Department of Humanistic Studies

Course Details

1. General
1.1 Title: English Syntax
1.2 Course Number: LNG-312
1.3 Credits: 9
1.4 Semester

1.5 Pre-requisite:
1.6 Name of the syllabus committee: Anil Thakur, Sanjukta Ghosh

2. Objective
The course introduces the fundamental principles of the English sentence structure using the theoretical
approach of the generative grammar. The students will learn the basic rules of sentence formation of the
English language.

3. Course Content
Unit I: Constituencies, constructions and relations
- Words: type and category
o Parts of speech
o Forms and functions
o Lexical and functional
o Semantic and grammatical
o Meaning and grammar
- Phrase: Forms, functions and types
o Noun phrase, verb phrase, preposition phrase, etc.
o Lexical phrase and functional phrase
- Clause: Forms, functions and types
o Finite and non-finite
o Main and subordinate
o Complement and adjunct
- Sentence: Constituents, construction and relations
o Word-phrase-clause-sentence
o Phrase structure: X-bar schema (Specifier-head-complement)
o Grammatical relations and functions: subject, object and adjunct
o Other relations: head-modifier
Unit II: Formal relations: Case and agreement
- Case relations
o Abstract-inherent-structural
o Case-markers
o Case assignment
- Agreement relations
o GNP (Gender, number and person)
o TAM (Tense, aspect and mood)
Unit III: Grammar and meaning
- Theta roles and semantic relations

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 o Noun-verb relations
- Binding and scope
o Referential expressions: Nouns and pronouns
o Questions

4. Readings
4.1 Textbooks
Bagchi, Tista (2000). English Syntax. IGNOU: New Delhi
Fabb, Nigel (1994). Sentence Structure. Routledge.
Miller, J. (2002). An Introduction to English Syntax. Edinburgh University Press.
Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams (2013). An Introduction to Language. Cengage
Learning (Chapter 4).

4.2 Reference books

Aarts, Bas (2018, 5th Edition). English Syntax and Argumentation. Palgrave MacMillan.
Robert, Noel B. (2017, 4th Edition). Analyzing Sentence: An Introduction to English Syntax. Routledge.
Tortora, Christina (2018). Understanding Sentence Structure: An Introduction to English Syntax. Wiley
Blackwell.

5. *Assignment: Yes
6.1 HA:
6.2 QUIZZES-HA:
6.3 Periodicals: 30%
6.4 Assignments: 30%
6.5 Final Examination: 40%

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English Syntax: Some Basics

Words

- Words are classified on different parameters.

o Parts-of-Speech: Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition,
Determiner, Pronoun, Conjunction, Interjection, Quantifiers, ETC.
o Some words undergo change/modification in their form:
 either to form/derive new words: go -> go-er, do -> un-do/re-
do, boy -> boyish, ETC. (Derivational process, word-
formation rules)
 OR, to show grammatical/syntactic relations/functions in a
sentence: go -> goes/going/gone/went, boy -> boys, boy’s,
ETC. (Inflectional process, grammatical operation rules)
 Derivational process: go -> go-er, do -> un-do/re-do, do-er
o Some words do not undergo any change (remain invariant) across
all the positions they occur in a sentence: the, a, also, too, on, in,
ETC.
o Words are classified into Lexical Category and Functional Category.
 Lexical Category: are dictionary words and have descriptive
meanings (denote objects/concepts, ETC.). They are also
called Open-Class as new words can be easily
added/coined.
 Examples:
o Nouns (book, pen, house, boat, etc)
o Verbs (eat, read, write, see, do, etc)
o Adjectives (good, tall, small, smart, wise, etc)
o Adverbs

 Functional Category: are grammatical/functional words with

grammatical meaning, do not describe objects/concepts ETC
but function to reflect/carry grammatical relations, ETC. Also,
called closed class: new member not easily added.
 Examples:

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 o Determiners (a, an, the)
o Quantifiers (one, two, three, some, all, few, etc)
o Inflections (tense, aspect, mood, auxiliaries,
GNP agreement markers, etc.)
 He is going home.
 I wish he were here.
 He writes well.
 He will go there.

{Explanation:

 The boy/the tall boy/the very tall boy

 Will he go there?
 The very tall boy will go there.
 The he will go there.
 The very he will go there
 The very tall he will go there
 }
o Complementizer (that, if, whether, etc)
 I know that he will do it.
 I wonder if/whether he can do it.
o Prepositions (in, on, etc): prepositions are
sometimes categorized under LC.

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Complement: is the obligatory part of a phrase, without which the
phrase/clause/sentence is not complete.

Verbs: Intransitive, Transitive and Ditransitive

All verbs take a subject. But all verbs do not necessarily take an object.

Intransitive verbs: take no object (only subject):

Examples:

I smile (all the time). He smiles (for no reason). You smile (please when they
arrive and you welcome them). Please smile (for a few seconds).

Go, come, sleep, walk, ETC.

Transitive verbs: Take an object (must take an object).

Eat, know, see, write, buy, ask, want, like, play, learn, bring, hear, listen to,
carry, pass, order, book, ETC.

He writes a poem/an essay/ a letter/ it/. He will write that.

I know ….. I know that. He knows it. They know you.

Ditransitive verbs: Take TWO objects.

Examples:

send, give, take, buy, lend, bring, tell, sell, pass, order, gift, put, mail, write,
book, keep, ETC.

He gave me a book. [a book is the direct object and me is the indirect object]

He will send a letter to you. [a letter is the direct object and to you is the
indirect object]

Objects are generally called complement. A complement can be NP (noun

phrase), PP (preposition phrase), TP (tense phrase) or CP (complementizer

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phrase). All the transitive and ditransitive verbs take a complement (transitive
verbs take one complement and ditransitive verbs take two complements).

For example:

I know you/it/the man. [you, it, the man: NP]

I know about you/it/the man/ this matter. [about you, about it, about the man,
about this matter: PP]

I know that you are smart. I know who you are going to see. I do not know
whether you will come tomorrow.

[the highlighted parts-that you are smart, who you are going to see, whether
you will come tomorrow: CP]. In these sentences: CPs are
subordinate/dependent clauses.

Want:

*I want

I want [this book].

I want to go. To go: clause (non-finite clause)

I like [to swim].

I ask [you] [a question].

I ask [you to be punctual].

[the highlighted parts- to go there, to swim, to be punctual: TP]. In these

sentences: TPs are subordinate/dependent clauses.

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Head of a Phrase

- Phrases are headed internally, that is, the head of the noun phrase (NP) is a
noun (N), and the head of a verb phrase is a verb (V) and so on.

- A phrase has one and only one head. that is, a (single) phrase cannot have
multiple heads.

- The head is the obligatory (must) component in a phrase

- A phrase that is headed by a lexical category is a lexical phrase (e.g. NP, VP)

- A phrase that is headed by a functional category word (D, T, C) is a functional

projection (e.g. DP: Determiner Phrase, TP: Tense Phrase, CP:
Complementizer Phrase)

- A lexical phrase is covered by a functional phrase

- [TP [VP]]

- [DP [NP]] The boy

Determiner is the Functional Category with respect to the Noun (Phrase) as

Tense is the Functional Category with respect to the Verb (Phrase).

D -> N (+/- definiteness)

T -> V (+/- Time/tense)

Boys are taking breakfast.

The boys are taking breakfast.

[TP [DP the [NP boys]] [VP are taking [DP [NP breakfast]]]]

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I want to go.

I wanted to go.

I will want/like to go.

I saw a boy. I bought a book.

I saw the boy. I bought the book.

Therefore: every NP is within a DP and every VP is within a TP.

Structure of a phrase: X-bar frame

- A phrase is a structured unit containing related parts

- Relation between the head and the other parts (if any) is fundamental relation
in a phrase
- X-bar schema provides the structural frame of a phrase.
- XP => Spec(ifier) - X’
- X’ => X – Comp(lement)
- X’ => X’ – Adjunct
- Phrase (XP) => Spec-Head-Comp (adjuncts/modifiers)
- X is a variable (N, V, P, T, C, etc)
- X-bar structure is binary: branching nodes (XP and X’ branch into not more
than two branches)

X=N

XP = NP

X=V

XP = VP

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Examples

i. NP: students

NP

N’

students

ii. NP: the students

NP

Spec N’

the N

students

iii. NP: the students of English Syntax

NP

D N’

the N PP

students P NP

of English Syntax

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Head

Verb: Arguments and Adjuncts

Arguments are essential component(s)/part(s) required by a head

(verb/noun/adjective/Preposition, etc). In other words, arguments are obligatory
element/component/member.

Arguments: Subject and object, Spec-ifier and Comp-lement

Adjuncts are additional/extra/optional elements/components/members of a head.

Adjuncts are Adverbs or adverbials

Specifier vs Complement

Subject argument: Specifier

Object argument: Complement

I write a book.

Arguments (2) are: I and a book

Specifier: I

Complement: a book

I gave you a pen.

Arguments (3) are: I, you and a pen

Specifier: I

Complements: you, a pen

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I want [a pen].

Arguments (2) are: I and a pen

Spec: I

Comp: [NP a pen]

[I want] [to go]. [I want] [you to go].

Arguments (2) are: I and to go

Spec: I [NP]

Comp: to go [TP], you to go [TP]

I inquired about you. They inquired [about the matter]

Arguments (2) are: I and about you

Spec: I

Comp: about you [PP]

I know that you are smart. I know you. I know about you. I like to sing. I like this. I like
that you are on time.

Arguments (2) are: I and that you are smart

Spec: I [NP]

Comp: [that [you are smart]] [CP]

Complement vs Adjunct

Complement: Obligatory/essential

Adjunct: Additional/optional/extra

I want to go to the market.

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Arguments (2) are I and to go

Adjunct (1): to the market

I want to go to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Arguments (2) are I and to go

Adjuncts (5): to the market, to buy fruits, to eat, in the morning, tomorrow

I went to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Arguments (1): I

Adjuncts (5): to the market [PP], to buy fruits [TP], to eat [TP], in the morning [PP],
tomorrow [NP]

I went to the market [so that I can buy some fruits].

Adjuncts (2): to the market [PP], so that I can buy some fruits [CP]

[That you are smart] is known to all.

[To go there] is not easy.

He writes …..

He writes a letter on a paper with a pen in the morning to express his desire to go
home to see his family.

He sleeps.

Eat:

The boy will eat a cake.

The boy will eat a cake {in the morning}.

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EAT: EATER, EATEE

EAT (the boy, a cake)

Smile:

He smiles.

He smiles {very enthusiastically}.

SMILE: SMILER, -

SMILE (He, )

Give:

They gave me a pen.

GIVE: GIVER, RECEIVER, OBJECT OF GIVING (SOMETHING to GIVE)

GIVE (they, me, a pen)

Adjective:

Proud, jealous

I am [proud [of you]].

They are [jealous [of you]]

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Clause

- A phrase that contains a verb (phrase) with the subject

- A finite clause standing on its own (not dependent/subordinate is a (simple)
sentence
- Mono-clausal sentences are simple sentences.

o I am happy.
o You are studying English Syntax

- A construction consisting of more than one clause and joined by a conjunction

(and, but, or) makes a coordinate sentence. The clauses are not dependent
(they can stand on their own if the conjunction is dropped/deleted).

o I am here and he is still missing.

o You can go there but you may not see him.
o You can go there. You may not see him.

- A construction consisting of more than one clause including

dependent/subordinate clauses make a complex sentence.
o I know that you are smart
 I know (main clause), that you are smart
(dependent/subordinate/complement clause)

Clause Types: Finite clause vs Non-finite clause

o Finite clause: a clause with the verb with tense and agreement
o Finite clause can stand on its own (independently)
o Only a finite clause can be the main/principal clause
o I am happy. You are happy. He is happy. They are happy.
o They were happy.
o We will do it.
o [I know [that we will do it]]. (complex sentence)

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I want [to go [to buy foods]] to quench my hunger to stay healthy and to live a
long life and (to) prepare a healthy meal for the family so that we all will be
happy.

I wanted to go to buy foods.

I will like/want to go to buy foods.
He wants to go to buy foods.
They want to go to buy foods.

They eat [rice] [every day] [in the morning] [for the last many years].

They eat [rice] [to keep healthy].

He knows [that he will not go to the class tomorrow]. CP: (a main clause plus
a subordinate clause)

CP complement clause:
He knows (that) it will rain tomorrow. CP
He knows how to sing (a song). CP
He knows how to do it. CP
*He knows to do it. *TP
He knows it/me/you. NP
He knows about it/me/you. PP

TP complement clause:

*He wants how to sing (a song). CP

*He wants how to do it. CP
He wants to do it. TP
He wants it/me/you. NP
?He wants about it/me/you. PP

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[To-Head the market- NP]. PP
Comp of PP is NP.
Like: TP, NP
He likes [to go].
He likes the weather.

Inquire: PP, *NP, CP, *TP

He inquires [about the crime].
*He inquires the crime.
He inquires from the man about the plane.
He inquires whether/if the plane is on time.
*He inquires to go there.

Wonder: CP, *NP, PP, *TP

We wonder whether/if it will rain tomorrow.
We wonder why he said that. CP
*We wonder him/it/this.
He wonders about the situation. PP
She wondered about why her friend acted like that. PP
*She wonders to go there.

Look: PP, AP, *TP, NP,

He looks into the matter.
He looks nice.
*He looks to go there.
He looks the same as he did ten years ago.

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He knows everyone in the class for many years.

The verb in English sentence: agrees with the subject in number and person:
Agreement

He (3p.sg) eat-s (sg.present) rice. He ate(sg.past) rice. He will eat(sg.future)

rice.
They (3p.pl) eat-(pl) rice.
I (1p.sg) am(1p.sg) eating rice.
We (1p.pl) are(1/2/3.p.pl) eating rice.

English Verb Form:

Verb + tense(present-past-future) + Agreement (person-number of the
subject)

I want that you should go to the market.

I know/knew/will know that you can go to the market.

[I want/wanted/will want] [you to go to the market].

Finite Non-finite
He wants him

[I want/wanted] [to go].: I want/wanted: Finite clause, to go: Non-finite clause

[I like/liked] [to sing].
[He wants/wanted] [to go/sing].

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 Finite clause: verb (with tense-agreement)
Non-finite clause: verb (without tense-agreement)

- Non-finite clause: a clause with the verb without tense and

agreement
o A non-finite clause cannot stand on its own.
o It is always a dependent/subordinate/embedded clause.

o [She wants] [to sing a song].

o She wanted to sing a song.
o She will like to sing a song
o They do not like me [for doing this].

In spite of my coming here, I could not meet him.

After going there I saw him.

I saw him.
After going there

To go there
To see, to go, to write
To-Verb
Verb-ing

I am going there.
He is going there.
He was going there.
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 They were going there.

Non-finite:
To-Verb: to go, to come, to write, to, see, to send, to
ask, etc

Verb-ing: eating is healthy, burn-ing train

Ing: verb-ing: he is com-ing

Walking is healthy

He knows that he will do it. [he will do it is finite

complement clause]

He wants to do it. [to do it is non-finite complement clause]

I will go so that I will buy fruits. [I will buy fruits is finite

adjunct clause]

I will go to buy fruits. [to buy fruits is non-finite adjunct

clause]

Finite complement clause:

I have decided that I will study today.

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I think that I have nothing in my mind right now.

My mother ordered /said to/told/asked me that I

cannot/should not go to the movie.

Non-finite complement clause:

My mother ordered /said to/told/asked/wanted me not to go

to the movie.

Finite adjunct clause:

I went to market [so that I can buy some books].

I have booked tickets [so that I can visit my parents.]

Non-Finite adjunct clause:

I went to market [to buy some books].

I have booked tickets [to visit my parents].

Complement clause vs adjunct clause

Complement clause: Finite clause as well as non-finite

clause

Adjunct clause: Finite clause as well as non-finite clause

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Clause Types: Main clause vs Subordinate clause

- Main clause: also called independent or principal clause

o Main clause is always a finite clause
o When a sentence contains more than one clause, one of the clause is
(and acts) as a main clause, in relation to the other clause which is a
subordinate clause

o [I trust] that the students are sincere.

- Subordinate clause: also called dependent or embedded clause

o Subordinate clause can be either a finite clause or a non-finite clause
o When a sentence contains more than one clause, one of the clauses is
(and acts) as a main clause and all the other clause(s) is/are
subordinate clause(s).

o I trust [that the students are sincere]. (finite)

o I trust [the students to be sincere]. (non-finite)

Clause Types: Complement clause vs Adjunct clause

- Complement clause: the object of the verb is a complement clause
o Obligatory part of the verb phrase
 I like [sweets]. (Object is an NP)
 I like [to smile]. (object is a clause): non-finite complement
clause
o Certain verbs take an object only in the form of a clause
 I wonder [whether it will rain today]. Finite complement clause
o Complement clause can be either a finite clause or a non-finite clause
 I want [you to buy a book]. (non-finite complement clause)
 I want [that you should buy a book]. (finite complement clause)
- Adjunct clause: the non-object part of the verb phrase

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 o Non-obligatory (additional) part of a verb phrase

 I went to market [to buy fruits].

 Go: went: I go now,
 Buy: I buy fruits from the market.
o Adjunct clause can be either a finite clause or a non-finite clause
 I went to market [so that I could buy some fruits]. (finite adjunct
clause)
 I walk to keep myself healthy. (non-finite adjunct clause)

Clause and Phrase

- Clause is also a phrase, a big(ger) phrase, an extended/expanded phrase

- Clause is a phrase that contain necessarily a verb phrase including its subject
- Clause is a bigger phrase containing more than one phrase
- A clause is always finally (upper-most) headed by a functional head (functional
phrase)

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Syntactic relations

Case Relations
- Syntactic constituents are related in a sentence.
- Case denotes one of such relations.
- Case is relation between the verb and the argument noun phrase(s) in a
sentence.
- Case relation also exists between a noun phrase and another noun within a
noun phrase.

[Ram’s book] is expensive/new.

[[Ram’s] [many very new book]]

His book: [[the boy’s] [very new book]]

The book of Ram

Ram-Book => Ram’s book/ boy’s books

He-book => his book [he’s book]

[Her book]. I saw [her books].

{she’s book]

The book’s cover

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NP-NP: Genitive Case

The book’s price

The book’s pages

- Argument noun phrases are: subject, direct object, indirect object

- All the sentences have a subject:

o He is eating an apple.
o They are going [to [the zoo]].
o Indians are hard-working people.
o He saw the boy.
o The boy saw him/*he
o He – him
o The boy saw the girl.
o The girl saw the boy.
o Ram saw Sita.
o Sita saw Ram.
o He saw her. *He saw she
o She saw him.*She saw he
o I talked to the boy.
o I talked to him. *I talked to he

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- The sentences with a transitive verb also have an object (along with the
subject).
o He is eating an apple. Students at college have to study many subjects.
- The sentences with a di-transitive verb have two objects: direct and indirect.

o Sita gave Ram a book. GIVE: 3-arguments (NPs): Sita,

Ram, a book

o They will send you a gift. SEND: 3 arguments-

they, you, a gift

- Prepositions take an object noun phrase, called object of a preposition.

o He is in the class. They are at the platform.

o
- The Case of the subject noun phrase is Nominative Case.
o He is walking. I am going.
o They are eating rice.
o The boy is coming.

- The Case of the object noun phrase is Accusative Case.

o They saw him.
o * They saw he.

o The boy saw them.

o The girl saw the boy.

- In a ditransitive sentence, the Case of the direct object is Accusative Case and

the Case of the indirect object is Dative Case

o [WeNominative] gave [himDative] [a penAccusative].
o We gave a pen to him.
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 o We gave a pen him.

- The Case of the modifier noun phrase of a head noun is Genitive Case.
o This is his pen.
o [Ram’s book] is new.

- The Case of the object of a preposition is Oblique Case.

o We gave a book [to [himoblique case]].
o [For [himoblique case]] to do this is not possible.
o * [He to do this] is not possible
o ….. To do this is not possible.
o [For [me]] to go there is not possible.

o I to go there is not possible.

o [to go there] is not possible.

Case Trigger/Source

Pronouns (inflected for different Case forms in English):

Nominative: I/We/He/She/They/It/You

I saw the boy. We saw the book. They came here. It is good.

Ram saw Mohan. -> He saw him.

Mohan saw Ram. - > He saw him.

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The boy saw the girl. He saw her

The girl saw the boy. She saw him

You saw him.

He saw you.

Accusative: me/us/him/her/them/it/you

He saw him.

They saw me.

They saw us/them/me/it/you.

Dative: me/us/him/her/them/it/you

He gave me a pen.

NOM verb DAT ACC

Genitive: my/our/his/her/their/its/your

This is my book.

Oblique: me/us/him/her/them/it/you

To me/ for us/ for him

Nouns (only Genitive) – Ram’s book

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CASE:

1. Relation between the Verb and the

NPs (PPs) in a sentence
- Nominative, Accusative, Dative,
Oblique

YOU:

Nominative: You are a student.

Accusative: I teach you.

Oblique: For you to learn you must study. They will talk to you
today. They will give a book to you.

Dative: They will give you a book.

Genitive: ****

YOUR: Genitive (Your book)

*You book. Your book.

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HIM:

Accusative: I saw him.

Dative: I gave him a pen.

Oblique: I gave a pen to him. For him to do this was quite a

surprise.

Nominative: HE

Genitive: HIS

Case Filter:
An NP without a Case is Ungrammatical.

Every Argument (NP) must have a Case.

You go.

He goes.

He called you.

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You called him.

(whether the Case is phonetically realized or not).

ABSTRACT CASE:

A CASE RELATION IS ABSTRACT (phonetically

manifested/realized or not)
Morphological Case: various form that a nominal element takes.

He, Him, His

Ram’s book.

His book.

Abstract Case: nominal elements gets simply by occupying certain structural position.

Case Syncretism: Two case forms having the same morphological realizations.

You- Nominative, Accusative.

SHE:

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 - NOM: She came.

HER:

- ACC: I saw HER.

- DAT: I gave HER a pen.
- OBL: I gave a book to HER.
- GEN: HER book is new.
-

HE: (3p-sg-mas}

- NOM: HE came.

HIM:

- ACC: I saw HIM.

- DAT: I gave HIM a pen.
- OBL: I gave a book to HIM.

HIS:
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 - GEN: HIS book is new.

YOU: (2person-singular/plural}

- NOM: You are right.

- ACC: I saw you.
- DAT: I gave you a pen.
- OBL: I gave a book to you.

YOUR:

- GEN: Your book is new.

THEY: (3person-plural-mas/fem}

- NOM: They are right.

THEM:

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 - ACC: I saw them.
- DAT: I gave them a pen.
- OBL: I gave a pen to them.
-

THEIR:

- GEN: Their books are new.

-

I:

- NOM: I came.

ME:

- ACC: You like me.

- DAT: He gave me a pen.
- OBL: He gave a pen to me.

MY:
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 - GEN: My book is new.

WE:

- NOM: We are friends.

US:

- ACC: You know us.

- DAT: They gave us a pen.
- OBL: They gave a pen to us.
-

IT: (3person-singular-in/animate)

- NOM: It is raining.
- ACC: I saw it.
- DAT: I gave it some food.
- OBL: I gave some food to it.

ITS (IT’S: It is: It’s raining)

- GEN: Its tail is blue.

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NOUNS: Boys, Mohan, the pen, ETC.

- NOM: Boys/Mohan/the pen can be

interesting.
- ACC: I saw boys/Mohan/the pen.
- DAT: I give boys/Mohan/the pen due
respect.
- OBL: I give due respect to
boys/Mohan/the pen.

Boys’/Mohan’s/ the pen’s

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 - GEN: boys’/Mohan’s/the pen’s
respect is due to their/his/its
usefulness.

Nouns: Only Genitive Case is

phonetically realized: Ram->Ram’s

Other Cases are not manifested on the

form of the NPs. (Ram saw Mohan ->
Mohan saw Ram)

Cases are phonetically realized on

pronouns (He saw her -> She saw him)

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He is going.

[He wants] [to go]. He wants (he) to go

Finite Clause Non-finite Clause

Nominative Case is given/assigned/provide by

TENSE

Nominative Case - Tense

To go there is not easy.

He to go there is not easy

For him to go there is not easy.

They want to go.

[They want] [him to go]. Accusative Case

Exceptional Case Marking (ECM)

[They want] [he/you/I/me to go].

I want to go.

[He wants] [me to go].

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- He saw him/her.
- The boy saw the girl.
- The girl/She was seen *him by the
boy.
- The boy saw the girl.
- NP1 AUX V NP2
- NP1 PAST Verb NP2
-
- NP2i AUX V-pass NP2i (by NP1)
- NP2 was seen ….. (by phrase)
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 - * Ram saw.
- Ram was seen (by Sita).

- The girl would have seen him.

See, eat:

- Write -> writ-en

- Eat -> eat-en

- For her to go home is not easy

nowadays.
- [For me to go is not easy..]
- I/She/He/The boy/Ram aux-tense
want to go.
- I want you to go.

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 - [I want [him to go]].
- *I want he to go.

- Him saw he.

-
2. Relation between a Noun with
another noun
- Genitive
- [His book]
- [Ram’s book]
- [The boy’s notebook]

Syntactic Relation / Formal Relation /

Structural Relation (NOT Semantic
relation)

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I saw him. SEE(I, HIM)

I gave her a book. GIVE(I, BOOK, HER)

I go. GO(I)

I saw him with a telescope (means/instrument) on

the road (location).

I saw a man with one leg/a telescope.

I saw him with a dog on the road.

PP attachment ambiguity

Arguments are mostly NPs and Adjuncts are mostly

PPs.
AMBIGUITY: State of multiple possible
interpretations/meanings/senses

- Nominative Case is triggered or given/assigned by

the Finiteness (tense) of the Verb. Therefore a
clause with a non-finite verb does not have a noun
phrase.
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- Nominative Case -> Tense
o They want [to win].
o We would like [NULL SUBJECT] to see you
there.
o He to go there is not certain.

- Accusative Case is assigned by the transitive

feature of the Verb
o I saw him/ACC. (saw: +transitive)
o I smile him. (smile: -transitive)
o I smile at him/for him/because of him.
o
- Dative Case is assigned by the ditransitive feature
of the Verb. The indirect object must occur adjacent
to the verb.
o I gave him a book.
o I sent them some flowers.
o I mailed him a letter.
-
o I call (consider) him a liar.
o I call/consider him he to be a liar.
o I know (that) he is a liar.
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 o I know him to be a liar.
o We made/elected him the Prime Minister.
o I walked (accompany) (saw him off) him to the
door.
o I consider him a friend.
o I consider him to a friend.
o I put the book on the table.

- Oblique Case is assigned by Preposition.

o When the subject occurs in a non-finite clause, it is accompanied by a
preposition and that is why the subject is in the Oblique Case.
 [For him to go there] is certain.
 He gave the book to me.
 Everything is fine to me / for me.

- Noun assigns Genitive Case to the noun phrase that it heads.

o his book, my pen, their houses, our country
o his book is new, …
o Ram’s picture is not visible
o This boy’s behaviour is up to the mark

Abstract Case

- Every noun phrase has an abstract Case

- the Case may be visible with some markers or may not be visible (no markers)
- In English, nouns are not marked for Case relations with a Case marker except
in the Genitive Case (Ram’s book).
- In English, pronouns are marked for Case relations and that is why they
undergo change in form in different Case positions.

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 o He-him-his, I-me-my

- Inherent Case
o Inherent Case Genitive Case is called Inherent Case as it is assigned
by the head noun that assigns it a thematic role.

Case Filter

- Every overt NP must have a Case.

- An NP (overt) without a (proper) Case is ungrammatical
o * He to do this is not possible.
o * They like he to go home.

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Thematic Relations or Thematic Roles
or Theta Roles
- Theta roles are assigned by the Verb to its argument (and, also certain
adjunct) noun phrases to mark semantic relations.
-

He - eats - rice.
AGENT - V – THEME
He eats rice with a spoon.
Rice is eaten by him.
AGENT: V- THEME
THEME – V- AGENT

- HE: is the eater (performing the action

denoted by the verb, HE is the AGENT:
the doer of the action)
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 - RICE: is the eatee/being eaten (action
being performed on it, THEME: the one
that undergoes the effect of the action)

Ram cuts the trees.

Ram beats Mohan.

He gave her a pen.

Ram enjoys beating Mohan.

Ram feels happy (by ….)

Ram feels cold.

RAM: EXPERIENCER

RAM loves Mohan.

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Ram felt/touched the clothes to confirm
whether it was smooth/wet/dry.

RAM: AGENT

CLOTHES: THEME

AGENT: Volition (deliberate/free will, in

control, etc)

EXPERIENCER: Non-volition

RAM fell from the cycle.

The mango fell from the basket.

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The door opened.

I opened the door.

RAM jumped from the cycle.

FALL: RAM (THEME)

JUMP: (RAM (AGENT)

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Theta Criterion
- Every argument noun phrase must be assigned one (and only one) theta role
by the Verb of the sentence.
- The major theta roles are

o Agent
o Experiencer
o Theme
o Recipient
o Source
o Goal
o Location
o Instrument

Agent

- The thematic role assigned to a noun phrase that is (usually conscious,

voluntary) “doer” of an action denoted by a verb.
o For example in sentence ‘He is talking to his friend’, He is assigned
theta role Agent.

Theme

- Theme theta role is assigned to the (direct) object of a transitive verb or the
non-agentive subject of an intransitive verb.
o He moved the chair. The chair moved.
o He made me happy/cry/angry/furious/upset.

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 o AGENT-V-Theme
o He made me a cup of tea./He made a cup of tea for me.
o AGENT-V-RECIPIENT-THEME

Experiencer

- When the subject noun phrase does not have conscious or volitional control
over the action denoted by the verb but simply undergoes psychological
experience, it is assigned Experiencer theta role.
o He is feeling happy. They have fever.
o

Recipient

- The indirect object noun phrase of a ditransitive verb is usually assigned

recipient theta role.
o He gave her flowers.
o AGENT –V- RECIPIENT – THEME
o I bought her a book.
o AGENT-V-RECIPIENT-THEME

Source

- The noun phrase object of the preposition from is usually assigned Source
theta role.
o The book fell from the table.
o THEME-V-SOURCE
o He came out from the room.
o I bought it from that shop.

Goal

- The indirect object noun phrase of the ditransitive verb such as sell, transfer,
etc is usually assigned Goal theta role.
o He sold his car to Mohan.
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 o I will send this to you.

Location

- The noun phrase that indicates location is assigned location theta role.
o He is in the class.
o This is made in India
o He is playing inside the room.
o He has pain in his back.
o He has some ideas in his mind.
o

Instrument/Means

- The noun phrase that acts as instrument to carry out the action denoted by the
verb is assigned Instrument theta role.
o He cut the apple with a knife.
o AGENT-V-THEME-INSTRUMENT

POSSESOR:

He has courage. He has some books.

He has some beliefs.

He has pain. (Experience)

He killed himself.

AGENT-V-THEME

KILL: Killer-Killee (object of kill)

He saw himself in the mirror.

They cursed/hurt themselves.

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HURT/CURSE: Hurter-hurtee

He drowned.

Theme-V

He sneezed/coughed.

He became/got angry/happy.

Experiencer

You can fly these planes.

Agent-V-Theme

Aeroplanes fly. This aeroplane flies by itself. (Emphatic

particle)

Theme-V Theme-V

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We hurt ourselves with our unwise
actions/behaviours.

The ant hurt itself. (anaphor/reflexive)

Experiencer/Theme

Agent-V-Theme

Birds fly.

Agent

Leaves fall.

Theme

Temperature dropped.

Theme

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The door opened.

Theme

I opened the door.

Agent-V-Theme

Page 62 of 67
Binding and referential expressions
- Binding/Co-referencing/co-indexing
- Nominal expressions including different types of pronouns refer to and differ
with respect to the nature of reference,

Rami is coming. Nouns/Names

Hei/j is shouting. Pronouns

I called Rami to meet me/himi/j

Ram saw Mohan. He/Rami is shouting at hisi / j /k friend. (his = Ram’s, Mohan’s

Ram saw his mother at his house.

Rami went to Mohan’sj house and saw hisi/j/k mother there.

Anaphors- Reflexives & Reciprocals

Rami saw himselfi. Reflexives (anaphors: with back reference)

Sitai saw herselfi in the mirror. [Sita and Gita came today and [Sita praised herself]].

Anaphors have antecedents within the same clause, anaphors are bound within the
same clause (local domain)

*Rami saw each otherj. [Reciprocals: each other, one another]: Binding principle
violation

Ram and Shyami saw each otheri.

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Anaphoras: are those elements that refer back (pronouns, reflexives, reciprocals).

Anaphors: are reflexives and reciprocals

Reflexives: myself, himself, oneself, itself, ourselves, themselves, herself, etc.

Reciprocals: one another, each other.

Principle A

- An anaphor must be bound in its local domain (clause).

- Anaphoric expressions are reflexives (myself, himself, herself, ourselves, etc)
and reciprocals (each other and one another)
- Ii saw myselfi in the mirror. *I saw himself in the mirror.
- *I wanted [him to see myself].
- He wanted [me to see myself].
- *He to go there is not certain.
- For him to go there is not certain.

Principle B

- A pronominal must be free in its local domain (clause).

- Pronouns are personal pronouns (he, she, they, him, her, them, etc)
- Rami saw hisi/j/k mother when he visited Mohan’sj house.

Principle C

- A referential expression must be free.

- R-expressions: all nouns, proper names etc.
- Ram is coming.

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Anaphors

- Reflexives: himself, herself, themselves, myself, ourselves

- Reciprocals: one another, each other

o Hei saw himselfi.

o Shei saw herselfi in the mirror.
o Theyi praise themselvesi.
o Ii challenge myselfi
o *He saw each other. Violation of Principle A/ Binding Mismatch
o *He saw myself.

Pronominal

- Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, etc

o Rami went to Mohan’sj house yesterday.
o Hei saw hisi/j/k mother.

Referential Expressions

- Nouns, proper nouns, etc

o Rami saw Mohanj.

The following sentences are ungrammatical because of binding/reference mismatch.

* I saw himself.

* They saw myself.

* We praise herself.

* He saw each other.

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Difference between Reflexives and Emphatics

- Myself, himself, itself, herself, themselves, etc

o Reflexives
o Emphatics
- Reflexives occur in argument position only whereas emphatics are non-
arguments.
o Reflexives: I saw myself in the mirror. He loves himself. They challenge
themselves.
o Emphatics: I saw him myself. He did it himself. They will go there
themselves.
o I did it myself. I myself did it.
o I go there every day. Every day I go there.

Quantifiers and scope

Quantifiers: all, some, many, a few, someone, everyone, one

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