CHAPTER I: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NUCLEI

The nucleus is a quantum mechanical system which can be proved by examining the wavelength
of the system.

Let us consider a nucleon of energy 10 MeV, its corresponding wavelength is given by de

= = ; using the relation =

. ×
or = = 9.3 × 10 = 9.3
√ × . × × × × . ×

As the wavelength happens to be comparable to the size of the nucleus, so we can conclude that
wave nature of matter is relevant in this case. In other words, the nucleus is a quantum
mechanical system.

Therefore, it can exist in different quantum states characterized by their energies, angular
momenta etc. The nuclei usually exist in the lowest energy state or the ground state. The
properties of the nuclei in this state are called the static properties. On the contrary, in nuclear
reactions, excitation or decay, the properties are dynamic. In this chapter we will focus on the
static properties viz.,

(a) Nuclear Charge

The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons which are collectively known as nucleons. Each
nucleon is approximately 1840 times heavier than an electron. There are Z (= atomic number)
number of protons and A (= mass number) number of total nucleons, as such the number of
neutrons are N = A - Z. All protons are positively charged and the magnitude of this charge is
equal to that of an electron but opposite in sign. The neutron. on the other hand, is electrically
neutral. Therefore the nucleus is positively charged with a net charge of +Ze, where e = 1.602 ×
10-19 C. More than 99.99% of the mass of the atom is concentrated within the small volume of
the nucleus.

The nuclear mass, = ( , )− (1)

Here, the binding energy of the electrons have been neglected as they are comparably small
enough. In most cases it is found that

≈ (2)

1.2 NUCLEAR SIZE

It was the famous Rutherford scattering experiment which led to the discovery of the nucleus in
1911. From the experiment, it was revealed that the atom consists of a small, compact, positively
charged core surrounded by the orbiting electrons. Calculations showed that the nuclear size ~
10-14 m.

Experimentally, it is known ∝

or ∝

/
or ∝
/
or = (3)

where, R0 is called the nuclear radius parameter. Its value ranges from 1.2 to 1.5 fm. Here, it has
been assumed that the nucleus assumes a spherical shape, which is true for majority of the
atomic nuclei.

When we talk of the nuclear size, it must be kept in mind that the nuclear surface does not have a
sharply defined boundary. Hence, a unique definition for the nuclear radius is hard to be found
which can be conveniently applied to all nuclei. Therefore, the nuclear surface is defined to be
the one outside which there would be a negligible probability of finding any of the nuclear
constituents.

For accurate measurements of the nuclear size and shape, the nucleus is bombarded with
appropriate particles and the effects are analyzed. The next question remains: What are those
suitable particles?

When we intend to measure the size of an object, light is irradiated on it which reflects back. The
reflection occurs due to the interaction of the light with the object. Since the wavelength of the
ordinary light is of the order of 10-7 m, it is not suitable to measure the nuclear size, as it happens
to be much larger (almost 107 times) than the nuclear size. Light of very short wavelengths i.e.
gamma rays is not suitable, as the rays would rather interact strongly with the orbiting electrons
than the nucleus. Therefore instead of electromagnetic waves, it becomes more convenient to use
particles like α- particles, protons, neutrons and electrons to probe the nuclear size and shape.
Owing to their relatively short wavelengths for energies ~ 20 MeV, neutrons and protons are
more suitable for the purpose while electrons with energies > 100 MeV are required. The
nucleons or α- particles will interact with the nucleus via the strong force. On the other hand, the
electrons experience the well known electromagnetic interaction.

So, the interaction of nucleons with nucleons or α- particles will reveal the nuclear mass
distribution. The electrons interact with the protons but not the neutrons, so the interaction of the
nucleus with the probing electrons give information of the charge distribution in a nucleus. As
such the experimental methods of investigating the nuclear size are categorized as:

Electrical Methods Nuclear Methods

1. Mesonic X-rays 1. Neutron scattering

2. Electron scattering 2. Alpha Decay

3. Coulomb energies of mirror nuclei 3. Alpha particle scattering

Electrons of very high energies have been bombarded against the nucleus and the measurements
have been analyzed for many nuclei.

Figure 1.1: Fermi distribution of nuclear charge

The results obtained have been approximated by a charge distribution, also called the Fermi
distribution, expressed as

( )= (4)
/ /

The plot of the distribution is shown in Fig 1.1. ρ0 is the charge density at the center i.e., at r = 0

At r = R1/2, ρ = ρ0/2; hence R1/2 is called the half-value radius. Half-value radius is defined
as the distance from the centre at which the density decreases by a factor of 2 below the
central value.

At t = 4.4 a, the density decreases from 0.9 ρ0 to 0.1 ρ0. Here a is a parameter which gives the
measure of skin thickness. Skin thickness is the distance over which the density falls from 90%
of ρ0 to 10 % of ρ0 which is equal to 4.4a.
To show that the density falls from 90% of ρ0 to 10 % of ρ0 when t = 4.4a:

Let the distance from the centre is r1 where = 0.9 , then

0.9 =
/ /

=> =
/ /

or = 1+ − / /

or −1= = − / / (5)

Similarly at r2 (say), = 0.1 ,then

0.1 =
/ /

=> =
/ /

or = 1+ − / /

or 10 − 1 = 9 = − / / (6)

Dividing 6 by 5, we get

− / /
81 =
− / /

or − / / × − − / / = 81

or {( − )/ } = 81

( )
or = ln 81 ≈ 4.4

or ( − ) = = 4.4

It is observed that the results for all nuclei are reasonably well approximated by equation (4) with
≈ 1.65 × 10 /
/
/ ≈ 1.07

≈ 0.55 .
These results indicate that the density of nucleons within the nuclei as well as the surface
thicknesses of all nuclei are very similar. The A1/3 dependence of the nuclear radius is also
expected from the constancy of ρ0 since this requires the volume to be proportional to A, which is
already proportional to A1/3.

1.3 NUCLEAR DENSITY

To calculate the nuclear density, we assume the spherical shape of the nucleus which implies
/
=

The nuclear volume = =

We know that mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10

Therefore mass of a nucleus consisting of A number of nucleons = × . × .

× . ×
Hence, nuclear density = = ≈ / .

It is observed that the nuclear density is independent of A. Thus, it can be concluded that the
nuclear matter is incompressible and has a constant density for all nuclei. This implies that the
nucleus is a very tightly bound system of particles with a large potential energy that offsets the
kinetic energy of the nucleons.

We can also calculate the nuclear particle density i.e., the number of nucleons/m3 =

= ≈ / .
. ×