be a proactive listener, it is important for listeners to also strive to fully
understand what is being said before responding. While asking for clarification or
confirmation of a point is fine, many times questions that listeners pose have already
been answered. Listeners should think about what has been said before constructing a
reply. Reading “in between the lines” is also an important skill that allows for
understanding what isn’t said or implied.

5. Avoid a Negative Tone. Tone is critical to communication. There are people who
are particular to paralanguage or tone of the voice. Ethical communication assumes that
the speaker will avoid rudeness, be polite, professional, and tactful. The ethical
communicator knows that it is not only important what you say, but how you say it.
One’s voice is always picked up by the receiver, and can alter how the message is
received and/or understood that can lead to unnecessary confrontations that decrease
business productivity. Essentially, keeping the tone positive or neutral is best. It is
possible to be completely honest and open with one’s thoughts and feelings while still
remaining polite and respectful.

6. Do Not Interrupt Others. Allowing others to speak is important for civil, effective
working environment. Interrupting others results in misunderstandings, conflicts and
problems that hinder workforce and corporate progress. Interrupting others is not only
disrespectful and unethical but does not allow listeners to fully understand the message
that results in wrong assumptions and actions.

7. Refrain from Speaking Judgmentally and Strive to Understand. While it is

important to be a proactive listener, it is important for listeners to also understand the
best. Know the language, profession, and others so that you can adjust your
presentation or communication to audience.

COMMUNICATION CONTEXT

How people from different cultures communicate among themselves, how

communication differs among cultures and how communication is similar among
cultures , are all questions we ask in the study of communication and culture. At its
most basic, communication is the exchange of information and meaning. We are
constantly communicating, in a wide range of different contexts, such as physical,
social, psychological and cultural context. However, to understand the relationship
between culture and communication, we need to understand the place of
communication in culture.
Culture as a term is widely used in academic as well as in daily speech and discourse,
referring to different concepts and understandings. While the term originally stems from
ancient Greek and Roman cultures (Latin: cultura) it has various dimensions today built
from the different needs and uses of each field, be it anthropology, sociology or
communication studies. For communication studies, we might start by defining culture
as a set of learned behaviors shared by a group of people through interaction.

It is vital to understand that the relationship between culture and communication, in all
its forms, is tightly interwoven and interlinked. We can see

that communication enables the spread and reiteration of culture. Both communication
and the media propagate the values and schemata of a culture through the repeated
interaction and exchange enabled by the communication process.

Communication context - It pertains to the personal, physical, social, psychological,

and cultural circumstances, among others in which communication occurs It influences
the expectations fr o m the participants, the meaning derived from the exchange of
utterances, and the subsequent actions in the communication.

Personal Context - It involves the background of both the sender and the receiver of
the message. It includes their education, religion, socioeconomic status, marital status,
and beliefs that greatly influence what and how they communicate.

Social context - It refers to the kind of relationship that exist s between the sender
and the receiver. For example, the way you talk to your parents differs from the way
you talk to your friends, younger siblings, and more so with your classmates.

Psychological context - It includes the emotional feelings of the participants in the

communication process. It involves their opinions, judgements, prejudices, attitudes,
and perceptions towards each other which can play part in the transmission of
messages

Cultural context - It includes sets of beliefs, value systems, guiding principles, and
assumptions based on one’s race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, gender
identity, and religion within which communication happens

Communication and Culture

A more holistic understanding of communication necessitates knowledge of culture and

appreciating cultural diversities. As defined, culture is a set of unique and shared
beliefs, values, and norms that guide a certain group of people on how to think, behave
and act.

Communication and culture are intertwined. In fact, they are inseparable. Culture
influences what and how you communicate. Culture plays an important role in shaping
the style of communication. Generally, people react to how we speak rather than what
we say. The culture in which individuals are socialized influences the way they
communicate, and the way individuals communicate can change the culture.

Cultural characteristics

People of different cultures have different ways of communicating and evaluating

communication messages. There are two most relevant in giving and receiving
constructive feedback and criticism. These are low context and high context.

These are some information on how to evaluate messages and images of different
types of text reflecting in the different culture s.

A "text" isn't limited to something written down. A text can be a film, an artifact,
anything in a language and culture that conveys meaning. Think about the texts that
you use in your language classroom: What's in the textbook? What do you read in class
or even at home? How do you describe the classroom, its design? Why do you think the
chairs are placed facing the tables? Those questions, with its finite answer would tell
you that there are texts that are a reflection of one’s own culture

Cultural texts are those objects, actions, and behaviors that reveal cultural meaning. A
photo is an image, but is also a cultural text, a picture with cultural information beyond
just the picture itself. Food, house and clothing also suggest information regarding
culture and it does not stop there. The entire space and place, including the people and
their interaction, all the rituals and rules and its various forms in which they manifest
themselves, are “readable” texts. Although, not every text has a particular cultural
relevance , identification of cultural text is somewhat easy. When you look around the
classroom or the place you are right now and see the people or things around you,
those you see are cultural texts. Even the spaces that may or may not void to people
are considered to be a cultural text, the arrangement and demographic show how
space is used. What is in the space and what happens to the space are all cultural texts
or an image that is available for analysis.

Coping with the Challenges of Intercultural Communication

Challenges of Intercultural Communication

a. Using a different language b. Results of intercultural miscommunication and

misunderstanding c. Lack of shared knowledge, beliefs and cultural diversity d. Having
difficulty to arrive at the correct inference or interpretation of meanings

NOTE: - Misunderstanding in intercultural communication may occur due to wrong

interpretation of the verbal and non-verbal code.
a. Ambiguity- lack of explicitness on the part of the speaker in the form of problematic
reference and ambiguous semantics in which an utterance is open to different
interpretations b. Performance-related misunderstanding- slips of the tongue and
mishearing which may be due to utterances spoken quickly and unclearly c. Language-
related misunderstanding- ungrammaticality of language d. Gaps in world knowledge-
gaps in context rather than language

e. Local context- turns and the turns within the sequences produced by the participants
themselves, and the orientation of the participants as well as the repair moves that
follow the displayed understanding

Approaches to Studying Intercultural Communication

(Social science or functionalist, interpretative, critical)

a. You need to be aware or conscious of other cultures especially those that you will
visit so you can avoid offending people.

b. Due to misinterpretations, miscommunication occurs.

c. All cultures are equal although sometimes difficult to understand.

d. No culture is superior or inferior to another.

e. Appreciate cultural diversities and learn to live with them.

f. People have different languages, lifestyles, and ways of thinking, speaking, and
behaving. This is the essence of cultural diversity.

Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

Communication is not just confined to speaking. It is actually possible to be

communicating on without talking or uttering even a single word. For instance, when
you raise your eyebrow, you are not saying anything but you are conveying message
(either anger, irritation, or disappointment) Thus, communication can either be verbal
or non-verbal.

Verbal communication uses spoken or written words to communicate a message.

Alongside speaking, listening is equally an important skill for this type of communication
to be successful. Non-verbal communication is the use of body language, gestures,
facial expressions, and even posture to communicate. Non-verbal communication sets
the tone of a conversation, and can seriously undermine the message contained in your
words if you are not careful to control it. For example, slouching and shrinking back in
your chair during a business meeting may imply lack of confidence or lack of interest in
the meeting.

Verbal Communication

Language Variety and Register

Language is a set of arbitrary symbols which create possible combination of utterances

primarily used for communication. Language Register refers to the level and style of
spoken and written discourse depending on the context you are in. It determines the
vocabulary, tone, and structure of your language.

Varieties of English

Varieties of English or World Englishes (WE) stands for the localized varieties of English
as they are used or spoken in certain areas. In the Asian context, the

5. Intimate Register This communication is private. It is reserved for close family

members or intimate people. e. husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings,
parent and children.

Rule of Language Use: One can usually transition from one language register to an
adjacent one without encountering repercussions. However, skipping one or more levels
is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive.

Non-verbal Communication

Not all communication takes place in words. Actions speak louder than words.

Non-verbal Communication is the process of sending and receiving wordless

messages. Nonverbal cues communicate feelings and attitudes most effectively. Just
like verbal communication, nonverbal cues are open to misinterpretation that is why it is
important to interpret it in the context of one’s lifestyle, family and cultural background.

Why is non-verbal communication important?

 To repeat/enhance the verbal message (point in a direction while stating directions) 

To substitute for the verbal message (gestures – finger to lips to indicate need to be
quiet; a nod instead of saying yes)  To regulate interactions (non-verbal cues convey
when the other person should speak or not)  To accent/convey underlying feelings
(verbal tone indicates the actual meaning of specific words)
Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication

1. Actions, Body Movement, Posture a. Bowing (not done, criticized in the US;
shows rank in Japan) b. Slouching (rude in most European areas) c. Hands in pocket
(disrespectful in Turkey) d. Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Turkey) e. Showing
soles of feet (offensive/insulting in Thailand, Saudi Arabia, Muslims) – is a sign of
disrespect exposing the lowest and dirtiest part of the body. f. Forming a circle with
fingers to indicate “OK” ( OK in the US, obscene for Brazil and Germany, money for
Japan and Philippines., zero or worthless for France ) g. Thumbs up (commonly means
OK; Australia and Iran consider it rude; Nigeria-very offensive; Japan – means five;
Turkey – a political rightist party) h. Passing an item to someone with one hand (very
rude in Japan; even a very small item such as a pencil must be passed with two hands)

i. Passing an item to someone with one hand (In many Middle and Far Eastern
countries, it is rude to pass something using the left hand-which is considered
“unclean.”) j. Nodding head up and down to say “Yes” (In Bulgaria and Greece, it
means NO.) k. Fig sign (putting the thumb in between the index and the middle finger=
obscene in Turkey, Greece, Holland; You get nothing from me for Russia; You can’t
have it in Yugoslavia; Good luck in Brazil) l. Pointing: US with index finger Germany
with little finger Japanese with entire hand Most Asians consider pointing with index
finger to be rude.

2. Smiling, Crying or Showing Anger, Sorrow, Disgust a. Many Asian cultures

suppress facial expression as much as possible. b. Many Mediterranean (Latino/Arabic)
cultures exaggerate grief or sadness while most American men hide grief or sorrow. c.
Too much smiling is viewed as a sign of shallowness. – Women smile more than men.

3. Eye Contact and Gaze a. Western cultures – see direct eye to eye contact as
positive (Children are advised to look a person in the eyes.) b. But within USA, African-
Americans use more eye contact when talking and less when listening with reverse true
for Anglo-Americans. This is a possible cause for some sense of unease between races
in the US. A prolonged gaze is often seen as a sign of sexual interest. c. Arabic cultures
make prolonged eye contact. It shows interest and helps them understand truthfulness
of the other person. A person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen as untrustworthy. d.
Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean = avoid eye contact to show respect.

4. Touch a. USA – handshake is very common even for strangers; hugs, kisses for
those of opposite gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis.
b. Most African-Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head. c.
Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between genders (even
handshakes). But they consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between
same sex to be appropriate. Many Asians don’t touch the head. (Head houses the soul
and a touch puts it in jeopardy.)
 5. Smell a. USA – fear of offensive natural smells- connected with “attractiveness”
concept b. Arabic and other cultures consider natural body odors normal. c. Asian
cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai) stress frequent bathing – and often criticize
USA of not bathing often enough.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process is best described through discussion of
different communication models. In simple terms, model means a systematic
description of a phenomenon or abstract process. The common models of
communication that have been utilized over the years are as follows:
1. LINEAR MODEL
Also called the transmission model, a linear model is based on the assumption
that communication is transmitted in a straightforward manner- from a sender
to a receiver. This clearly reflects that communication is a one-way process.
A. ARISTOTLE’S COMMUNICATION MODEL
This communication model represents communication as an orator to a large audience.
The speaker plays an important role in communication. Aristotle emphasized that there
are three variables in the communication process: speaker, speech, and audience as
illustrated in the
communication flow below:

Speaker Speech Audience

b. LASWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

This communication model was developed by communication
theorist Harold D. Lasswell in 1948. This model was summed up and can
be understood by answering the five questions: Who, Says what, In
which channel, To whom, With what effect.

In which With what

Who Says what To whom
channel effect

C. SHANNON AND WEAVER’S MODEL

Speaker Speech Audience

Information Transmitter Destination

Reception
source
encoder channel
decoder receiver
sender
 NOISE

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