ECT 201 Solid State Devices

Joseph George K N
Syllabus

MODULE I
Elemental and compound semiconductors, Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors,
concept of effective mass, Fermions-Fermi Dirac distribution, Fermi level, Doping
& Energy band diagram, Equilibrium and steady state conditions, Density of states
& Effective density of states, Equilibrium concentration of electrons and holes.
Excess carriers in semiconductors: Generation and recombination mechanisms of
excess carriers, quasi Fermi levels

MODULE II
Carrier transport in semiconductors, drift, conductivity and mobility, variation of
mobility with temperature and doping, Hall Effect. Diffusion, Einstein relations,
Poisson equations, Continuity equations, Current flow equations, Diffusion length,
Gradient of quasi Fermi level

MODULE III
PN junctions : Contact potential, Electrical Field, Potential and Charge distribution
at the junction, Biasing and Energy band diagrams, Ideal diode equation. Metal
Semiconductor contacts, Electron affinity and work function, Ohmic and Rectifying
Contacts, current voltage characteristics. Bipolar junction transistor, current
components, Transistor action, Base width modulation.
MODULE IV
Ideal MOS capacitor, band diagrams at equilibrium, accumulation, depletion and
inversion, threshold voltage, body effect, MOSFET-structure, types, Drain current
equation (derive)- linear and saturation region, Drain characteristics, transfer
characteristics.

MODULE V
MOSFET scaling – need for scaling, constant voltage scaling and constant field
scaling. Sub threshold conduction in MOS. Short channel effects- Channel length
modulation, Drain Induced Barrier Lowering, Velocity Saturation, Threshold
Voltage Variations and Hot Carrier Effects. Non-Planar MOSFETs: Fin FET –
Structure, operation and advantages

Text-Books:
1. Ben G. Streetman and Sanjay Kumar Banerjee, Solid State Electronic Devices,
Pearson 6/e, 2010 (Modules I, II and III)

2. Sung Mo Kang, CMOS Digital Integrated Circuits: Analysis and Design,

McGraw-Hill, Third Ed., 2002 (Modules IV and V)
 Objective

o To study the basics of semiconductor materials, and the conduction

process , so that the study of electronic circuits and systems will be
meaningful

o To relate terminal characteristics of the devices to internal parameters

with simple equations based on a physical understanding

o To develop the basic tools which can be used later to learn about newly
developed devices and applications.
Module 1
 Semiconductor Devices

Electronic devices (components)

made up of semiconductor material
(like silicon, germanium, gallium
arsenide etc.)

Classification
Small signal Large Signal
Low frequency High frequency
Discrete Integrated
Semiconductor Materials
 Semiconductor materials
A special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a
good conductor and that of an insulator.

Two types –

Single-crystal and Compound

Constructed of two or more

Constructed of single materials - GaAs, CdS, GaN,
semiconductor Material – GaAsP, InGaAsP
Atomic Structure of intrinsic materials
 Energy bands in solids
The electrons of a single free-standing
atom occupy atomic orbits, which
form a discrete set of energy levels.

When a large number of atoms (of

order 1020 or more) are brought together to
form a solid, the number of orbits becomes (a)
exceedingly large, and the difference in
energy between them becomes very small,
so the levels form bands of energy.

• Any solid has a large number of bands. In

theory, it can be said to have infinite
bands
• Bands have different widths, based upon
the properties of the atomic orbitals from
(b)
which they arise.

Fig: (a) Orbital Model

(b) Energy band structure
Fig: Electronic structure and energy levels in a Si atom: (a) the
orbital model of a Si atom showing the 10 core electrons (n = 1 and
2), and the four valence electrons (n = 3); (b) energy levels in the
Coulombic potential of the nucleus
 Semiconductor materials at 0 K
have basically the same structure
as insulators.

The difference lies in the size of

the band gap Eg , which is much
smaller in semiconductors than in
insulators.

For example, the semiconductor

Si has a band gap of about 1.1
eV compared with 5 eV for
diamond

In metals the bands either

overlap or are only partially
filled. Thus metals have a high
electrical conductivity.
Fig: Band structure at 0K
 Note: Dual nature of light -light is
made up of particles called “photons”
which exhibit both particle-like and
Wave function ( , psi) wave-like properties.

 A variable quantity that mathematically describes the wave

characteristics of a particle.
 A mathematical description of a quantum state of a particle as a
function of momentum, time, position, and spin.

The concept was introduced in the year 1925 with the help of the Schrodinger
equation.

of the electron is assumed to be in the form of a plane wave moving, for

example, in the x-direction with propagation constant k, also called a wave
vector.
The space-dependent wave function for the electron is

……..( 1)

where the function U(kx, x) modulates the wave function

according to the periodicity of the lattice.
The angular momentum and the wave vector k are related.

……..( 2)

The allowed values of energy E can be

plotted vs. the propagation constant k.

Note:
Since the periodicity of most lattices is different in various directions, the (E, k) diagram
must be plotted for the various crystal directions, and the full relationship between E and
k is a complex surface which should be visualized in three dimensions.

Based on the E–k, diagram, there are two classes of semiconductor energy
bands: direct and indirect.
 Direct Bandgap Semiconductor

• The band structure has a minimum in the conduction band and

a maximum in the valence band for the same k value (k = 0).

 When an electron makes a transition from conduction

band to valance band, both energy and momentum
should be conserved. photon
 An electron making a smallest-energy transition, can do
so without a change in k value

• An electron in the conduction band can fall to an empty state in

the valence band, giving off the energy difference Eg as a
photon of light.

Materials
 Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors
Indirect band has its valence band maximum at a different value of k than its conduction
band minimum.
 A transition from the minimum point in the conduction band to the
maximum point of the valence band requires some change in k.

 An electron in the conduction band minimum cannot fall directly

to the valence band maximum but must undergo a momentum
change as well as changing its energy.

 Recombination can occur, only after aligning momentum. It may

go through some defect state (Et) within the band gap and phonon
transfers its momentum to the crystal lattice
 emits a phonon (crystal lattice vibrations) to conserve
momentum.

 Energy is given up as heat.

Materials
 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors -Electrons and Holes
For electrons to experience acceleration in an applied electric field, they
must be able to move into new energy states. But the silicon band structure
is such that the valence band is completely filled with electrons at 0 K and
the conduction band is empty.

Thus,
silicon at 0 K has a high resistivity typical of insulators

At 0 K

Fig: The ground state is completely filled and

the upper state is completely empty at 0 K.
Electrons are excited to the upper state by giving energy in the form of heat, light or
electric discharge

T1 T2 T3

Fig: Electrons from the lower (valence) band are excited to the upper
(conduction) band by giving reasonable amounts of thermal or optical energy.
(with T1 <T2 <T3)
After excitation to the conduction band,
• an electron is surrounded by a large
number of unoccupied energy states.

• the empty states left in the valence

band (holes) are surrounded by
electrons
• Holes can also contribute to the
Fig: Electrons - hole pairs (EHPs)
conduction process.
in semiconductor

e.g.,
Equilibrium number of EHPs at room temperature is only about 1010 EHP/cm3,
compared to the Si atom density of 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3.

Thus the few electrons in the conduction band are free to move about via the many
available empty states.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A perfect semiconductor crystal with no
impurities or lattice defects is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.
There are no charge carriers at 0 K.

At higher temperatures EHPs are generated - the

only charge carriers in intrinsic material.

The energy required to break the bond is the band gap energy Eg

The conduction band electron At steady state, the carrier

concentration n is equal to p, concentration is maintained, i.e.,
the concentration of holes in the there must be recombination of
valence band. ……..( 3) EHPs at the same rate at which
they are generated.
The rate of recombination of electrons and holes ri is proportional to the product
equilibrium concentrations of electrons (n0) and holes (p0).
……..( 4)
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

The carrier concentration can be increased by

adding impurities into the crystal. The process is
called doping, the material is called extrinsic
material.

The introduction of impurities has an important effect on

the energy band structure and on the availability of charge
carriers.

Thus there is considerable flexibility in controlling the

electrical properties of semiconductors.

When impurities or lattice defects are introduced, additional levels are created in
the energy band structure, usually within the band gap.

There are two types of doped semiconductors,

n – type (electrons) and p – type (holes).

 Energy band model of extrinsic semiconductors

n – type

Doped with an impurity(donor) from

column V of the periodic table (P, As,
and Sb)

Introduces an energy level very near the

conduction band in Ge or Si, which is
filled with electrons at 0 K.
Electrons are the majority carriers and holes
are the minority carriers.

At about 50 –100 K virtually all of the electrons in

the impurity level are “donated” to the conduction
band.

Thus, in a semiconductors doped with a significant

number of donor atoms,
 p – type
Doped with an impurity (acceptor)
from column III (B, Al, Ga, and In)

Introduce impurity levels near the

valence band, which are empty of
electrons at 0 K.

Holes are the majority carriers electrons are

the minority carriers.

At about 50 –100 K, virtually all of the

electrons are excited from the valence band
into the impurity level, leaving behind
holes in the valence band.

Thus, in a semiconductors doped with a significant number of acceptor

atoms,
 Table: Donor and acceptor levels in Si and Ge

Si Ge
Column V (P, As, Sb) 0.03 eV below the 0.01 eV below the conduction
donor levels lie conduction band band
Column III (Al, Ga, 0.06 eV above the valence 0.01 eV above the valence
In) acceptor levels lie band. band.

Table: Donor and acceptor Impurities in semiconductors

Element/Compound Donor Acceptor

Si / Ge (Group IV) P, As, Sb (Group V) Al,Ga,In (group III)
GaAs (Group III-V) S, Se, Te (Group VI) Be,Zn, Cd (Group II)
Substitute for As (Group V) Substitute for Ga (Group III)
GaAs (Group III-V) Si/Ge (Group IV) Si/Ge (Group IV)
Substitute for Ga (Group III) Substitute for As (Group V)
Importance of doping

The carrier concentration increases and the resistivity decreases.

For example,

In Si, ni = 1010 atoms/ cm - 3 at room temperature. When Si is doped with 1015 As

atoms/cm3,
• the conduction electron concentration changes by five orders of magnitude.
• the resistivity of Si changes from about 2 x 105 Ω-cm to 5 Ω-cm.
 The Fermi Dirac Distribution Function f(E)
It is the probability of finding an electron in the energy state E at T

Electrons in solids obey Fermi–Dirac statistics.

• Occupation of electrons can be explained
• Developed by considering the indistinguishability of the electrons,
their wave nature, and the Pauli exclusion principle.

f(E) Gives
• the probability that an available energy state at E will be occupied by an
electron at absolute temperature T.

• an idea about the number of electrons available for conduction

where,
……..( 5) k (Boltzmann’s constant) = 1.38 x 10 - 23 J/K,
EF - the Fermi level
EF -the highest energy level that an
electron can occupy at T = 0K
  For an energy E = EF ,the occupation probability is,
 with T = 0K
, for i.e., every single energy level
below EF will be occupied,
and, , for and every energy level
above EF will be vacant.

For T > 0, some probability exists for states above the Fermi level to be filled.

 At T = T1, there is some probability f(E) that states above EF are filled, and
a corresponding probability [1-f(E)] that states below EF are empty.

The Fermi function f(E) is

symmetrical about EF for all
temperatures.

Figure: The Fermi–Dirac distribution function.

 For, intrinsic semiconductors,

the concentration of holes in the valence band is equal to the concentration

of electrons in the conduction band.

EF lies at the middle of the band gap &

Note:
The distribution function has values within the band gap between Ev and Ec,
but there are no energy states available, and no electron occupancy results
from f(E) in this range.
 For n type semiconductors,

o the concentration of electrons in the conduction

band is higher than the concentration of holes
in the valance band.

EF lies near the conduction band &

Figure: The Fermi distribution function

applied to n type semiconductors.

The value of f(E) for each energy level in the conduction band (and
therefore the total electron concentration n0) increases as EF moves
closer to Ec.
 The energy difference (Ec - EF ) gives a measure of n.
 For p type semiconductors,

o the concentration of holes in the valance

band is higher than the concentration of
electrons in the conduction band.

EF lies near the valance band &

Figure: The Fermi distribution function

applied to p type semiconductors.

The value of [1 - f(E)] for each energy level in the valance band (and
therefore the total hole concentration p0) increases as EF moves closer to Ev.

 The energy difference (EF - Ev) gives a measure of p.

 Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE
= density of states x probability of occupancy f(E) =

Density of states – number of quantum states available per unit volume

Thus the total electron concentration is the integral over the entire
conduction band. i.e.,

……..( 6)

 N(E) can be calculated by using quantum mechanics and the

Pauli exclusion principle.
 N(E) is proportional to E1/2 and f(E) becomes extremely small for larger E.

Thus, f(E)N(E) (number of electrons) decreases rapidly above Ec and a very few
electrons occupy energy states far above Ec.
Note:
Similarly, [1 - f(E)] decreases rapidly below Ev, and most holes occupy states
near the top of the valence band.
 The conduction band electron concentration is
The subscript 0 indicates
……..( 7) equilibrium condition.

where, Nc (effective density of states) represents all of the distributed electron

states in the conduction band located at edge Ec.

Now, the probability of finding an electron at Ec is (from Eqn (5))

……..( 8)

Thus, concentration of electrons n0 in the conduction band is

n0 increases as EF moves closer to the
……..( 9)
conduction band.

Here, the effective density of state ……..( 10)

reduced to the conduction band edge is,
 The valance band hole concentration is ……..( 11)

where, Nv (effective density of states) represents all of the distributed states in

the valance band located at edge Ev.

The probability of finding an empty state at Ev is

……..( 12)

The concentration of holes in the valance band is

……..( 13) p0 increases as EF moves closer to

the valance band Ev.

Here, the effective density of state reduced to the …..( 14)

valance band edge is,
For intrinsic material, the electron and hole concentrations are

……..( 15a) ……..( 15b)

The product of n0 and p0 at equilibrium is a constant for a particular

material and temperature, even if the doping is varied.

i.e.,

……..( 16)

Also,

……..( 17)
 The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are equal.
i.e., ……..( 18)

Also, the product of e and h concentration can be written as

For Si,
……..( 19)

Also, the equations ( 9 ) and ( 13 ) can be written as

……..( 20a)

and ……..( 20b)

..by the application of eqn (15)
Eqs (20)indicates that
 n0 = ni when EF is at the intrinsic level Ei
 n0 increases exponentially as EF moves away from Ei toward the conduction
band.
 p0 varies from ni to larger values as EF moves from Ei toward the valence band.
 Temperature dependence of Carrier Concentrations
The variation of carrier concentration with temperature is indicated by Eq. (20).

….( 20)

Also,
o ni is temperature dependent as indicated by Eq (18).
o Nc and Nv also vary with temperature as indicated by Eqs. (10), (14)
o EF can vary with temperature.

..( 18)
By combining Eqs. (18), (10), and (14),
..( 10)

..( 14)

…..( 21)
 The temperature dependence of electron concentration in doped Si

Si is doped n-type with a donor

concentration Nd of 1015 cm -3.
At very low T (large 1/T),
negligible intrinsic EHPs exist

 All electrons are bound to the

atoms.

At about 100 K (1000/T = 10) all the

donor atoms are ionized - ionization
region

n0 Nd = 1015 cm - 3
Fig: Carrier concentration vs. 1000/T for Si
doped with 1015 cm - 3.
When every available extrinsic
electron has been transferred to
the conduction band, n0 is
virtually constant until the ni
becomes comparable to the Nd.

At higher temperatures ni > Nd

and the intrinsic carriers
dominate.
Fig: Carrier concentration vs. 1000/T for Si
doped with 1015 cm - 3.

Note:
It is desirable to control the carrier
concentration by doping rather than by
thermal EHP generation.
Recap…
Semiconductor at
Intrinsic Thermal equilibrium
At 0K, Conduction band is completely
empty and valance band is completely
filled.
At 50K, conduction band is partially
filled. At steady state, electrons make
continuous up (generation) and down
(recombination) movements.
and
n – type
Introduces Ed very near to Ec, which is filled
with electrons at 0 K, donates electrons at 50K

p – type
Introduces Ea very near to Ev, which is empty
at 0 K, filled at 50K
The Fermi Dirac Distribution Function f(E)
- the probability of finding an electron in the energy
• gives an idea about the number of electrons
available for conduction
Fermi level (EF ) -the highest energy level that an electron can occupy at T = 0K

The Fermi function f(E) is symmetrical

about EF for all temperatures.
 Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium

Temperature dependence of carrier concentration

n – type p – type
Introduces Ed very near to Ec, which Introduces Ea very near to Ev, which
is filled with electrons at 0 K, donates is empty at 0 K, filled at 50K
electrons at 50K

Compensation and Space Charge

neutrality

Consider a semiconductor material with

uniform doping with ND donors /cm3 and NA
acceptors /cm3.

If ND > NA , the material is n-type, and the EF is

in the upper part of the band gap.
An acceptor state is filled with a valence band
electron, resulting in a hole in the valence band.
This hole is then filled by recombination with one of
the conduction band electrons.

Extending this logic… the resultant concentration of

electrons in the conduction band is ND - NA. This
process is called compensation.
 By this process it is possible to begin with an
n-type semiconductor and add acceptors
until ND = NA

With further acceptor doping the semiconductor

becomes p-type with a hole concentration of
essentially NA - ND
Space charge neutrality.

If the material is to remain electrostatically neutral, the sum of the negative

charges (electrons and ionized acceptor atoms) must balance the sum of the
positive charges (holes and ionized donor atoms):
n0 + N-A = p0 + N+D

At 150K, all impurity atoms are ionized, so that

N-A = NA and N+D = ND
Therefore, n0 - p0 = ND - NA
If ND > NA , the material is n-type.

If NA > ND , the material is p-type.

If the net doping is much greater than ni, the majority carrier
concentration is equal to net doping.
Excess Carriers in Semiconductors
 Excess Carriers in Semiconductors
Carriers generated in excess of thermal equilibrium values
Semiconductor devices operate by the creation of excess carriers

Generation of Excess carriers

-can be created by excitation by means of

 Optical excitation

 Electron bombardment
 Electron injection (across a forward-biased p-n junction)

Recombination of Excess carriers:

• Direct
• Indirect
 Note:
Properties of light ray
• When light waves, which travel in straight lines, encounter
any substance, they are

reflected, absorbed, transmitted, or

refracted

Those substances that transmit almost all the

light waves falling upon them are said to be
transparent.

Substances through which some light rays can

pass, are called translucent

Those substances that are unable to transmit

any light rays are called opaque
•
 Optical Absorption
When a semiconductor material  electrons absorb light (Photons) and
is exposed to light energy, are excited to the conduction band
from the valance band
 holes are left behind.

A photon with energy

is absorbed (a)

The probability of absorption is high

The excited electron may initially have

Fig: Optical absorption of a photon more energy.
with hν > Eg  Loses energy to the lattice by scattering
(dissipated as heat) and reaches the
thermal equilibrium velocity of other
conduction band electrons (b).
The electron and hole created by this absorption process are excess carriers.
 They are
• free to contribute to the conductivity of the material

• highly unstable and return to the valance band and

combines with the holes (c)
(since they are out of balance
with their environment, they
must eventually recombine).

A photon with energy less than Eg is unable to excite an electron.

i.e., there is negligible absorption of photons with hν > Eg.

Thus, some materials are transparent in certain wavelength ranges.

Note:
the band gap is about 2 eV wide, only long wavelengths (infrared)
and the red part of the visible spectrum are transmitted;
If

a band gap of about 3 eV allows infrared and the entire visible

spectrum to be transmitted.
 To find absorption

A light beam of intensity I0 and wavelength λ is directed at a sample of thickness l.

The ratio of transmitted to incident light

intensity depends on the photon wavelength
and the thickness of the sample.

Intensity at a distance x from the surface is

calculated by considering the probability of
absorption within any increment dx.

The degradation of the intensity,

is proportional to the
intensity remaining at x

Fig: Experimental set up to find absorption.

…..( 22)

α is called the absorption coefficient

 The solution is

For a sample of thickness l,

There is negligible absorption

at long wavelengths (small Eg)
and considerable absorption of
photons with energies larger
than Eg. Eg = hν
= hc / λ Fig: Dependence of absorption
If E is given in electron volts and coefficient(α) on wavelength(λ)
λ in micrometers,

E = 1.24 / λ …..( 23)

Wavelength λ of the emitted light depends on Eg
Eg = hν = hc / λ

If λ is in micrometers and E in
electron volts,
…..( 23)

μm

Compound Emitted wavelength (nm)

GaP 665
Ga1-xAlx As 800 – 930
Inx Ga1-x AsyP1- y 1000 - 1700
Many of the semiconductors are well suited
for light emission, particularly the
compound semiconductors with direct band
gaps.

When electrons fall to their

equilibrium states, light
can be given off by the
material- Luminescence

Fig: Band gap energies and emitted wavelengths

of some common semiconductors
Depending on the electron excitation mechanism, they are subdivided
Carriers excited by
• photon absorption - results in photoluminescence
• high-energy electron bombardment – results in cathodoluminescence
• the introduction of current into the sample – results in electroluminescence

Other types of excitation are also possible.

 Direct recombination and Carrier life time
(Electrons recombine with holes either directly or indirectly).

Direct recombination - energy lost by the electron is given

up as a photon.
Carrier life time – the average time it takes for a generated carrier to
recombine.
 Depends on the type of material and construction

The rate of decay of excess carriers at any time t is proportional to the product
of number of electrons and holes remaining at time t.

The net rate of change

in the conduction band Thermal generation rate recombination rate
electron concentration
i.e.,

where,
…………………
n(t) – total electron concentration
p(t) – total hole concentration
………………… no – equilibrium electron concentration
po – equilibrium electron concentration
δn(t) – excess electron concentration
δp(t) – excess hole concentration

…..( 24)

Assumptions….more
• Neglect if the excess carrier concentrations are
small.
• if the material is p type.
 …..( 25)

…..( 26)
The solution is

- the original excess carrier concentration

i.e., it shows an exponential decay from

- recombination lifetime
(minority carrier lifetime).

The excess electrons in a p-type

semiconductor recombine with a
decay constant

Fig: Graph of n(t) VS. t

 Example
Assume a sample of GaAs with intrinsic
carrier concentration of 106 cm - 3 is doped
with 1015 acceptors/cm3. If 1014 EHP/cm3 are
created at t = 0, calculate the decay of these
carriers in time.
Solution
The minority electron concentration is

The figure shows the decay in time of the

excess populations for a carrier
recombination lifetime of
 Indirect recombination and Trapping

For indirect semiconductors, the probability

of direct electron–hole recombination is very
small.
The recombination events occur via
recombination levels within the band gap, and
the resulting energy is usually given up to
the lattice as heat.

An impurity or lattice defect serves as a recombination center by

receiving a carrier of one type and subsequently capturing the
opposite type of carrier.

EHP recombines at Er in two steps:

(a) hole capture and

(b) electron capture.
 Hole Capture and Electron Capture

(a) Hole capture

The first event in the recombination process.

 An electron at Er falls to the valence band,
 leaving behind an empty state in Er.
 energy is given up as heat to the lattice.

(b) Electron capture

The second event in the recombination process.

 A conduction band electron falls to the empty state in Er.
 Energy is given up as heat.
 The recombination center is back to its original state, but an EHP is missing
 The center is ready to participate in another recombination event a hole.
 Re-excitation
A captured carrier may be thermally reexcited to its original band
before capture of the opposite type of carrier.
 Energy is required for this process
 Delays the recombination.
Temporary trapping
A carrier is trapped temporarily at the center and is reexcited without
recombination taking place.

Trapping center or Recombination center

An impurity or defect center is referred to as a

• Recombination center if the most

• Trapping center (or trap) if, after
probable next event is capture of
capturing, the most probable next
the opposite type of carrier.
event is re-excitation.

Note: The recombination can be slow or fast, depending on the average time
the first carrier is held before the second carrier is captured. In general,
trapping levels located deep in the band gap are slower in releasing trapped
carriers
 excess
Steady state Carrier generation and Quasi Fermi Level
Under thermal equilibrium, thermal generation of EHPs at a rate is
balanced by the recombination rate so that the equilibrium
concentrations of carriers n0 and p0 are maintained and .
i.e.,

…..( 27)

If, an optical generation rate gop is added to the thermal generation, the
carrier concentrations n and p will increase to new steady state values.

……………………
……………………

…..( 28)
 …..( 29)
…..( 30)

The excess carrier concentration can be written as

But when trapping is present,

and therefore,

Fermi level EF -the highest energy level that

an electron can occupy at T = 0K

The concept of Fermi level is meaningful under equilibrium

conditions only when no excess carriers are present.
 Quasi Fermi level Shows the deviation caused by the optical excitation

When excess carriers are present, it is convenient to write the steady state
electron and hole concentrations in terms of separate Fermi levels –
Quasi Fermi level
The resulting carrier concentration
equations are

…..( 31)

where, Fn and Fp - quasi-Fermi levels for

electrons and holes.
, at thermal equilibrium

…..( 32) , at steady state (quasi equilibrium)

If Fn – Fp > 0, np > ni2 If Fn – Fp < 0, np < ni2

 Example
In a Si sample with n0 = 1014 cm-3 and τn = τp = 2 μs, 1019 EHPcm-3s-1 are created
optically in every micro second.
(a) Determine the change in minority carrier concentration
(b) Determine the separation between quasi Fermi levels.
(c) Draw the positions of equilibrium and quasi Fermi levels at 300K.

Assume ni for silicon at room temperature is 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.

Solution Given, n0 = 1014 cm-3, ni =1.5 x 1010 cm-3, τn = τp = 2 μs

po = ni2/no = 2.25 x 106cm-3 Equilibrium

= 2 x 10-6 x 1019 = 2 x 1013 cm-3 Steady state

(a) Thus the minority carrier concentration changes from 2.25 x 106 cm-3
to 2 x 1013 cm-3.
 = 2 x 1013 cm-3

= 1014 + 2 x 1013
= 1.2 x 1014 cm-3
ni =1.5 x 1010 cm-3
Also,

(b) Fn - Ei = kT ln(8 x 103) = 0.233 eV kT 0.0259 eV

By similar calculation,

Ei - Fp = 0.186 eV

EF - Ei = 0.228 eV
Observations

 The deviations of Fn and Fp from EF indicate how far the electron

and hole populations are from the equilibrium values n0 and p0
 The steady state Fn is only slightly above the equilibrium EF ,
whereas Fp is greatly displaced below EF
 A given concentration of excess EHPs causes a large shift in the
minority carrier quasi-Fermi level compared with that for the
majority carriers.

 The separation of the quasi Fermi levels Fn - Fp is a direct

measure of the deviation from equilibrium.
At equilibrium Fn = Fp = EF
 Example
In a Ge sample is doped with 1017 cm-3 donors at 300K is illuminated to create
EHPs at the rate 1020 cm-3s-1 EHPs. τn = τp =10 μs,
(a) Find the separation between quasi Fermi levels.
(b) Draw the energy band diagram.
Intrinsic carrier concentration of germanium is 2.5 × 1013/cm3 at 300K.
Solution

Given, n0 = Nd = 1017 cm-3 , τn = τp = 10 μs and ni =2.5 x 1013 cm-3

po = ni2/no = 6.26 x 109cm-3 Equilibrium

= 10 x 10-6 x 1020 = 1015 cm-3 Steady state

Thus the minority carrier concentration changes to 1015 cm-3.

 = 2 x 1013 cm-3

= 1017 + 1015
= 1.01 x 1017 cm-3
ni = 2.5 x 1013 cm-3
Also,

Fn - Ei = kT ln(4 x 103) = xxxxx eV kT 0.0259 eV

By similar calculation,

Ei - Fp = xxxx eV

EF - Ei = xxxx eV