TOPIC: ELECTRICITY

General Objective: The learner should be able to identify sources of electromotive force
(emf) and relate potential difference (p.d) and current for
different electrical components.
SUB-TOPICS:
• Electric cells.
• Potential differences and electromotive force.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;
• Explain the cause of movement of charge in an electric field.
• Define potential difference and electromotive force.
• Derive the expression for the work done in moving a charge in an electric field.
• Define a volt.
• Draw a labeled structure of a simple cell, dry cell and an accumulator.
• State their limitations and improvements.
• Describe the process of charging n accumulator.
• Compare an accumulator with the simple cell.
• Describe the proper handling of a battery.
• Describe the action of Nife cell and compare it with the lead acid accumulator.
• Briefly describe the production of electricity by photo-cells, thermocouples and crystal pick-
ups.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE:

Electric potential.
• The word potential refers to the ability to perform work.
• If work has to be done to move charge from one point to another, the points are said to be at
different potential.
The earth potential is taken to be zero. The potential of any given point is equal to the work done to
move a small positive charge from earth up to that point.
𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞
𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 =
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐝
𝐖
In symbols: 𝐕=
𝐐
S.I unit of Electric potential:
Electric potential is measured in volts (V).
NOTE: A volt is the work done in moving 1 coulomb of charge from one point to another.
DEFINITION:
The potential in volts at any point is the work done per coulomb in bringing positive charge
from earth to that point.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE POTENTIAL:

• In the figure below, work must be done to move positive charge from earth to conductor A.
Conductor A is at a higher potential than the earth, and its potential is taken as positive.
• On the other hand, work must be done to move a positive charge from point B to earth.
B is at a lower potential than the earth, therefore its potential is negative.

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Potential difference and electron flow:
• If two conductors are at different potential, there is a potential difference, or p.d between
them.
• Electrons always flow from lower to higher potential. i.e towards the more positive
potential.
• Electric current flows in the direction opposite to that of electron flow.
Definition:
The potential difference between two points in an electric field or circuit is the work done in
moving one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

SOURCES OF ELECTRMOTIVE FORCE - ELECTRIC CELLS

Electric cells are devices that can produce electricity by chemical action.
An electric cell is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy.

Types of Cells:
There are two types of cells, namely;
• Primary cells
• Secondary cells.

Primary cells:
A primary cell is a cell that produces current as a result of an irreversible chemical reaction i.e.
cannot be recharged when it runs down.

Examples Of Primary Cells

• Simple cells
• Dry cells
• Leclanch’e wet cell.

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Secondary cells:
A secondary cell is cell that produces electric current as a result of reversible chemical reaction.
A secondary cell can be recharged when it runs down, by passing current backwards through it.

Examples of Secondary Cells

• Lead acid accumulators
• Alkaline cells (Nickel iron cells)

Differences between primary and secondary cells.

Secondary cell Primary cell
Current is produced as a result of reversible Current is produced as a result of irreversible
chemical reaction. chemical reactions.
Can be recharged when it runs down. Cannot be recharged when it runs down.

Simple cells
A simple cell is made up of electrodes, i.e. a copper rod (positive electrode) and a Zinc rod (negative
electrode) that are dipped into an electrolyte (dilute sulphuric acid) and are connected by a piece of
conducting wire. The more reactive metal in the reactivity series i.e. Zinc, forms the cathode while
copper forms the Anode. The electrolyte being dilute sulphuric acid ionizes as below.
H2 SO4 (aq) → 2H + (aq) + SO42-(aq)
A Simple cell

How a simple cell works:

The zinc plate slowly dissolves and goes into the solution as zinc ions which displace hydrogen ions
to form zinc sulphate.
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Zn2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) →ZnSO4 (aq)
The displaced hydrogen ions move to the copper plate. The electrons from the zinc travel through
the external circuit and arrive at the copper electrode where they combine with the hydrogen ions
to form hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
This flow of electrons from the cathode to anode causes the flow of electricity from the anode to the
cathode hence the voltmeter deflects.

Defects of a simple cell.

A simple cell is found to work for a short time after which the current stops flowing because of two
major defects, namely;
• Polarization.
• Local action.

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Polarization
This is the collection of hydrogen bubbles at the anode which partially insulate it from the
electrolyte. This slows down and eventually stops the working of the cell.

Prevention/ reduction of polarization.

This can be reduced by;
• Occasional brushing of the anode.
• Adding a depolarizer e.g. potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) which oxidizes hydrogen.
Local action
This is the gradual wearing down of the zinc electrode (cathode) as a result of impurities on the
plate reacting with the acid to form hydrogen bubbles.

Prevention of local action

The zinc plate is cleaned in concentrated sulphuric acid and then rubbed with mercury. The
mercury zinc amalgam covers up the impurities thereby preventing their contact with the acid
electrolyte.

DRY CELLS
It uses wet paste of Ammonium Chloride as the electrolyte.
The anode is the carbon rod surrounded by a mixture of powered carbon and manganese
dioxide placed in the centre of the Zinc container which forms the cathode.

Action of a dry cell.

The source of energy is chemical action between Zinc and ammonium chloride jelly. As a result,
hydrogen gas is produced which collects at the carbon rod and polarizes the cell.
The manganese (iv) oxide oxidizes the hydrogen to water in the cell and enables it to supply current
for some time.
NB: Local action cannot be completely stopped in dry cells and therefore the cell deteriorates with
time.
The dry cell can produce an e.m.f. of about 1.5 V.

Advantages of a dry cell over simple cells

• It is portable.
• Its electrolyte is in jelly form and cannot pour easily.
• Dry cells are commonly used in torches, remote control gadgets, transistor radios, wall-clocks,
e.t.c.

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The Leclanch’e Wet cell:

The leclanche wet cell is identical to the dry cell except that its electrolyte is liquid ammonium
chloride solution.
Its positive pole is a carbon plate surrounded by a depolarizing mixture of powdered carbon and
manganese (iv) oxide in a porous pot.
A zinc rod acts as its negative pole.
Both porous pot with its contents and the zinc rod are placed inside a glass jar containing a solution
of ammonium chloride.

Limitations of the of the leclanche wet cell

The depolarizing action is very slow; therefore, the cell is unsuitable for maintaining a steady
current for a long period.

Maintenance of the Wet cell.

Water is occasionally added to make up for losses due to evaporation.

SECONDARY CELLS
Lead acid accumulators. It consists of lead oxide (lead peroxide) as a positive electrode and lead as
the negative electrode. The electrolyte is the dilute sulphuric acid.
The lead acid accumulator supplies much larger currents than the dry cell. It consists of six
accumulators in series. During discharge, both electrodes change to lead sulphate and the acid
becomes more dilute.
or
Lead (IV) oxide plate
Lead plate

Dilute sulphuric acid

When fully charged, the relative density of the acid is 1.25 which falls to 1.18 at cell discharge.

Care and maintenance of lead acid accumulators.

• The lead acid accumulator can be used for a long time provided the following are taken:
• The liquid level must be maintained using distilled water. This ensures that the electrodes are
not exposed.
• The cell should be charged if the relative density of the electrolyte falls below 1.125.
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• The battery should be kept clean so that the current does not leak away across the casing to the
terminals.
• The positive terminal should not be connected directly to the negative terminal. When this is
done (short circuit), too much current is taken from the cell. This tends to destroy it.
• The battery should be charged regularly and should not be left uncharged condition for a long
time. The effect of changing current is to change lead sulphate on both positive and negative
plate into lead (ii) oxide and to return the sulphate into the electrolytes.

The Nickel- Cadmium Alkaline Cells or Nife Accumulators.

This is called so because the electrolyte is an alkaline such as potassium hydroxide dissolved in
water. The positive electrode is Nickel hydroxide and negative is iron or Candium.

An alkaline accumulator has the following advantages over lead acid accumulator.
• Lasts longer.
• Keeps the charge longer.
• They can be left in a discharged condition without harm.

Disadvantages of Alkaline accumulators

• They have relatively smaller e.m.f. than lead acid accumulators.
• Their e.m.f tends to fall continuously on discharge.

Charging an accumulator.
A charging circuit is seen in the diagram below;
D.C
source
R A
or
Batter
y

The supply must be d.c (direct current) of greater E.M.F than that of the accumulator.
The positive terminal of the supply is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
current is adjusted to a recommended value.
Before charging, the accumulators must be topped up with distilled water.

NOTE: When charging an accumulator:

Charging should be carried out slowly; with a small charging current that will not destroy the paste
in the grids.
When the accumulator is fully charged, hydrogen is evolved from the spongy lead grid and oxygen
from the lead (IV) oxide grid. This is called ‘gassing’.

CAPACITY OF AN ACCUMULATOR:
The capacity of an accumulator is the amount of energy which the accumulator can store.
The capacity of a cell is measured in ampere- hours (Ah).
𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 = 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 × 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

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e.g. If a cell is labelled 3 Ah, it means that the cell can maintain a current of 3 A for 1 hour.

Examples
1. A battery has a capacity of 200Ah. How long will it take to run down if its discharging using a
current of 0.8A?
How long will it take to charge it using a current of 8 A?
ANSWER:
Capacity of the cell = current × time
200 Ah = 0.8 × t
200
t= = 250 hours
0.8
200 Ah = 8 × t
200
t= = 25 hours.
8
2. A cell phone has a battery labelled 20 mAh. In order to initialize it, it is recommended that it
should be charged for at least 4 hours. Determine the current used to charge the phone.
ANSWER:
Capacity of the cell = current × time
20 mAh = I × 4
20
I = = 5 mA
4

OTHER sources of emf.

These include:
1. Photo electric cells (Solar cells)
2. Thermo electric effect (thermo couples)
3. Piazo electric effect (crystal pickups)

PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION

This is the emission of electrons from a certain metal plate e.g zinc plate, when electromagnetic
radiations of short wave length fall on it.

PHOTOELECTRONS:
Photoelectrons are the electrons emitted by a metal by the process of photoelectric effect.

Photoelectrons are emitted from any metal if the wavelength of incident electromagnetic
radiation is below a certain critical value called the threshold wavelength.
OR if the frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation is above the critical threshold
frequency

WORK FUNCTION:
The Work function is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation required to eject a
photoelectron from a particular metal surface.

The number of photoelectrons emitted from the metal surface depends on;

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(i) the intensity of the incident radiation. Increasing intensity.
(ii) increases the number of electrons emitted.
(iii) the type of metal.
The incident radiation provides sufficient energy to overcome the binding forces of the metal
and the excess energy is converted to into kinetic energy which the electrons use to escape
from the metal surface.

THE PHOTOELECTRIC CELL.

The photoelectric cell uses photoelectric effect to convert light energy into electric energy.
The strength of the current produced depends on the intensity of the incident light radiation on the
metal.

Evacuated transparent tube

When a suitable radiation falls on the zinc cathode, it emits electrons by photoelectric emission.
The anode attracts the electrons which then pass through an external circuit causing an electric
current.
N.B: If gas is introduced into the tube, the current decreases slowly because the gas particles collide
with the electrons, hence reducing the number of electrons reaching the anode.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFECT:

Photoelectric effect is applied in:
• Burglar alarms.
• Automatic lighting systems
• In solar calculators.
• Television cameras
• Automatic door systems
• Sound track on a film.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:

Ultra violet lamp Zinc plate

Charged
electroscope
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When Ultra violet light is incident on a clean zinc plate placed on the cap of a gold leaf electroscope:
• If the electroscope is uncharged, the leaf initially rises indicating that is acquiring charge.
• If the electroscope is negatively charged, the leaf divergence slowly decreases indicating that
is losing charge.
• If the electroscope is positively charged, no loss of charge is observed. The photoelectrons are
attracted back to the zinc plate and electroscope.

Conclusion:
The Zinc plate emits photoelectrons when ultra violet radiation falls on it.

THERMOCOUPLE:
When two dissimilar metals are joined to form a junction and the junction is heated , an e.m.f is
created.
When each of the free ends of the metal wires are connected to a sensitive galvanometer, a small
current flows in the circuit.

The magnitude of the e.m.f produced depends on

• the temperature of the junction.
• the pair of metals used.

Neutral temperature is the temperature of the hot junction at which the e.m.f is a maximum.
Thermocouples are used as small power supply in space satellites, weather buoys and weather
ships.
Advantages of thermocouples as sources of e.m.f
Thermocouples are
(i) cheap
(ii) long lasting, and
(iii) reliable.
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Crystal pick –ups.
Thin plates of quartz are used to produce an e.m.f. This effect is known as piezoelectricity.

Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (such as crystals,
certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins) in response to
applied mechanical stress.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electricity is the flow or movement of charged particles such as electrons or ions from one point to
another.
In any electric circuit, there are three physical quantities to be measured;
Current, measured in amperes (A).
Electromotive force (e.m.f) and potential difference (p.d) both measured in volts (V).
Resistance, measured in ohms (Ω).

CURRENT:
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge around a circuit.
A Circuit: This is the path along the line of conductors through which current flows.

NOTE: Electrons flow in the direction opposite to the conventional flow of current.
Charge Q
current = . OR I= .
time t

Formula triangle:
Q

I t

SI unit of current, I, is the ampere (A).

SI unit of charge, Q, is the coulomb (C).

A Coulomb is a charge passing any point in one second when the current flowing is one ampere.

Example:
1. (a) Define the coulomb as a unit of charge.
(b) (i) A current of 8 A flows for 30 minutes in a circuit. Find the quantity of electricity
that flows in this time.
(ii) A charge of 360 C flows through a lamp for 6 minutes. Find the electric current
through the lamp. Determine the time taken for a charge of 480 C to pass
through the ends of a conductor when a current f 12 A is flowing through it.
ANSWER:
1. (b) (i) Given I = 8 A, t = 30 mins = 30 × 60 = 1800 s
Q = It = 8 × 1800 = 14400 C.
(ii) Given Q = 360 C, t = 6 mins = 6 × 60 = 360 s
Q 360
Q = It ∴ I = = = 1 A.
t 360
Given Q = 480 C, I = 12 A, t =?

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 Q 480
t= = = 40 s
I 12
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:

Circuit components:
Components Name Symbol Purpose (use)
Switch Closes or opens the circuit

Cell + – Source of e.m.f

Components Name Symbol Purpose (use)

Battery (group of Source of e.m.f

cells)

Standard Resistor
OR
Rheostat (Variable Contols amount of current
resistor) OR flowing in the circuit
Ammeter Measures the amount of
A current flowing through a
circuit component
Voltmeter Measures the p.d across a
V circuit component

Galvanometer Used to measure very small

G OR p.ds or currents in mV or mA
respectively.
Lamp

All the circuit components are connected by a system of electric wires of negligible resistance.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d) / VOLTAGE

Potential difference (p.d) is the work done in moving a coulomb of Charge from one point to
another.
SI unit of potential difference is the Volt (V).

Definition of a volt.

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A Volt is the potential difference between two points in a circuit if 1 joule of work is done when one
coulomb of charge passes from one point to another.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F)

1. Electromotive force is the potential difference across the terminals of cell in an open circuit.
2. Electromotive force (e.m.f) is the total work done in joules per coulomb of electricity
conveyed in a circuit in which the cell is connected.
3. Electromotive force is the sum of all p.d’s across the various components of a circuit in which
the cell is connected including the p.d required to drive current through the cell itself.

S.I unit of e.m.f is the Volt (V).

SUB-TOPICS: ELECTRIC CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;
• Define current.
• Define the coulomb
• Define electrical resistance.
• Experimentally verify Ohm’s law.
• State Ohm’s law.
• State Ohm’s law.
• Solve numerical problems.
• Sketch 1-V curves for ohmic and non-ohmic conductors.
• Investigate the factors affecting electrical resistance.
• Describe the mechanism of conduction of metallic conductors.
• Identify electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
• Explain conduction of electricity by electrolytes.

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that: the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the ends of the conductor provided temperature and other physical
conditions are kept constant.
V = IR is the mathematical representation of ohm’s law.
Where, V = potential difference, I = Current, R = resistance.
NOTE:
Q
Q = It ∴V I =
t
Q
V = IR = RR
I t
Questions
1. Find the p.d across a conductor of resistance 5 Ω when 720C passes through it in 4 minutes.
Answer:
Given: Q = 720 C, t = 4 mins = 4 × 60 = 240 s, R = 5 Ω
Current:
Q 720
I= = =3A
t 240
p.d:
V = IR = 3 × 5 = 15 V

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2. The p.d across a 15 Ω resistor was found to be 30 V. Find the amount of electric charge that
passed through it for 45 minutes.
ANSWER:
Given: V = 30 V, t = 45 mins = 45 × 60 = 2700 s, R = 15 Ω
V 30
Current: V = IR ∴ I = = = 2 A
R 15
Charge: Q = It = 2 × 2700 = 5400 C

EXPERIMENT: To verify ohm’s law.

The circuit is set up as above.

The rheostat is set to a minimum value to let the maximum current pass through it.
The switch, S is closed and both the voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted and recorded.
The above procedure is repeated for various values of V and I.
The readings are recorded in the table as shown;
I(A) V(V)
- -
- -
The results in the table are then used to plot a graph of V against I as shown;
V(V)

I(A)
A straight line graph through the origin verifies ohm’s law i.e. V α I .
The resistance of the conductor is given by the slope of the graph.
∆V
Slope of the graph = = R.
∆I

Classification of electric conductors

There are two types of electric conductors namely;
Ohmic conductors: these are conductors that obey Ohm’s law.
Examples of Ohmic conductors include most metals like, copper, aluminium, silver e.t.c.

Non – Ohmic conductors; these are conductors that do not obey Ohm’s law.
Examples of non – Ohmic conductors include;
(i) Semi- conductors
(ii) diodes
(iii) electrolytes.

Characteristic graph for Ohm’s law.

Ohmic conductors - Conductors that obey Ohm’s Law.
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Graph of V against I

Graphs of Non- ohmic conductor: Conductors that do not obey Ohm’s law.
Dilute sulphuric acid (electrolyte)

Thermonic diode

Semi conductor junction diode

Neon gas

Tungsten filament

Conduction of electricity in metals:

Metal conductors have free electrons that wander randomly from atom to atom.

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When a source of e.m.f is connected across the ends of the metal conductor, an electric field
develops. The free electrons experience a force due to the electric field which makes the drift from a
region of low potential to that of high potential of the cell.
This movement of free electrons constitutes an electric current.
Metal conductor
+ −
𝑒ҧ
current
+ −

Conduction of electricity in liquids:

Some liquids conduct electricity and others do not.
• An electrolyte is a solution that conducts electricity.
• Examples of electrolytes include,
(i) dilute acids e.g dilute sulphuric acid, dilute hydrochloric acid.
(ii) Bases (alkalis) e.g sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide.
(iii) salts e.g sodium chloride, copper sulphate.
The set up below can be used to study the flow of electric current in a liquids and solutions.

When an electric current passes through an electrolyte, a chemical reaction takes place at the
surface of the electrodes. This process is known as electrolysis.
Conduction of electricity during electrolysis is due to the movement of ions.
When the electrodes are connected to a source of e.m.f, an electric field causes the ions to move.
The positive ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode) while the negative ions
move towards the positive (anode). This is known as the ionic theory
This movement of ions in an electrolyte constitutes the electric current in an electrolyte.

USES OF ELECTROLYSIS:
Electrolysis is used in.
1. Refining copper.
2. Extraction of aluminium.
3. Electroplating.

ELECTROPLATING:
Electroplating is the depositing of a thin layer of metal by the process of electrolysis
The deposited metal is useful because of:
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 1. its pleasing appearance.
2. the protection it gives against rusting or corrosion.
3. its hardness.
4. making a worn-out piece of metal thicker (stronger).
RESISTANCE AND RESISTORS
The resistance of a substance is the opposition of the substance to the flow of current through it.
S.I unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Definition of an ohm
An Ohm is the resistance of the conductor which allows the current of one ampere to flow through
it when the potential difference between the ends of the conductor is one volt.
A resistor is a conductor which opposes the flow of current through it.
The two common types of resistors are categorized as:
• Standard resistor: this is a resistor with a fixed resistance.
• Variable resistor (rheostat): this is arrestor whose resistance can be changed or varied

FACTS ABOUT RESISTORS:

Resistors are used electrically in appliances like; Electric heaters, radios, TV sets, Computers,
projectors, e.t.c. in order to:
• Limit or divide the current.
• Reduce voltage
• Protect an electric circuit, or
• Provide large amounts of heat as in heaters or light in bulbs.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTANCE OF THE CONDUCTOR.

• Length of the conductor
• The longer the conductor the higher the resistance. i.e. The resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to its length. (R α l)
• Area of cross section of a conductor
• The greater the diameter, the lower the resistance i.e the thicker it is, the less the resistance.
1
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross sectional area. (R α )
A
• Temperature
• Increasing the temperature of a conductor increases its resistance.
• Nature of the conductor
• The higher the number of free electrons in a conductor, the lower its resistance to the flow of
current through it.
• Therefore, metals are better conductors of electric current.

Resistivity of a conductor (𝛒)

Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
cross sectional area.
l
Rα
A
l
Therefore , R = ρ , where, ρ = a constant known as the resistivity of the conductor
A
Definition:
Resistivity is the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit cross-section area.

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S.I unit of resistivity is the Ohm metre (Ω m).

EXAMPLES:
1. A wire 0.6 m long and diameter 0.2 mm has a resistance of 2.0 Ω. What is the resisitivity of t
he material of which the wire is made of?
ANSWER:
l = 0.6 m, d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10−3 m, R = 2Ω
2
d2 (0.2×10−3 ) π
cross − sectional area, A = π = = 3.14 × 10−8
4 4
l
But R = ρ
A
RA 2×3.14×10−8
∴ ρ= = = 1.0467 × 10−7 Ωm.
l 0.6

2. The resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10−8 Ωm . Determine the resistance of a copper wire 49 m
long and of diameter 0.46 mm .
ANSWER:
Given ρ = 1.7 × 10−8 Ωm, l = 49 m, d = 0.46 mm = 0.46 × 10−3 m
2
d2 (0.46×10−3 ) π
cross − sectional area, A = π = = 1.6619 × 10−7
4 4
l 49
But R = ρ = 1.7 × 10−8 × = 5.0148 Ω.
A 1.6619×10−7

APPLICATIONS OF RESISTANCE:
• A heating element is usually coiled so as to increase its length which in turn increases its
resistance and area of contact with the substance it is heating.
• Lamp filaments are made of coils of metal alloys that are of high resistance and are thin (small
cross-sectional area). This enables them to develop very high temperature and light when
current passes through them.
• Long distance transmission cables are usually thick (large cross –sectional area) low resistance
metals in order to reduce their resistance to flow of current through them. This in turn reduces
heat that can be generated by large resistances.

TOPIC: ELECTRICITY IV
General Objective: The learner should be able to understand the production, quantification and
distribution of electricity.

SUB-TOPICS: ELECTRIC CIRCUITS.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;-
• Derive expressions for series and parallel arrangement of resistors.
• Work out numerical problems on series and parallel arrangement of resistors.
• Demonstrate reduction of output p.d of a cell when it is loaded.
• Define internal resistance and terminal p.d
• Practically determine internal resistance.

Arrangement of Resistors.
Resistors can be arranged either in series, or in parallel.

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Series connection of resistors.
Consider three resistors of resistance R1, R2, R3 connected end to end as shown.

The same current, I , is passing through R1 ,R2 and R3.

Total potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 is
V= V1 +V2 +V3 …………………………………………………………. (1).
from ohm’s law: V = IR, V1 = IR1, V2 =IR2, V3 = IR3.
There equation (1) becomes;
IR = IR1 +IR2 +IR3
1R =I (R1+R2 +R3)
R = R1+ R2 +R3
Note: The effective resistance in series is the sum of the individual resistances.
Effective resistance is larger than the largest resistance in the series connection.

Parallel connection of resistors:

When resistors are connected in parallel as shown below:
the potential difference, V across the resistors in parallel is the same.

Total current entering the junction is equal to sum of the individual currents leaving it.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
From ohm’s law,
V V V V
= + +
R R1 R 2 R 3
V 1 1 1
= V( + + )
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3

Note: 1. Effective resistance is smaller than the smallest resistance in parallel.

2. For two resistors in parallel

1 1 1 R1 + R 2
= + =
R p R1 R 2 R1 R 2
Therefore,
R1 R 2
Rp =
R1 + R 2
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EXAMPLES:
Determine the effective resistance in each of the circuits represented below.
1.

ANS: Effective resistance R = R1+ R2 = 4+2 = 6Ω

2.

R1 R2 2×4 8 4
ANS: Effective resistance , R = = = = = 1.33Ω.
R1 +R2 2+4 6 3

3.

R1 R2 2×4 8 4
Resistance in parallel , R p = = = = Ω.
R1 +R2 2+4 6 3
Effective resistance ∴ R = R3 +RP
R = 2 +1.33
R = 3.33 Ω

4. 2Ω
2Ω

7Ω
2Ω

3Ω
1Ω

R1 = R 7 + R 3 = 7 + 3 = 10 Ω … … … … … … . (1
R 2 = R 7 + R 3 + R1 = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 Ω … … … … … … . (2
Effective resistance in parallel
R1 R 2 10 × 5 50 10
Rp = = = = 3.33Ω
R1 + R 2 10 + 5 15 3
Effective resistance in the circuit:
10 16
R = Rp + R2 = +2= = 5.33Ω
3 3

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CALCULATIONS INVOLVING VOLTAGE/ OHM’S LAW:
1. Consider a current of 3A passing through three resistors of resistance 4Ω, 2Ω and 3Ω as shown
below.

4Ω 2Ω 3Ω

Calculate the potential difference across each resistor.

p.d V1 = IR1 p.d V2 = I R2 p.d V3 = I R3
= 3 X4 =3X2 = 3 X3
= 12 V = 6V = 9V
2. Calculate the total p.d across the following system of resistors when a current of 2.A passes
through them.

2×3 6
Resistance in parallel R p = = = 1.2 Ω
2+3 5
Effective resistance R = R p + 3.8 Ω
R = 1.2 Ω + 3.8 Ω = 5.0 Ω
The total p.d V = IR = 2A × 5Ω = 10 V.

DEFINITION (REMINDER)
Terminal potential difference.
This is the p.d across the terminals of the cell in a closed circuit.
or
This is the p.d across the terminals of the cell when the cell is driving current in an external resistor
OR
It is the p.d across the external resistor(s) in which the cell is connected.

3. A p.d of 24 V is supplied to a network of resistors as shown below

Calculate;
(a) The effective resistance
(b) Total current through the circuit
(c) p.d across the 8Ω resistor, 6 Ω resistor and 4 Ω resistor respectivrly

(a) R = R1 +R2 +R3 (resistances in series)

= 6+8 +4

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20
 = 18Ω
V
Current, I = (the same current passes through all the resistors in series)
R
24
=
18
= 1.33A
V2 = IR2
4
= ×8
3
= 10.67V

V1 = IR1
4
= ×6
3
= 8.0V
V3 = IR3
4
= ×4
3
= 5.33V
NOTE: E = V1 + V2 + V3 = 10.67 + 8.0 + 5.33 = 24.0 V

4. A battery of E.M.F 10 volts and negligible internal resistance , is connected to external

resistances of 2.4 Ω, 6Ω, 4Ω and 2.6Ω

Calculate
(i) the effective resistance in the circuit.
(ii) The p.d across the parallel connection of resistors.
(iii) The current through the two resistance in parallel.
R1 Rq
(i) Rp = ∴ R = Rp +R3 +R4
R1 +R2
4 X6
= = 2.4 + 2.4 +2.6
4+6
24
= = 7.4Ω is effective resistance in the circuit.
10
= 2.4Ω
(ii) the p.d across the resistor in the parallel setting
Vp = IRp
E 10
But I = = = 1.35A
R 7.4
∴ Vp = 1.35 × 2.4 = 3.24 V
(iii) current through 4 Ω and 6 Ω
p.d across the 4 Ω and 6 Ω is the same = Vp = 3.24 V
Vp
I1 =
R1
3.24
=
6
= 0.54A
Vp 3.24
I2 = = = 0.81 A
R2 4
NOTE: I = I1 + I2 = 0.54 + 0.81 = 1.35 A
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5. A source of EMF 20V and negligible internal resistance is connected to resistance of 2Ω , 3Ω,
and 2Ω as shown below

Find the ammeter reading when the switch is

(a) Closed
(b) Open
Solution
(a) Closed
2x2 V 20
Effective = +3 current I = =
2+2 R 4
= 1 +3 = 5A
= 4Ω
(b) When K is open , current flows through the lower 2Ω resistor but not in the upper 2Ω
resistor which will be out of circuit
Effective resistance R = 3+2 = 5Ω
V 20
Current I = = = 4A
R 5
Hence the ammeter readings are 5A and 4A when K is closed and open respectively

INTERNAL RESISTANCE.
This is the resistance that opposes the flow of current with in the cell.
Consider these circuits

When the voltmeter is directly connected to the cell , it reads V =E , the e.m.f of the cell.
When the cell is connected to a standard resistor R, the voltmeter reading is V , the terminal p.d
across the external resistance , R.
But V is less than E
E is the electromotive force of the cell.
V is the terminal p.d across resistor, R.
A voltmeter can measure the terminal p.d. when it is connected in a closed circuit.
The p.d consumed within the cell equal is to E – V , commonly referred to as the “lost volts” ,
because they cannot be detected by the Voltmeter.
E−V
So internal resistance r =
I
Therefore E = V + Ir (i.e. e.m.f. = terminal p.d + p.d acrsss internal resistance of the cell)
But V = 1R,
E = IR + 1r
E = I (R+r)
This is known as the circuit equation.
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Examples.
1. 2 resistors each of 4 Ω are connected to a 2 V cell and an ammeter as shown below
(a) Find the reading of the ammeter if the internal resistance of the cell is 1Ω

Total external resistance R = R1 + R2

R = 4+ 4 = 8Ω
E = I (R+ r)
2 = I(8 +1)
2
I = A = 0.22A , is the Ammeter reading.
9

2. A cell supplies a current of 0.6A through a 2Ω resistor coil and a current of 0.2 when
connected to a 7 Ω resistor. Find
(a) the internal resistance of the cell,
(b) the e.m.f of the cell.

(a) Using : E = I (R + r )
E = 0.6 (2+r) ….(i)
E = 0.2 (7+r) ….(ii)
Equating (i) to (ii)
0.6 (2+r) = 0.2(7+r)
1.2+ 0.6r = 1.4 +0.2r
0.6r – 0.2r = 1.4 – 1.2
0.4r = 0.2
Internal resistance, r = 0.5Ω

(b) EM F, E = 0.6 (2+ 0.5)

E = 1.50V

4. A cell supplies a current of 2.4A through two 2Ω resistors connected in parallel. When the
resistors are connected in series, a current of 1.2A is required. Calculate the E.MF and
internal resistance of the cell.
5. E, r E, r

2.4A 1.2A
2Ω
2Ω 2Ω
2Ω
2×2 4
Rp = = = 1Ω, Also R 2 = 2 + 2 = 4Ω
2+2 4
E =I (R p +r) , E = I (R s +r)
E = 2.4(1+r ) …(i) E = 1.2 (4+r) …(ii)
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 Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously
2.4(1 +r) = 1.2(4+ r)
2.4 +2.4r = 4.8 +1.2r
(2.4 – 1.2)r = 4.8 – 2.4
1.2r = 2.4
r = 2Ω
E.M.F E = 1.2(4+ r)
E = 1.2(4+2)
E = 1.2(6)
E = 7.2V
4. The figure below shows a 12V battery of internal resistance 0.6 Ω connected to 3 resistors A,
B, and C. Find the current flowing in each resistor.
E=12V, r=0.6Ω

B=4Ω
A=1Ω

C=6Ω

4 X6
Total resistance of circuit, R = 1 + ( ) + 0.6
4+6
R = 1 +2.4 +0.6 = 4Ω
V 12
Current supplied by battery, I = = = 3A , is also current flowing through resistor A.
R 4
p.d across parallel resistors B and C : Vp = IRP
Vp = 3A x 2.4Ω = 7.2V
Vp 7.2
Current through C : I2 = = = 1.2 A
RC 6
Vp 7.2
Current through B: I1 = = = 1.8 A
RB 4
EXPERIMENT: To determine the internal resistance of a cell. E, r
E, r S

A
V R

V
Procedure
The e.m.f., E of the cell is measured using a voltmeter connected to the terminals of the cell.
The cell is connected in series with switch S, a standard resistor R and ammeter A.
The voltmeter V is connected across the terminals of the standard resistor R as shown
in the diagram.
The switch S is closed and the ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V are read and recorded
respectively.
The internal resistance of the cell calculated from the formula
E−V
r=
I
CONNECTING CELLS
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24
Cells may be connected in series or in parallel
Series connection. The positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the next
cell.

𝐸1 , 𝑟1 𝐸2 , 𝑟2 𝐸3 , 𝑟3
So effective E.M. F is the sum of the individual E.M.FS
Effective em.f E = E1 + E2 + E3

Effective internal resistance, r = r1 + r2 + r3

Parallel connection: All the positive terminals of the cells are connected together as are their
negative terminals as shown in the diagram below.
𝐸1 , 𝑟1

𝐸2 , 𝑟21

𝐸3 , 𝑟3

The effective e.m.f. is equal to the e.m.f. of one cell

i.e 𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 = 𝐄𝟐 = 𝐄𝟑

Effective internal resistance is the sum of the reciprocal of the internal resistance
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
i.e = + +
𝐫 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑

NOTE: If cells are to be connected in series, they must be identical i.e. of the same e.m.f and internal
resistance.
If one of the cells has a larger e.m.f than the others, it will drive current through the weaker cells,
even when the circuit in which the cells are connected is open. This will result into the cells getting
drained.

Examples:
1. Two identical cells of emf 1.5V and internal resistance 0.2 Ω are connected
(a) In series
(b) in parallel
Find the current in each case when the cells are connected to the 1Ω resisto .
ANSWER:
(a)

Effective emf, E = 2 × 1.5 = 3.0 V

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 Effective internal resistance , r = 2 × 0.2 = 0.4 Ω
External resistance, R = 1Ω
Circuit equation, E = I(R + r)
3.0 = I(1 + 0.4)
3
Current, I= = 2.14 A
1.4

(b)
E,r

1Ω
I

A 1Ω

Effective emf, E = 1.5 V

0.2×0.2
Effective internal resistance , r= = 0.1 Ω
0.2+0.2
External resistance, R = 1Ω
Circuit equation, E = I(R + r)
1.5 = I(1 + 0.1)
1.5
Current, I= = 1.36 A
1.1

2. 6 cells each of 2 V and internal resistance 0.1Ω are connected in series with an ammeter
besides them of negligible resistance. A resistor R = 1.4 Ω and a metal filament lamp are
connected in series with the cell. The Ammeter reading is 3A. calculate
(a) resistance of the lamp
(b) p.d. across the lamp
ANSWER:

1.4Ω
(a) Resultant e.m.f E = 6 × 2 = 12 V
Resultant internal resistance, r = 6 × 0.1 = 0.6 Ω
Ammeter reading , I = 3.0 A
Resistance of the lamp. = R l
Resistance of the standard resistance. R = 1.4 Ω
Circuit equation, E = I(R + R l + r)
12 = 3(1.4 + R l + 0.6)
4 = 2.0 + R l
R l = 4.0 − 2.0 = 2.0 Ω

(b) p.d across the lamp, V = IR l = 3 × 2 = 6 V

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3. (a) Define the terms
(i) electromotive force
(ii) the volt

𝐸 = 12𝑉
(b) 𝐸 = 12𝑉
6Ω

2Ω 3Ω
𝑖1 𝑖2
a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance is connected to resistances 2Ω,
3Ω, 6Ω as shown above find the currents I1 and I2.
ANSWER:
R ×R
Effective resistance R = 3 6
R3 +R6
2 × 9 18
R= = Ω
2 + 9 11

E 11 22
E = IR ∴ I = = × 12 = A
R 18 3
Current entering a junction = current leaving the junction
I = i1 + i2
22
A = i1 + i2 … … … … … … … . (1)
3
i1 i2
Also Vp = =
R2 Rp
i1 i2
∴ =
2 9
9
∴ i2 = i1
2
Substituting for i2 in (1)

22 9 11
A = i1 (1 + ) = i1 ×
3 2 2

22 2 4
i1 = × = A
3 11 3
9 4
i2 = × = 6 A
2 3

SUB-TOPICS: AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND GALVANOMETERS.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;
• Demonstrate the practical arrangement of converting galvanometers into voltmeters and
ammeters respectively.
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27
• Calculate the suitable resistances for the above conversions.

AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND GALVANOMETERS

1. GALVANOMETER
A galvanometer is an instrument used to measure very small currents or voltages.
A galvanometer that measures current in milliamperes (mA) is called a milliammeter.
The current that deflects the pointer from zero to the extreme end of the scale is called the
full scale deflection current (fsd)

mA

2. AMMETER
An Ammeter is a low resistance electrical device used to measure the current flowing through an
electric component connected in an electric circuit.

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER.

• An ammeter is always placed in series with a resistor in a circuit or other circuit components
through which the current is to be measured. (An ammeter measures larger current than the
galvanometer)
• An ammeter therefore should have very low resistance as compared to the rest of the circuit so
that it does not produce unwanted resistance. This also ensures that the ammeter does not alter
the current it is supposed to measure.
The method of converting a galvanometer to an Ammeter involves connecting a low- resistance
resistor Rs, called a shunt, in parallel with the resistance of galvanometer.

I = current to be measured
Rg = resistance of galvanometer
Rs= Shunt resistance
Ig = maximum current through the galvanometer = full scale deflection (f.s.d).
Is = current through the shunt Rs.
Since the galvanometer resistance and the shunt are in parallel connection, then
(i) 𝐈𝐬 = 𝐈 − 𝐈𝐠 .
(ii) p.d across the galvanometer resistance = p.d across the shunt.
𝐕𝐠 = 𝐕𝐬 applying ohm’s law 𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠 = 𝐈𝐬 𝐑 𝐬 .
Examples
1. A galvanometer has a resistance of 20 Ω and gives a f.s.d of 200 mA.
Find
(i) the voltage a cross the galvanometer.

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28
 (ii) the resistance (shunt) that must be connected across the galvanometer for it to read
10 A.
ANSWER:
200
(i) Voltage a cross galvanometer , Vg = f. s. d × R g = × 20 = 4V
1000
(ii) Current through the shunt , 𝐈𝐬 = 𝐈 − 𝐈𝐠 .
200
Is = 10 − ( ) = 9.8A
1000
(i) p.d across the galvanometer resistance = p.d across the shunt.
𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠 = 𝐈𝐬 𝐑 𝐬

𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠 𝟎.𝟐×𝟐𝟎
(ii) 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐮𝐧𝐭, 𝐑 𝐬 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟐 Ω.
𝐈𝐬 𝟗.𝟖

2. A galvanometer of resistance 10 Ω reads 50 mA at f.s.d. what resistance must be connected

across the galvanometer to convert it to an ammeter that will read 4A.
ANSWER:
Current through the shunt , 𝐈𝐬 = 𝐈 − 𝐈𝐠 .
50
Is = 4 − ( ) = 3.95A
1000
p.d across the galvanometer resistance = p.d across the shunt.
𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠 = 𝐈𝐬 𝐑 𝐬

𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠 𝟎.𝟎𝟓×𝟏𝟎
𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐮𝐧𝐭, 𝐑 𝐬 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟔 Ω.
𝐈𝐬 𝟑.𝟗𝟓

3. VOLTMETER.
• A Voltmeter is a high resistance electrical device used to measure the potential difference
(p.d) across an electric component in an electric circuit.
• The Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the electric component whose p.d it is
to measure.
• The voltmeter must always be of very high resistance so that it draws as little current as
possible from the circuit in which it is connected.

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER:

This is done by connecting a resistor of high resistance in series with the galvanometer. This
resistor is called a multiplier. (This enables the galvanometer to measure larger p.d.)

Suppose that a full-scale deflection

Ig = maximum current through G.
V = p.d across the voltmeter.

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29
Vg = p.d a cross galvanometer.
VM = p.d across multiplier
Since the galvanometer resistance and the Multiplier are in series; then
(i) 𝐕 = 𝐕𝐠 + 𝐕𝐌
(ii) 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐈𝐠 , 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡 𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝐠𝐚𝐥𝐯𝐚𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐌𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐫.
∴ 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐠 + 𝐈𝐠 𝐑 𝐌 = 𝐈𝐠 (𝐑 𝐠 + 𝐑 𝐌 ).

EXAMPLES:
1. A galvanometer of resistance 12 Ω reads 200 mA at f.s.d . What resistance must be connected
in series with it in order to read 8 V.
ANSWER:
V = Ig R g + Ig R M = Ig (R g + R M ).
200
∴ 8 = (12 + R M )
1000
∴ 40 = 12 + R M
resistance of Multiplier , R M = 28 Ω.

2. A current of 0.2 A passes through the galvanometer of resistance 20 Ω. What resistance must
be connected in series with galvanometer to convert it to voltmeter that reads 10 V at f.s.d.
ANSWER:
V = Ig R g + Ig R M = Ig (R g + R M ).
∴ 10 = 0.2(20 + R M )
∴ 50 = 20 + R M
resistance of Multiplier , R M = 30 Ω.

SUB-TOPICS: ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;
• Explain the heating effect of an electric current.
• Derive equations of electric energy and power.
• Solve numerical problems.

ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY.

If Q is the Quantity of electricity (charge) flowing when a p.d. V is applied to ends of a conductor, the
electrical work done is equal to product of the p.d, V and the charge, Q.
Work done = p. d × charge
W = V Q . ………………………………………………………….(1
But Charge, Q = current × time i.e. Q = It, therefore
Electrical heat = work , W = V I t ………………………… (2
but V = IR , according to Ohm’s law
𝐖 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝐭 …………………………………………………………(3
𝐕
also I = , therefore
𝐑
𝐕𝟐
𝐖= 𝐭 ………………………………………………………………..(4
𝐑
𝐕𝟐
Electrical energy = electrical work done, 𝐖 = 𝐕𝐐 = 𝐕𝐈𝐭 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑𝐭 = 𝐭.
𝐑
S.I unit of electrical work is a Joule (J).

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ELECTRICAL POWER
Is the rate at which heat is generated in the conductor when current flows through it
electrical energy
Electrical power =
time
𝐕𝐐 𝐕𝐈𝐭 𝐕𝟐
P = = = VI = I2R = .
𝐭 𝐭 𝐑
S.I unit of work is the Watt (W).
1 watt = 1 Joule per second (Js −1 ) .
A watt is the rate of working of 1 Joule per second.

Other units of power include;

- kilowatt (kW)
- mega watt (MW)
(1kW= 1000W and 1 MW = 1000kW = 1,000,000W)

Examples.
1. A current of 2 A passes through a resistor of 3Ω. Calculate the
(i) p.d across the resistor.
(ii) the power used by the resistor.

2. A lamp is rated 240 V, 60 W

(a) what does that statement mean?
(b) Find,
(i) current consumed by the lamp
(ii) resistance of the filament

3. A battery of e.m.f. 24V is connected in series with a resistor R and a lamp rated 10 V , 20 W
as shown below. 24 V

Bulb

RΩ

If the bulb is operating normally, find

(i) The p.d across the resistor
(ii) The value of R
(iii) The power dissipated in the resistor
SUB-TOPICS: DOMESTIC ELECTRICITY SUPPLY.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel connections.
• Correctly identify the 3 pins and wire them.
• Mention and practice safety precautions when wiring a house.
• Explain the necessity of earthing some electrical appliances.
• Demonstrate the proper position of uses and switches.
• Calculate the appropriate rating of uses.
• Calculate the cost of electrical energy consumption suing the kWh as the base unit.
• State the advantages of different types of lamps.

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ELECTRIC CONNECTIONS:
There are two ways in which electric connections can be performed;
1. Series connection
2. Parallel connection.

1. Series Connection.
When electric components and appliances are connected in series;
• The same current will flow through all the components/appliances.
• Each component/appliance will have its own p.d across its terminals depending on its
resistance. 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑅
I I

𝑉1 𝑉𝑅 𝑉2

Disadvantages of series connection:

• If one of the appliances is faulty or switched off, all the other appliances in the circuit will
go off.
• The series connection would require a very large voltage to supply them.
Vtotal = V1 + VR + V2
NOTE: In electrical wiring, all appliances connected in series use the same switch and the same
fuse.

2. Parallel connection:
When electrical components/appliances are connected in parallel;
• A different current will flow in each component/appliance depending on its resistance.
• the same potential difference will be across all the terminals of components/appliances in
the circuit.
Advantages of parallel connection:
• If one of the appliances is faulty or switched off, the other appliances in the circuit remain
unaffected.
• Different currents flow through each of the components/appliances in the parallel
connection.
• All the appliances/components operate with the same potential difference.
NOTE: In electrical wiring, each appliance connected in parallel its own switch and fuse.
The switch and fuse are always connected to the live wire.

HOUSE CIRCUIT: DOMESTIC POWER INSTALLATION

For domestic use the electricity supply is got from a single-phase, two-wire line.
Precautions to Observe:
1. All circuits are connected in parallel with the supply to ensure that each circuit operates at full
supply voltage.
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2. Switches and fuses are fitted in the live wire in order to ensure that no part of the circuit in the
appliances remains live when the appliance is switched off.
3. All appliances with conducting bodies must be earthed; i.e their bodies must be connected to the
earth for safety.
4. All wires must be insulated

or

THE SUPPLY CABLE

Electricity enters the house through the supply cable from the pole.
The supply cable consists of two insulated wires, the live and the neutral wire.
The neutral is earthed at the local substation and is therefore at zero potential while the live
wire is at a potential of 240 V.
The live wire (L) is either red or brown while the neutral (N) is black or blue.
The live wire delivers current from the local sub-station or power supply to the respective
appliances while the neutral carries it back to the power supply, thus completing the circuit.

NOTE: All switches and fuses are connected to the live wire.

THE MAIN FUSE AND METER

Each of the two wires (live and neutral) is connected to the meter through the main fuse box.
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A thick copper wire is connected from the meter to the earth and it is therefore at zero potential.
It protects the meter and the house against damage in case of overloading or short circuit.

CONSUMER UNIT
From the meter the cables are passed to the consumer unit which contains the main switch to
switch off all current in the house.
The main switch is a double hole switch which breaks both the live and the neutral.
The consumer unit also contains single pole fuses for each of the following circuits;
• Lighting circuit connected to 5A fuse.
• Immersion heater circuit controlled by 15A fuse.
• The ring main circuit is controlled by 30 A fuse.
• Cooker controlled by a 30 A fuse.
Every circuit is connected in parallel with the power supply, i.e. across the live and the neutral
wires. There is no connection between the live the neutral wires except through an electrical
appliance.

The parallel connection ensures that;

• A fault in one circuit does not affect the other circuits.
• All appliances operate at the same supply voltage of 240 V, but use different amounts of current.
• The appliances in the different circuits operate independently of each other.
i.e. they could be working all at the same time or one is working while the other is switched off.

In wiring the lighting circuits, only two wires are required but for ring circuits, the heater and the
cooker, the earth wire must be introduced. This is because the lighting circuit uses currents that are
very low, while the heater and cooker use rather large currents.

Earthing prevents electric shocks.

HOW THE EARTH CONNECTION PREVENTS ELECTRIC SHOCKS?

The earth wire connects the metal case of an appliance to the ground.
If the insulation of the live wire wears out such that stands of the live wire come into
contact with the metal casing of the appliance, the earth wire will carry away the current to the
earth. The fuse in the live wire will blow and cut off the current

ground Earth wire

Neutral wire
Live wire
Fuse wire

Metal case

IMPORTANCE OF EARTHING
The purpose of earthing is to offer protection against earth-leakage currents. The earth connection
provides an extremely low-resistance path for such a current.
Take an example of an appliance A, in the diagram, having a metallic body.

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Earthing is an important component of electrical systems because of the following reasons:
• It keeps people safe by preventing electric shocks.
• It prevents damage to electrical appliances and devices by preventing excessive current from
running through the circuit.

THE RING MAIN CIRCUIT

This is a circuit which runs in complete rings round the house. It provides parallel circuit
connections to each electrical appliance plugged into the sockets.
Since the currents drawn from the power supply are large, the ring main circuit incorporates an
earth connection and 30A fuse.

SAFETY DEVICES
The fuse
It melts and breaks the circuit in case of overloading or short circuit.

The earth wire.

The earth wire prevents electric shocks in case short circuits occur.

Switches:
Switches are connected to the live wire to break and complete the circuit.

Circuit breaker
This is used to disconnect the mains current when there is an accidental earthing of the live wire.

Safety precautions
• Electric cables must be properly insulated.
• Keep hands dry whenever dealing with electrical appliances.
• Never try to repair an electric appliance unless you are trained.
• Wear dry rubber glove and shoes when handling electrical appliances.
• Fix sockets at a height beyond the reach of children.
• Keep proper plug in the circuit
• In case one gets a shock switch off the main switch immediately.
• Electrical switches or sockets are not fixed in the bath rooms in house wiring.

ELECTRICAL DEVICES
1. The three pin plug: and Socket.
The 3 – pin plug has three pins that are marked with letters L, N and E standing for live,
neutral and earth respectively.
The earth pin is slightly longer than the other two, and the live pin is on the right hand side
when the plug is fixed into the socket.

WIRING A THREE PIN PLUG

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The fuse in the plug is connected to the live wire in the circuit.
The earth wire from the three pin plug is connected to a casing of the appliances so that in the event
of a short circuit the person handling the faulty appliance does not get an electric shock.

APPLICATION OF ELECTRICAL HEATING

It is used in electrical appliances like;
• Electric bulbs and tubes.
• Electric flat iron.
• Electric kettles.
• Cookers e.t.c
LAMPS
(a) FILAMENT LAMP:

It consists of the filament made of a thin and coifed tungsten wire.

When a current passes through such a filament, it heats up so much such that it becomes quite hot
and it emits light.
The filament bulb is filled with an inert gas e.g. nitrogen or argon at reduced pressure.
The gas prevents evaporation of tungsten and increases its operating temperature otherwise it
condenses or blackens.
NOTE:
• The efficiency of the bulb is improved by using a coiled filament which reduces the space
occupied by the filament and also reduces the rate of heat loss by convection.
• Tungsten is used because it has a high meting point (3650 K)
• LIMITATIONS OF THE FILAMENT LAMP:
• They are inefficient since most f the electrical energy is converted to heat energy.
• They are uneconomical to use.
• They do not last for long.

(b) FLOURESCENT TUBES

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A Fluorescent tube has electrodes at fixed at both ends inside a partially evacuated glass tube
whose inside walls are coated with a fluorescent powder and containing mercury vapour.
How it works
When the tube is switched on, the filament becomes white hot and emits electrons.
The electrons are attracted to the anode.
As the electrons flow, they collide with mercury atoms and excited mercury atoms produce short
wave length ultraviolent radiations.
The radiations strike the fluorescent powder causing it to glow and emitting light, the colour of
which depends on the colour of the powder.

ADVANTAGES OF FLOURESCENT TUBES OVER FILAMENT LAMPS

• They do not produce unnecessary heat.
• They are more economical to use i.e. they consume less electrical energy.
• They are more long lasting (durable).

(c) ENERGY SAVERS

Energy savers use the same principle as fluorescent tubes. However, they differ in shape and size.
They save energy in that most of the electrical energy is converted to light.

Electric flat iron and kettle

Heating appliance contains a heating element often made of Nichrome wire which is an alloy of
nickel and chromium. Nichrome wire is used because it does not oxidize when it becomes red hot

FUSE

A fuse is a short length of a thin wire of low melting point which breaks the circuit when the current
through it exceeds a safe value.
It is a protective resistor which melts when there is excessive current flow.
How a fuse works:

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A fuse is of a value just higher than the normal current required by the appliance it is to protect.
If the current exceeds its rated value, the fuse wire will melt and the fuse “blows”.
The melted or “blown” fuse stops the current and protects the appliance against the risk of fire
caused by the heat.
A fuse is always connected to the live wire.

FUSE RATING:
Fuses a rated at 2A, 5A, 13 A, e.t.c.

EXAMPLE:
If the power rating of an appliance is “ 2000W, 240 V”
P 2000
The required current is I = = = 8.333 A
V 240
The suitable fuse is 10 A.

SHORT CIRCUIT:
A short circuit is a path of least resistance.

Current tends to flow through a path of least resistance.

Short circuits usually occur when the live wire gets directly in contact with the neutral wire.
This causes a large current to flow between the live wire and the neutral wire, since they are both of
very low resistance.
The large currents resulting from short circuits tend to cause overheating, sparking and even fires.

COMMERCIAL ENERGY COSTS (COST CALCULATIONS)

Electricity boards charge for electric energy they supply. The boards trade unit of electrical energy
is called kilowatt hour (kWh).
A kilo watt hour is the electrical energy used by a rate of working of 1 kW appliance in 1 hour.
Electrical cost = power consumed in kW × number of hours × cost per unit.
Electrical cost = PTC
MARKING AN ELECTRIC APPLIANCE
All electrical appliances are marked showing the power rating in watts and the voltage in volts.
If an appliance is marked as 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐕, 𝟔𝟎 𝐖, it means that: the appliance supplies or consumes 60
W of electrical energy per second when connected to 240 V.

Examples
1. Find the cost of running five 60 W and four 100 W lamps for 8 hours if electrical energy cost
shs.5 per unit.
Total power consumed = 5 × 60 + 4 × 100 = 700 W = 0.70kW
Electrical cost = Power(kW) × time(hours) × uint cost = 0.70 × 8 × 5 = 28 /=

2. A house has one 100 W bulb, two 75 W bulbs and five 40 W bulbs. Find the cost of having all
lamps switched on for two hours every day for 30 days at a cost of 30/= per unit.
Total power consumed = (1 x 100 ) + (2 x75) + (5 x40) = 450 W = 0.45 kW.
Total time, t = 2 × 30 = 60 hours
Electrical cost = ptc = 0.45 × 60 × 30 = 810/=

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QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the cost of running an electric fire alarm for 2½ hours if it takes 13A on 100V
supply and each unit costs shs. 40 (Ans: shs.130)
2. A 2kW electric fire alarm is used for 10 hours each week; a 100 W bulb is used for 10 hours
each day. Find the total cost for each week if a unit of electricity cost shs.300. (shs.27000)
3. A house contains three 60 W lamps and two 100 W lamps which are switched on for 8 hours
if one unit of electricity costs shs.250, how much money should be paid? (Ans: shs.760)
4. A 2kW heater is used for 10 hours and a 100 W lamp is used for 8 hours each day find the
total cost paid for electricity at the end of the month if each unit costs shs.100 and the month
is assumed to have four weeks. (Ans: shs.58,240)
5. An electric heater is immersed in 0.05 kg of oil in a calorimeter of negligible heat
capacity. The temperature of oil rose from 200 C to 500 C in 100 seconds. If the specific heat
capacity of oil is 2000 Jkg −1 K −1 . Calculate;
(i) Power supplied by the heater
(ii) The cost of running the heater for 100s each day for 8 days if each unit costs shs.400.
(iii) State any assumptions made.

SUB-TOPICS: Distribution of electrical energy.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The learner should be able to;
• Explain how electrical energy is transmitted over long distance.
• State the advantages of transmitting power at high voltages.

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER

National grid system
Electrical power is transmitted using a grid system. This is the network of cables supported on
pylons which connect power stations to the consumers.
From place to place, electricity travels via high voltage transmission lines in order to supply power
to our homes. In some parts of the grid in the Uganda, electricity is transmitted at up to 500,000
volts. The need for a high transmission voltage occurs when a large amount of power has to be
transmitted over a long distance.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8LzYzYRMOk

WHY HIGH VOLTAGE IS USED FOR TRANSMISSION

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The primary reason that power is transmitted at high voltages is to increase efficiency. As
electricity is transmitted over long distances, there are inherent energy losses along the way.
• High voltage transmission minimizes the amount of power lost as electricity flows from one
location to the next. The higher the voltage, the lower the current. The lower the current, the
lower the resistance losses in the conductors. And when resistance losses are low, energy losses
are low also.
• The lower current that accompanies high voltage transmission reduces resistance in the
conductors as electricity flows along the cables. This means that thin, light-weight wires can be
used in long-distance transmission. This as a result reduces the cost of supporting transmission
cables.

THE END

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