SILVER EDITO! Mosaic 2 GRAMMAR Patricia K. Werner John P. NelsonMosaic 2 Grammar, Silver Edition Published by McGraw-Hill ESL/ELT, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2007 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. ISBN 13: 978-0-07-125835-7 ISBN 10: 0-07-125835-3 128456789 10 CTPMPM 20 09 08 07 ‘The credits section for this book begins on page 485 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Cover photo: Jeffrey Becom / Lonely Planet Printed in Singapore INTERNATIONAL EDITION ISBN: 0-07-125835-3 Copyright © 2007. Exclusive rights by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. for manufac- ture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is sold by McGraw Hill. The International Bditicn is not available in North America,A Special Thank You ‘The Interactions/Mosaic Silver Edition team wishes to thank our extended team: teachers, students, administrators, and teacher trainers, all of whom contributed invaluably to the making of this edition. Macarena Aguilar, North Harris College, Houston, ‘Texas® Mohamad ALAlam, Imam Mohammad University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Faisal M. Al Mohanna Abaalkchail, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Amal AL-Toaimy, Women's College, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabiam Douglas Arroliga, Ave Maria University, Managua, Nicaraguas Faislie Atkinson, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Koreas Jose R, Bahamonde, Miami-Dade Community College, Miami, Florida John Ball, Universidad de las Americas, Mexico City, Mexico Steven Bel, Universidad la Salle, Mexico City, Mexico™ Danian Benstead, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea Paul Cameron, National Chengehi University, Taipei, Taiwan ROC. # Sun Chang, Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea™ Grace Chao, Soochow University, Taipei, ‘Taiwan RO.C.m Chien Ping Chen, Hua Fan University, ‘Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.™ Selma Chen, Chihlee Institute of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan R.0.C.m Sylvia Chiu, Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.m Mary Colonna, Columbia University, New York, New Yorks Lee Culver, Miami-Dade Community College, Miami, Florida Joy Durighello, City College of San Franeisco, San Francisco, Californiam Isabel De! Valle, ULATINA, San Jose, Costa Rica" Linda Emerson, Sogang University, Seoul, Koreas Esther Entin, Miami-Dade Community College, Miami, Florida" Glenn Farrier, Gakushuin Women’s College, Tokyo, Japan Su Wei Feng, Taipei, Taiwan RO.C.a Judith Garcia, Miami-Dade Community College, Miami, Forida® Maxine Gillway, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates Colin Gullberg, Soochow University, Taipei, Tuiwan R.0,C, = Natasha Haugnes, Academy of Art University, San Francisco, California Barbara Hockman, City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, California® Jinyoung Hong, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea Sherry Hsieh, Christ's College, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C. = Yushen Hsu, Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan R.0.C.™ Cheung Kai-Chong, Shih-Shin University, Taipei, Taiwan R.0.0. ® Leslie Kaniberg, City College of San Franciseo, San Francisco, California® Gregory Keech, City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, California ™ Susan Kelly, Sogang University, Seoul, Koreas Myoungsulc Kim, ‘Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea ® Youngsuk Kirn, Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea™ Roy Langdon, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea™ Rocio Lara, University of Costa Riea, San Jose, Costa Rica Insung Lee, Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea® Andy Leung, National Tsing Hua University, Taipei, Taiwan R.OC.® Elisa Li Chan, University of Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica® Elizabeth Lorenzo, Universidad Internacional de las Aunericas, San Jose, Costa Rica" Cheryl Magnant, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Koreas Narciso Maldonado Iuit, Escuela Teenica Blectricista, Mexico City, Mexicom Shaun Manning, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea ™ Yoshiko Matsubayashi, Tokyo International University, Saitama, Japan Scott Miles, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea® William Mooney, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan R.0.0.® Jeff Moore, ‘Sungkyumloan University, Seoul, Korea® Mavelin de Moreno, Lehnsen Roosevelt School, Guatemala City, Guatemala® Ahmed Motala, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United ra Emirates® Carlos Navarro, University of Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica™ Dan Neal, Chih Chien University, Taipei, Taiwan R.O.C.m Margarita Novo, University of Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica Karen O'Neill, San Jose State University, ‘San Jose, Californias Linda O'Roke, City College of ‘San Francisco, San Francisco, California™ Martha Padilla, Colegio de Bachilleres de Sinaloa, Culiacan, Mexicom Allen Quesada, University of Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica™ Jim Rogge, Broward Community College, Ft Lauderdale, Florida Marge Ryder, City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, Oalifornia™ Gerardo Salas, University of Costa Riea, San Jose, Costa Rica® Shigeo Sato, Tamagawa University, Tokyo, Japan® Lynn Schneider, City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, Califemia®™ Devan Scoble, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea® Maryjane Scott, Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea® Ghaida Shaban, Makassed Philanthropic School, Beirut, lebanon Maha Shalok, Makassed Philanthropic School, Beirut, Lebanon™ John Shannon, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates ® isa Sheng, National Technology College of Taipei, Taipei, Taiwan RO. Ye-Wei Sheng, National Taipei College of Business, Taipei, Taiwan R.0.C. Emilia Sobaja, University of Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica You Souk Yoon, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea ™ Shanda Stromficld, San Jose State University, San Jose, California® Richard Swingle, Kansai Gaidai College, Osaka, Japan™ Carol Sung, Christ's College, ‘Taipel, Taiwan R.O.C.¥ Jeng-Yih'Tim Hsu, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and ‘Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan R.O.C. " Shinichiro ‘Torikai, Riltkyo University, Tokyo, Japan® Sungsoon Wang, Sogang University, Seoul, Korea®™ Kathleen Wolf, City College of San Francisco, San Francisco, California ® Sean Wray, Waseda University International, Tokyo, Japan® Belinda Yanda, Academy of Art University, San Francisco, California™ Su Huel Yang, National Taipei College of Business, Taipei, ‘Taiwan R.O.C. * Tzu Yun Yu, Chungyu Institute of ‘Technology, Taipei, Taiwan .0.C.Table of Contents iv Welcome to Interactions/Mosaic Silver Edition .. Scope and Sequence Chapter Ell Language and Learning 2 VERB TENSES AND MODAL AUXILIARIES 4.1 Parts of Speech 1.2 Sentences... 1.3 Phrases and Clauses. 1.4 Subjects. 1.5 Verbs, Objects, and Complements. 4.6 The Simple Tenses. 1.7 Placement of Time Expressions with Simple Tenses. 1.8 The Simple Present Tense. 1.9 Special Uses of the Simple Present Tense.. 1.10 The Simple Future Tense.. 4.11 Be Going To... 1.12. The Simple Past Tense ... 1.13 The Habitual Past... 1.14 The Continuous Tenses...... 1.15 The Present Continuous Tense 1.16 The Past Continuous Tense. 1.17 The Future Continuous Tense... 1.18 The Perfect Tenses... 1.19 Placement of Time Expressions with the Perfect Tense ...... 1.20 The Present Perfect Tense. 1.21 The Perfect Continuous Tenses .. 1.22 The Present Perfect Continuous Ten: 1.23. The Present Perfect Continuous and Present Perfect Tenses with Similar Meanings. 4.24 The Present Perfect Continuous and Present Perfect Tenses with Different Meaninj 1.25 The Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous Tenses... 1.26 The Future Perfect and Future Perfect Continuous Tenses..... 1.27, Modal Auxiliaries.. 1.27. Structures Related to Modal Auxiliaries ... 4.28 Modals of Inference, Prediction, and Probabilit 1.29. Modals of Social interaction .. 1.30 Other Modals and Their Uses.. 1.31 Understanding Reduced Forms in Rapid Speechvi Chapter Beauty and Aesthetics ADJECTIVE CLAUSES AND RELATED STRUCTURES 4.1 Adjective Clauses.. 4.2 Restrictive Versus Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses. 43 Clauses with Multiple Meanings. i 4.4 Clauses with Who, Which, or That: Replacement of: “Subjects.. 4.5 Clauses with Whose: Replacement of Subjects 4.6 Anticipatory /t with Adjective Clauses... - 4.7 Clauses with Whom, Which, or That: Replacement of Objects...... 4.8 Clauses with Whom, Which, or That: Replacement of Objects of Prepositions. 173 4.9 Clauses with Whose: Replacement of Objects... a _ - 175, 4.10 Superlatives and Adjective Clauses... 176 4.11 Clauses with When and Where... wives ge 4.12. Nonrestrctive Adjective Clauses and Expressions of Quantity see. 180 4.13 Adjective Clauses and Subject / Verb Agreement....... - 181 4.14 Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Active Voice... 186 4.18 Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in the Passive Voice... 188 4.16 Reduction of Adjective Clauses with Verbs in Perfect Tenses...» 190 4.17 Placement of Nonrestrictive Participial Phrases .. 4.18 Appositives. Chapter [Transitions 198 ADVERB CLAUSES OF CAUSE, RESULT, AND TIME 5.1 Transitions of Sequence........... AZ 5.2 Time Clauses with the Present, Present Perfect and Future Tenses. sonnel 5.3 Time Clauses with the Simple Present and Future Perfect (Continuous) Tenses.205, 5.4 Placement and Punctuation of Adverb Clauses and Phrases. ws 206 5.5 Time clauses wit the simple Present, Present Continuous and Present Perfect Tenses... 12ND 5.6 Adverb Clauses and Related Structures of Gause and Result. oe 220. 5.7 Time Clauses and Phrases with the Simple Past and Past Perfect Tenses..........227 5.8 Time Clauses and Phrases with the Simple Past and Past Continuous Tenses....228Chapter Danger and Daring 64 NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND MODIFIERS 2.1 Introduction to Nouns... 22 Count Nouns 2.3 Noncount Nouns... 2.4 Nouns That are Both Count and Noncount 2.5 Personal Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives .. 2.6 Indefinite Articles... 2.7 _ Units of Measurement... 2.8 Indefinite Adjectives and Pronouns. 29 The Definite Article with Count Nouns 2.10 The Definite article with Noncount Nouns.. 2.11 The with Quantifiers.... 2.12 Quantifiers... 2.13 Quantifiers and Subject / Verb Agreement. 2.14 The Number Of versus A Number O1 2.15 ‘Two-Part Subjects: Subject / Verb Agreement. 2.16 Word Order with Noun Modifiers. 2.17 Collective Nouns: Agreement with Verbs and Pronouns .. 2.18 Subject / Verb Word Order with Negative Adverbs 2.19 Parallel Structure with Nouns and Noun Modifiers... Chapter El Gender and Relationships 14 SENTENCE TYPES AND SENTENCE PROBLEMS 3.1 Commands... 3.2 Exclamations 3.3 And, But, For, Or, So, Yet, 3.4 Nor. oe 3.5 Coordinating Conjunctions with Words and Phrases.. 3.6 Correlative Conjunctions 3.7 Transitions. 3.8 Common Transitions 3.9 Adjective Clauses, 3.10 Adverb Clauses 3.11 Noun Clauses... 3.12 Complex Sentens 3.13. Examples of Correct Sentences. 3.14 Examples of Incorrect Sentences 3.15 Incomplete Clauses. 3.16 Dependent Clauses. "== Contents vChapter J The Mind 248 ADVERB CLAUSES OF COMPARISON, CONTRAST, PURPOSE, AND RESULT 6.1 Adverb Clauses and Related Structures of Contrast: Concession..... eee 253 6.2 Adverb Clauses and Related Structures of Contrast: OPPOSITION .......esessssseeee 262 6.3 Adverb Clauses and Phrases of Purpose... " 269° 6.4 Comparative and Superlative Forms of. ‘Adjectives and ‘Adverbs... 274 6.5 Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs............. oor reee LTS 6.6 Comparisons with Than see 67 Formal Versus informal Comparisons with Than. 276 6.8 Comparisons with As. 1.276 6.9 Formal Versus informal Comparisons with AS not 6.10 Phrases Showing Comparison 278 6.11 Adverb Clauses of Result. a 283 6.12 Formal Versus Informal Adverb Clauses of Result. 283, Chapter Working 292 NOUN CLAUSES AND RELATED STRUCTURES 7.1 Noun Clauses..... 1296 7.2 Quotations Versus Reported ‘speech 299 7.3 Changes in Verb Tense with Reported ‘Speech. woe sisal 299 7.4 Changes in Modal Auxiliaries with Reported Speech. scission ...300 7.5 Changes in Pronouns, Adjectives, and Adverbials with Reported Speech. 7 301 7.6 Changing Commands to Reported ‘Speech... 10301 7.7 Clauses with Embedded Questions 305 7.8 Clauses with if and Whether. 1306 7.9 Statements of Urgency with That 312 7.10. Urgent Requests with That..... seed 13, 7.11 Clauses as Subjects of Sentences ... 317 7.12 Anticipatory it + Clauses with That. B18 7.13 Reduction of That Clauses in the ‘Subjunctive Mood... 323 7.14 Reductions of Commands.. se 7.1 Reduction of Requests for Action and for Permission . 6101825, 7.16 Reduction of Embedded Questions B26 = mu Contents viiChapter Fl Breakthroughs 332 THE PASSIVE VOICE AND RELATED STRUCTURES 84 82 83 84 85 86 a7 88 89 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 ‘The Passive Voice... 336 The Simple Tenses.. 338 By + Agent... 339 ‘Common Expressions in the Passive Voice. 341 Get + Adjective or Past Participle Anticipatory it. The Perfect Tenses. The Continuous Tenses. The Modal Auxiliaries... Participles with Verbs of Emotions and Sensations Causative and Structurally Related Verbs. Verbs with Two-Part Objects. Verbs of Perception... Chapter © art and entertainment 380 GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND RELATED STRUCTURES. 94 92 93 9.4 95 9.6 97 98 99 9.10 911 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 97 9.18 Functions of Gerunds. Gerunds as Objects of Prepositions. To + Gerund. Gerunds as Objects of Verbs. Subjects of Gerunds... Direct Objects of Gerunds. Functions of infinitives...... Infinitives as Objects of Verbs. ‘Verbs that May Be Followed by (Pro)Nouns and Infinitives.... ‘Verbs that Must Be Followed by a (Pro)Noun Object Before an infinitive Adverts, Adjectives, and Nouns Followed by infinitives.... ‘Verbs with Little or No Difference in Meaning When Followed Either by a Gerund or an infinitive. ‘Vertis That Have Different Meanings When Followed Either by a Gerund or an infinitive ... \Verbs That Are Followed by Gerunds or infinitives, Depending on the Use of a (ProJNoun Object. ‘Continuous and Perfect Forms of Infinitives. Perfect Forms of Gerunds. Gerunds and infinitives as Subjects and Complements. Parallelism...Chapter HY conflict and Reconciliation HOPE, WISH, AND CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 10.1 Hope Versus Wish 10.2 Subjunctive Forms with Wish .. 10.3 Otherwise. 10.4 Imaginary Conditions; Present and Unspecified Time.. 10.5 Imaginary Conditionals with Should or Were + Infinitive 10.6 Perfect Modal Auxiliaries. 10.7. Otherwise: Past Time 10.8 Imaginary Conditions: Past Tim 10.9. Imaginary Conditionals: Past and Present Time Appendix El Irregular Verbs Appendix Spelling Rules and Irregular Noun Plurals Appendix El The with Proper Nouns Appendix £y Verbs not Normally Used in the Continuous Tense Appendix Modal Auxiliaries and Related Structures Appendix Summary of Gerunds and Infinitives . Skills Index == Contents 474 476 478 480 481 483 486Welcome to Ir teractions/Mosaic Silver Edition Interactions/Mosaic Silver Edition is a fully-integrated, 18-book acade- mic skills series, Language proficiencies are articulated from the beginning through advanced levels within each of the four language skill strands. Chapter themes articulate across‘the four skill strands to systematically re- cyele content, vocabulary, and grammar. NEW to the Silver Edition of Interactions/Mosaic Grammar: » World’s most popular and comprehensive academic skills series—thoroughly updated for today’s global learners « Redesigned grammar charts—numbered sequentially, formatted consistently, and indexed systematically—provide lifelong reference value » Carefully refined scope and sequence responds to teacher recommendations for building the most logical continuum of grammar topics within and across books « Enhanced focus on global content honors the diversity of Interactions/Mosaic students from each region of the world « New Self-Assessment Logs encourage students to evaluate their learning « New “Best Practices” approach promotes excellence in language teachingInteractions/Mosaic Best Practices Our Interactions/Mosaic Silver Edition team has produced an edition that focuses on Best Practices, principles that contribute to excellent lan- guage teaching and learning. Our team of ‘Writers, editors, and teacher con- sultants has identified the following six interconnected Best Practices: Dilaking use of Academic content Materials and tasks based on academic content and experiences give learn- ing real purpose. Students explore real world issues, discuss academic top- ics, and study content-based and thematic materials. Dreanizing information Students lear to organize thoughts and notes through a variety of graphic organizers that accommodate diverse learning and thinking styles, Bicaffotaing Instruction A scaffold is a physical structure that facilitates construction of a building. Similarly, scaffolding instniction is a tool used to facilitate language learn. ing in the form of predictable and flexible tasks. Some examples include oral or written modeling by the teacher or students, placing information in a larger framework, and reinterpretation. LA ctivating prior knowledge Students can better understand new spoken or written material when they Connect to the content. Activating prior knowledge allows students to lap into what they already know, building on this knowledge and stirring a cu- riosity for more knowledge. [steracting with others Activities that promote human interaction in pair work, small group work, and whole class activities present opportunities for real world contact and real world use of language. [Quitivating critical thinking Strategies for critical thinking are taught explicitly. Students learn tools that promote critical thinking skills crucial to success in the academic world. xistrengthen the educational experience. Questions and topical quotes stimulate interest, activate prior knowledge, and launch the topic of the unit. 55 BE Connecting to te Tonle Transitions 1G stga you low nt th mar chron tn ca 9 1B Yalan emg ohps aa inp 0? i tovtoyttenat arcane [lira crac] tert Gana cee Pt gh pmneacareo oe Pont and Goma Sri Cann Ret Pets fioeolcnpea ts Life Belong tothe living, and he wio lives must be prepared forchanges °? — juan Wot vos GeeGroup and pair work create situations for students to use the grammar they are learning. Academic topics provide context for the grammar, what is Ar? raat tet ei i a ec bab nu ar caren eb "eum al Bacon wn ey ae we Sierra etter “ected a mo retest ih re elton bran cnt ort pce Be ‘Siegal an aS oo Lg encase hb aa te epi i sae in i ty aes ape Sen eoommnmeras tm tare wear feortan maureen fag aoneae ‘ise ance hartpei ek ‘Sse taal pren etree nbs ca RSS eH RLS "f teerseat eon rion Seis mae Beja oe e ae Fen Se v0 i emanate Sin aregeon eteanscneccnt ea a an eat = penenumbered sequentially, formatted consistently, and indexed systematically — provide lifelong reference value.Scope and Sequence Grn CEnneses Cana 4 seauty and Aesthetics * Adjective Clauses: The wonders of ancient Egypt Adjective Clauses and Restrictive Versus * Mayan architecture and civiliza- Related Structures Nonrestrictive tion * Adjective ees 3 * The wonders of ancient Greece ee sublets * The statues of Easter Island * Adjective Clauses: ‘. Weplacertentofaeer Beautiful places around the world * Other Adjective Clause Constructions * Adjective Clause to Phrase Reduction. 5 transitions * Clauses and Related * Personal growth and change ‘Adverb Clauses of Cause, Structures of Time: Future * Growth and change in society Result, and Time ne * The role of leadership in change * Clauses and Related snail Structures of Time: Present a and Unspecified Time * Changes of the last 100 years * Clauses and Related Structures of Cause and Result * Clauses and Related Structures of Time: Past Time . * Review of Chapters 1-5 6 the ming * Clauses and Related * The central nervous system Adverb Clauses of ‘Structures of Contrast: * The two hemispheres of the Comparison, Contrast, Concession brain Purpose, and Result * Clauses and Related * Memory and forgetting Structures of Contrast: 4 ¢ Saicehee : sn yea le * Clauses and Phrases of eee Purpose: = Clauses and Related Structures of Comparison * Clauses of Result =» Scope and sequence — xviiChapt reuse) Caer 7 working * Clauses with That; Reported» The US. workforce Noun Clauses and Related Speech * Job interviews ‘Structures = Clauses with Embedded '* Types of jobs URSUODS ‘Working conditions . ey and Requests of * Job stress + Clauses as Subjects of Sentences + Reduction of Noun Clauses to Infinitive Phrases 8 breakthroughs * The Simple Tenses * Breakthrough technologies The Passive Voice and * The Perfect Tenses * Medicine Related Structures ¢ The Continuous Tenses © Agriculture The Modal Auxiliaries * Energy * other verbal * Aging Constructions 9 artand entertainment —_* Gerunds ier. Gerunds, Infinitives, and infinitives + Gold and silver-smithing Related Structures + Verbs Followed by Either BE areent acs Infiritives or Gerunds cade ERtreE, * Continuous and Perfect alcanae Forms + Gerunds and infinitives As Subjects and Complements; Parallelism 10 conflict and Reconciliation Hope, Wish, and Conditional Sentences xviii ‘Scope and Sequence * Hope versus Wish + imaginary Conditions: Present and Unspecified Time * Perfect Modal Auxiliaries Imaginary Conditions: Past and Present Time + Review of Chapters 6-10 * Major environmental concerns + Model societies * Current environmental problems * The impact of new technologies + Protecting our futureAuthor Acknowledgements To the shining stars in my life: Alfonso, Alex, Martin, Camila, Tito, and Lucas xixChapter Language and Learning EET k Verb Tenses and Modal Auxiliaries Part 1 The Sentence and its Parts Part 2 The simple Tenses Part 3. The Continuous Tenses Part 4 The Perfect and Perfect Continuous Tenses and Verb Tense Review Part 5 Modal Auxiliaries and Relates Structuressy Connecting to the Topic Ey Wtiat dio you know about the language of the world 7 [By How do children learn their first language ? [Ey How can people best learn a second language ?4 Chapter 4 In this chapter, you will review key terminology and the uses of all the verb tenses and the modal auxiliaries. This chapter is review. The terminology and structures reappear throughout the text. While you are reviewing the tenses, pay close attention to the time expressions used with each. Also, notice the shifts from one tense to another. Read the following passage. It introduces the chapter theme “Language and Learning’ and raises some of the topics and issues you will cover in the chapter. Language Language is the most important development in human history. The arts, sciences, laws, economic systems, and religions of the world could not exist without language. Humans have not changed biologically for some 40,000 years. However, our ability to communicate has Jed us from. the cave all the way to the moon. Little is known about the birth of language. Written records that are more than 4,000 years old have been found, but anthropologists agree that humans were speaking thousands of years before that. ‘Today, most of us learn to talk by the age of three, and for the rest of our lives we rarely stop. Even while we are reading or just thinking, we are in a sense “talking,” if only to ourselves. Language is so much a part of hu- man existence that we will be talking as long as we inhabit the Earth, As linguist David Thompson notes, “When language dies, so will man.” Discuss the questions with a group. How important is language to humans? Could we think the same way without lan- ‘guage? Do you have thoughts that do not take the form of words?EEEIRRM The sentence and its Parts % Previewing the Passagepjgcuss the questions with a group. How many languages do you think there are in the world? What similarities does your first language share with English? Do you know of any similarities that all lan- guages share? Readingpead the passage. meneame Language Similarities Inall, there are at least 1,500 different human languages. Although each has a distinct set of words and grammar, they all have similar parts of speech. For example, all languages have certain elements that function as nouns (Jack, tennis, house) and others that act as verbs (play, love, sing). In addition, every language uses one class of words to modify nouns (slow, red, beautiful) and another to modify verbs (slowly, beautifully). Ail lan- guages have rules that can convert verbs either into nouns (sing, singer) or into adjectives (interest, interesting). Finally, all use both proper nouns (Sonia Lizano, San Jose) and pronouns (she, it). Discussing Ideaspiscuss the questions with a partner. ‘The passage indicates that there are 1,500 languages. What do you think the differ- ence is between a language and a dialect? Talk about your first language. Are there different dialects? If so, how do they differ from each other? Grammar Structures and Practice A. Parts of Speech Parts 6f speech are the smallest grammatical units: adjective, adverb, article, conjunc- tion, interjection, noun, preposition, pronoun, and verb, "=" "Language and Learning 5Parts Of Speech ‘CONJUNCTION PREPOSITION VERB ADVERB ‘CONJUNCTION nt = ee | ieee [eee i Although each language in the world may have a very distinct set of words and grammar, ae a onl ge NOUN INTERJECTION Jall of them have similar parts of speech. Really! ‘A NOUN THAT HAS @\VEN UP (Ts AMATEUR, sratus. By permission of Johnny Hart and Creators Syndicate, Inc. [il Practicagentity the part of speech (noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, article, preposition, conjunction, interjection) of each italicized word, tick adjective noun Example A growing number of people are fluent in several languages. 4. The most common first language in the world is Mandarin Chinese, but it is widely spoken only ¢nside China. 2. Wow, there are over a billion Mandarin Chinese speakers. 3. Almost half of the world’s population speaks one of the Indo-European. languages, 4, English is the most popular in this group, and its popularity is growing. 5. If second-language speakers are included, English is the most common language in the world—really! 6. English is most likely to remain very important én the future, but the number of people who speak English as their native language will decline. 7. In the United States today, approvimately 20 percent of the population speaks a language other than English. 8. In the future, being multilingual will be common, and being monolingual will be rave. 6 Chapter1 © *"TU Or Languages in the U.S. ‘As of 2004, over 30 million people in the United States were foreign born, and ap- proximately ten percent of children enrolled in U.S. public schools—over 5.5 million ‘students—had limited English proficiency. That marked an increase of over more than 65 percent during a ten-year period. Nationwide, these students bring approx- mately 425 native languages to the classroom. It's not unusual to find classrooms with 80 percent or more of the students learning English as their second language. English as a Native Language Slipping The share of people in the world who are native English speakers has been declining since 1950. Hindi-Urdu is projected to surpass English by 2050, Percent Change of Total Population Speaking Native Language 10, 9 5% 8 in 2050 5.2% 5.9% 5.2% 7 E6 85 eal 3 2 1 English Arabic Hindi-Urdu Spanish 1950-2050 ‘Note: Each language bar represents five years. Source: The English Company = = >Language and Learning 7B. Sentences, Phrases, and Clauses Assentence is @ group of words that expresses a complete idea. sévery sentence includes at least one subject and verb, sThe ver may be followed by an object or a complement. There are four basic types of sentences: 1.2 | Sentences istic ee ema ‘Structures ‘Explanations Examples ‘Statement |A statement gives information or an apinion. [English is a wonderful language. just bought niy books. (Question |A question asks for information. What is your native language” (Have you found a roommate yet? [Exclamation _| An exclamation expresses suprise, pleasure, What a pretty red dress you have! lor another emotion. [How handsome you are! {Command |A command tells what to do. The subject you (you) Stop that train’ is understood. (you) Be quiet, please. Phrases and clauses are basic components of sentences. 1.3 | Phrases and Clauses ‘Structures [Explanations ‘Examples Phrase _|A;phraseis a group of two or more Lanyguists have identified over four |words. English has several types of {thousand languages [phrases: noun phrases, verb phrases, |prepositional phrases, and so on. Many languages are spoken in Europe. (Clause clanse isa group of words thatincludes [Many languages are spoken here. th a subjectand a verb. One clause ican form asentence. Clauses can also be _|Many languages are spoken, but they joined by conjunctions such as bu, lare not written. lalthougie, because, or when or by Ipronouns such as that or which, [Arable isa language thet would like to Tear, 8 Chapter 1 manPractice®ead the following sentences, Then identify the underlined part of the sentence as a phrase or a clause, Example Although some societies are technologically underdeveloped, their languages are quite complex clause 1. The Aranda people, who live in the Australian desert, lead simple lives. 2. Still, their language is incredibly complicated. 3. While the English verb system is considered complex, it is much simpler than the Arandan system. 4, The Arandan verb system is particularly difficult to use. 5. Every Arandan verb can take about a thousand different endings, and each ending changes the meaning of the verb. 6. When the verb ending changes, the meaning of the verb changes. 7. Itis as if English verbs like rum had one thousand different, forms. SS 8. Nobody knows why the Arandan verb system is so complex. C. Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements ‘The subject is normally the most important person, place, thing, or idea in the sentence. Subjects commonly take four forms: | Subjects ww Language and Learning 9Verbs, objects, and complements are other important parts of a sentence. Some verbs tell what the subject does. ‘in general, these verbs can be grouped as transitive or intransitive. ‘intransitive verbs do not have objects, but a transitive ver must have an object. Other verbs tell what the subject is, feels, etc. This type of verb is called a linking verb because it connects the subject to the complement. "A complement is @ noun, pronoun, adjective, verb form, phrase, or clause that describes the subject. "Common linking verbs include be, appear, become, feel, get (when it means become), look, seem, smell, sound, and taste. ri Verbs, Objects, and Complements ‘Structures _| Explanations ‘Examples Intransitive {An intransitive verb is complete without, Martin arrived (on’Tharsday). Verbs jan object. (Transitive | transitive verb must have an object. It is He found a nice place to live. \Verbsand _ incomplete without ons ‘Objects [Direct Objects [Direct objects answer the questions :who(m) | He brought some gifts, jorwhat? Indirect Indirect objects answer the questions to/for He gave us the gits, (Objects jwho(m) or what? ‘Linking Verbs [Linking verbs are followed by commplements— _|Samis a dentist, land {information that describes the subject. Adverbs | He appears quite intelligent. Complements. |cannot be used as complementsafter these verbs, |He looks rather tired, and he sounds upset. EX Practice underiine the subjects once and the verbs twice. Circle the object(s) or complement(s) in sentences that have them. Example: Humans have been using G@nguagd%or at least 40,000 years 1. Linguists have identified over 4,000 languages. 2, Some languages are relatively new in human history. Others were used for thousands of years and then mysteriously disappeared. Over 4,000 languages and dialects are currently being used. Linguists have given writing systems to some of these languages. 3. 4, 5. Many have no written form. 6. Te Many languages are spoken but not written. 8. With some ancient languages like Latin, people still write them, but they don't speak them anymore. 10 chapter1 ===D. Verbs and the Tense System English has 12 verb tenses, 11 modal auxiliaries, and a variety of verb expressions. the tenses are divided according to time (past, present, future) and aspect (simple, continu- ‘ous, perfect). This chapter reviews the tenses and modal auxiliaries. Later chapters cover verbs, modal auxiliaries, and related forms in a variety of phrase and sentence types. Hj Practice The following sentences contain all the tenses of English. At this point, before completing a review, how many of the verb tenses can you identify? Underline the verbs simple present tense simple present tense Example Animals communicate through sounds, but only human beings are able to speak. ‘4 The Rosetta Stone, ancient writings in three languages . How long have people been using language? . We don’t know the exact date, but written language probably began in Sumeria. . Today, linguists are studying the ancient: written language of Sumeria . The Sumerians were writing at least 8,000 years ago. . However, people had learned to speak long before this. . In fact, humans had been speaking for thousands of years before starting to write. 7. Languages are so complex that pages of diagrams are necessary to explain a short simple sentence. a7 k wR BS 8. Yet, children have always learned their language simply by hearing it spoken 9. When a child learns his native tongue, his life will change forever 10. Soon, he will be talking incessantly. 11. Before long, he will have begun to look at the world through his language. 12. However, he will have been speaking for several years before he learns to read and write well sme Language and Learning 1112 oe Using What You've Learnet i Learning About Your Classmates Learning a second language can be frustrating, yet it can also be one of the most rewarding experiences of a lifetime. A second language may be important for your education or profession. But beyond this, it is a pass key that allows you to explore the world and its people in a way that no monolingual person can. in small groups, use English, your second language, to learn about the lives of your new classmates. Use the following words to form questions. Then add any additional questions that you may think of, 1. name 2. age 3. native country and language 4, length of time in the United States or Canada 5, reason for studying English 6. number of years of English study 7. major or job 8. farnily (single, married, children) 9. hobbies, interests, travels 10. other After you've finished, take turns telling the class about each other. @@QB _ G1 Learning about other anguages Find out more about the structure of your classmates’ languages. Or, find out about another language your classmates have studied or have knowledge of. n pairs, ask and answer questions about the following Then using the same questions, compare your languages to English, 4. parts of speech 2. verb tense system (Does your language have a future tense? A past tense? Other tenses?) 3, the word order in sentences (How do you form questions? Would you say house white or white house?) 4. the use of special forms with certain groups of people (with older people, strangers, etc.) Chapter 1mIs there any place where theréa. no irregular yeros or passive volte? Researching Another Language Research the grammar of another language. Check your library or check the internet. Find out information similar to that in Activity 6, and add any other interesting information you can find, Prepare a brief talk for your classmates. El English Trivia what curious facts do you know about languages? Test your knowledge. Work in small groups and see if you know the answers to the following questions. Then, as a class, compare answers. Your teacher will verify them. 1. How many languages can one individual lea to speak fluently? 2. If-varieties of English worldwide are combined, the language has more than 610,000 vocabulary words with an additional 400,000 technical terms. How many words can the average native speaker with 16 years of education understand? 3. For native English speakers, how many words does someone with 16 years of schooling actually use in day-to-day conversation? In written language? .. How many different vocabulary words did Shakespeare use in his works? . What is the oldest unchanged letter in the English alphabet? . What are the newest letters? . What are the most frequently used words in English? . Which word in English has the greatest number of different meanings? eNaae umm Language and Leaming == 13Ete The Simple Tenses fe a Setting the Context Previewing the Passage Discuss the questions with @ group. How do animals communicate with each other, and what do they communicate about? How is this different from human speech? Reading Read the passage. aE Humans Versus Animals ‘Several animals can stand upright like humans. Some use their hands in. asimilar way. A few know how to make and use tools. But only humans are able to speak, When lions roar or monkeys hoot, they are indeed communicating, but only simple ideas and emotions such as food or fear. A chimpanzee thats happens upon a mango tree can use a call to alert his companions to his goodluck, However, no chimpanzee (or any other animal) is able to discuss. what he ate yesterday or what he will have tomorrow. Human languages, on the other hand, allow us to talk about anything we think of. We can draw lessons from the distant past or speculate on the 0 distant future; we can create mythical beings that have never existed; we can lie and deceive . . . all because of language. Discussing Ideas Discuss the following with a partner. ‘The passage seems to indicate that the greatest difference between humans and animals is language ability. Do you agree? Why or why not? Chapter 1a a=CicTii ees and Practice A. The Simple Tenses: An Overview The simple present, past, and future are the most often used of the tenses and generally the easiest to understand. However, they can sometimes be employed in unusual ways, es semcues Fy ‘Tense Examples ‘Time Frames Simple Present Dezen studies every day, extended present, ‘Simple Past, ‘She studfed for three hours yesterday. past Simple Future She will probably study anotherthree hours tomorrow. | fature Adverbs of frequency and other time expressions are often used with the simple tenses. raew ne Se oS eS Explanations Tenses Examples Adverbs of frequency Simple Present Oxien often works in the evening, normally precede the As arule, she works in the evening main verb and follow Ozden is usually at workin the evening. auxiliary verbs or be She ean occasionally work on weekends, asamain verb, Longer time expressions ‘Simple Past She was occasionally late last semester, usually come at the beginning or end of the Simple Future She will take classes twice a week next year, sentence, Next year, she will try to be on time for fer classes. B. The Simple Present Tense The usual time frame of the simple present tense is the extended present. The tense is used In these ways: "To describe habits or routines "To make general statements of fact "To express opinions Language and Learning 15Uses Examples Habits or Istudy English three hours a day. Routines: [frequently go to the library in the evening. Tam rarely in my dorm roorn. Facts or ‘Leaming English is not easy. Opinions Lusnally enjoy my classes very much. ‘Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules. ‘Time Expressions always from time to time usually in genera Frequently now and then generally once ina white often sometimes seldom rarely hardly ever never There are also some special uses of the simple present tense. Special Uses | Explanations Reference to | ‘The simple present tense can be used for the Future specific future events, particularly when & schedule, itinerary, or travel plans are being discussed. Verbs often used with this meaning indude arrive, leave, come, go, and travel Reference to | Ininformal situations, the simple present tense the Past ray be tsed to tell stories in the past. Nonaction ‘The simple present is aiso used with nonaction ‘Verbs ‘yerbs—verbs that express feelings, thoughts, perceptions, or possession. Examples Tleave Canada in two weeks. Igo to Cairo for a month. ‘Then I travel to Beirut Yesterday, Jack walks into the office and tells me he's quitting So Isay to him that if he quits, I quit. ‘The ocean looks very cold today. ‘The waves seem higher than normal, Llove the sound of the waves. ‘Ths beach belongs to the city. What is your daily routine like? What do you do on weekends? First, complete the following chart and then work with a partner. Take turns telling about your schedules. Use complete sentences and include the appropriate adverbs of frequency. Example i h 16 ‘Chapter 1Something Something Something You Do from Something ‘You Always Do You Rarely Do ‘Time to Time You Never Do Weekdays brush my teeth Practice work in pairs. Use the present tense to tell each other your plans for this ‘weekend or for another day in the near future. Example Next month, | go to Paris. | arrive at the airport at 10:00 AM. The plane leaves at 11:30. GR Practice work with a partner. Add at least five sentences in the present tense to finish the story that follows. ‘Two months ago, after a long day at work, [arrive home at my usual time, about 8:00 PM. I say, “Tim home, Honey,” but no one answers. Anyway, I get a bottle of soda and start walking to the TV. That's when I see the note taped to the kitchen table. It says. ... C. The Simple Future Tense and Be Going To The simple future tense and be going to are used for several specific meanings. "Willis often used to express the future in written English. in spoken English, it is fre- quently used with predictions, promises, offers, anc requests. = Be going to is also used in conversational English. It often involves actions that have been planned before the moment of speaking. ™ Both will and be going to are followed by the simple form of a verb. The Simple Future Tense amy Language and Leming 17Be Going To Uses Examples ‘Time Expressions ‘Actions Planned | Kunio is going to take his placement | ire en mreinutes _ this afternoon (aoeekend) forthe Future | test tomorrow. tnan hour tomorrow We're going tomeet him after thetest |nent week (month) tonight [Gy Practicecomplete the following dialogue with will or be going to. in some cases, either is possible. Example A) Will you have tunch with me. tomorrow? have B: Sorry,1__tm not going to be _ in town tomorrow. ‘not be) Stan: 1_____a dinner party on Monday, Tae you —______tmomou._? z Seams) Tess: You know, I'm kind of shy. Who else 2 Tee Stan: Actually, you are the only person that I = inlay Tess: Really? Then I'd be happy to come! Can I bring something? Stan: How about a salad? Tess: . Sure,I]_________asalad.., andI Gibney Teoma} early and help if you like. Stan: I'd love for you to come early, but I've already decided on a meal, so I much help. ‘Binot needy ee Bi Practicetook at Activity 2 again. with a different partner, tell what you plan to do this weekend or another day in the near future. However, this time, use will and be going to. Example Next month, I'm going to go to Paris. I'll arrive at the airport about 10:00 AM. 18 Chapter? samD. The Simple Past Tense ‘The simple past tense describes actions or situations that began and ended in the past. Pere cde ms Uses Examples Time Expressions Actions or | Joe came to Canada three months ago. ago later last week (month, year) Situations | On August 20, he entered the English program | first finally from... to Completed | He was a good student. then Yast inthe Past | Later he began to study at a university. Note: See Appendices 2 and 8 for spelling rulos and pronunciation guidelines for -ed endings. See Appendix I for a list of irregular past forms. By Practice Helen kelier was a remarkable person who learned to communicate in Several languages despite being completely deaf and blind. Complete the following Sentences about het with the simple past form of the verbs in parentheses. include adverbs when indicated, and pay close attention to the spelling of the past forms and the pronunciation of any -ed endings Example Atbirth, Helen Keller____“5______(e) able to hear. 4. Helen Keller (be) born a healthy child. 2. Asa baby, she ike) to play. 3, Helen (develop) a fever at 19 months old 4. This fever (eave) Helen permanently deaf and blind. 5. Asa result, Helen (not learn) language as other children do). 6. Helen (be) difficult. 7.She_______ (gnore) everyone for hours at a time. 8, Helen (get / often) frustrated and (refuse) to cooperate. 9. Helen (have) a dog, and she Git) for hours with her dog and. (Stare) into space. 40. She (refuse / frequently) to eat and (throw / sometimes) her food on the floor. 11. Her family, (think) that Helen was going to grow up to be like an animal. 12. They (worry) that nothing could help her. me Language and Learning 19.E. The Habitual Past: Would + Simple Form and Used To + Simple Form Both would and used to may be used to describe actions in the past that were repeated on a regular basis. Used to may also refer to past situations, opinions, and general states of being that were continuous, not repetitive. Would does not give this continuous meaning. Notice the complete difference in meaning: | used to like coffee. | would like coffee. Bae Orie tg PracticeReread your sentences from Activity 6, Which sentences refer to the habitual past? Which sentences can use used to? Which sentences can use would? Which sentences cannot use either? Rewrite the sentences that can be changed and pay attention to the placement of adverbs in your new sentences. Examples Helen was born a healthy child. This sentence cannot use woud or used fo. Asa baby, Helen liked to play. Helen used to like to play. Would is not possible. Practice Fill in the blanks with used to or would + verb. if neither would nor used to Is possible, use the simple past form of the verbs in parentheses. Remember not to “overuse” either would or used to. Example Alexander Graham Bell___advised __ Helen's father to hire advise) Anne Sullivan as a tutor. ‘The “Miracle Worker” Anne Sullivan first_______Helen when Helen _ Timeet 28 seven years old, Sullivan __________into the Keller house, and for NOUR saan renner I ho ci the next several years, cae (pend) long hours working 20 Chapter’ max“Helen Keller with Helen almost every day. At first, Helen to communicate with her tutor by using st gestures and meaningless sounds, When Sullivan couldn't un- derstand Helen, Helen furious. SGecome 7 oFeny Sullivan — to teach Helen the finger 7 (aectdey patterns' of the alphabet. During their lessons, Sullivan am Helen's hand on different objects such as a chair or a plate. Then, she the name pel of the object in Helen's hand. The great breakthrough for Helen________ one morning when Anne Tesi Tho Helen's hand under some water and______ water using aa the hand signals. Helen later that at that moment, Tawra “Somehow the mystery of language = revealed to me. I —__________ that water the wonderful cool Tenant ebay something flowing over my hand.” From then on, a new world to Helen. She 7 Re fascinated with 1: 7 (become) with Tanguage and Pork eager with Sullivan for long periods of time. Eventual! ly, Keller Ber on to attend Radcliffe College, where she ___with honors. Fi wade Before she as » She had learned six languages and had writ- ten 11 books. “finger patterns System of spelling, developed for the bling, in which the fingers form the letters, === Language and Learning 2122 Error Analysis Each of the following sentences has an error in verb form or usage or in adverb placement. Find and correct the errors. Example Language learning never is easy, but it can be rewarding, ~PNAeEone 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15, Correction: Language learning is never easy. but it can be rewarding. |. Thaving a friend named Jack, who used to live a few houses away. . When I met him, Jack is determined to learn Spanish. . He was used to buy lots of language tapes. . He would live in Colombia, . Unfortunately, he practiced never speaking and listening to Spanish. . Now he reads and write Spanish well, but he isn’t able to converse in it, . He will be going speak Spanish well one day. . He is knowing lots of people from Spanish-speaking countries . Jack didn't gave up on learning Spanish. He studied last year Spanish in Mexico. He says that he will study also Portuguese. Jack want to go to Brazil to travel and study. Portuguese is seeming harder to understand than Spanish. Portuguese in Brazil and Portuguese in Portugal is very different. Jack will going to Rio de Janeiro next year. Using What You've Learned Telling Stories from Childhood Were you a difficult child? Or were you always obedient and cooperative? Of course, even the most cooperative children occasionally cause their parents problems. Use would, used to, and the simple past tense as you share memories about this aspect of your childhood. You can tell your stori ies first and then write them, or vice versa. Work in small groups when you tell (not read) your stories, Chapter 1 am»GEREN The Continuous Tenses &e Setting the Context Previewing the Passage biscuss the questions with a group. What is grammar? Why is it important? Reading Read the passage. al Creatively Speaking ‘The sentence you are reading now, the one you were reading a minute ago, and the one you will be reading in a moment may be completely original. Each may never have been written or spoken before. How is this Possible? People do not learn language by memorizing millions of sentences, Instead, they lea to attach meaning to particular words, Then they begin to acquire a grammar, which can generate an infinite number of new sentences. When people talk, they aren't just repeating sentences that they have already leamed; they are organizing words into grammatical sentences, They are creating sentences, many of which they have never heara before. Thus, when you understand the grammar of a language and you know enough vocabulary, you will be able to “say” the same thing in any number of ways—many of them quite original. Discussing Ideas When you speak, you often make sentences that you have never heard before and that have perhaps never been said by anyone, Talk with a part- ner. Use your own words to explain how knowledge of the grammar ofa language makes that possible, ‘ammear Structures and Practice A. The Continuous Tenses: An Overview The continuous tenses generally describe actions that are in progress during another time or event. = The time or event must be given or (especially in the case of the present continuous) implied. 1 Verbs that show no action (be, want, like, seem, and so on) are not used in the contin: uous tenses. smu Language and Learning —-2341.14 | The Continuous Tenses Examples ‘Time Frame Jane is driving to work now. in progress now Past Continuous Jane was driving to work at 800M. in progress at 800 AM. Future Continuous Jane will be driving home at 6:00 PM. in progress at 600 PAL Practice Quickly reread the passage “Creatively Speaking” on page 23. Which verb tenses are used in the first sentence? Give the tense and time frame of each, B. The Present Continuous Tense The present continuous tense is often used for activities or situations that are tempo- rary rather than permanent. The usual time frames of this tense are as follows: = The moment of speaking *=A specific period of time including the present "Reference to the future Uses Examples ‘Time Expressions ‘At the Moment | Martha is studying forherfinal exam | now, right-now, at the moment, and so on of Speaking | in French now. Over a Specific | She is studying French this quarter today, this moming, this quarter, this year, Period of Time andsoon Reference to _| She is taking aliterature class ‘ina few minutes, at 9:00, tomorrow, the Future next quarter. and soon. ‘Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules for -ing endings and Appendix 4 for a list of verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. 82 Practice Think of someone that you know well in your home country or in another country. Working with a partner, discuss what he or she is doing. Try to include ali three time frames of the present continuous tense. Example t's 300 PM. in Egypt. so my sister is probably in the chemistry lab. (moment of speaking) She's studying a lot this month. (a specific period of time) She is taking exams in about six weeks. (reference to the future) 24 Chapter 1 ===Practice Complete the foliowing with either the simple present or the present continuous tense. In some cases, both tenses are Possible, but be ready to explain any differences in meaning that may occur. Berey ae oA international students at a university Living in the U.S.A. Hi! My name —____is_____ Mohsen. Tf (be) Tiber Egypt, but three weeks ago, I said good-bye to my family and got on a plane to the United States. Now I at Comell University in New roy York, andI_______imthe dorms. vey How dorm life? It noisy and 4 (be) 5S be) crowded, butit_______also alot of fun. I 3} 7 ee new people every day. It _ a funny thing. Everyone to ask me the same question: How wan 0 you it here? Well, it's not that I es TT Ue} Hook appreciate) (not appreciate) the opportunity coming to the United States represents. It's Just that a lot of things strange to me. For example, the wae language ________ different from the English I leamed at home. Ta GaN, And everybody so fast. Sometimes I. 15 cai "re tecomney ervous and I eve ‘at people say to me. Worse, nervot arenas — everthing that people say to me, mu Language and Learning 25people ____ to understand me. I repeat 78 (seem / never) 19 (have to / always) three times. Now, [_____ i myself two or three times. Now, aaae on my pronunciation to improve the situation, andJ____thabit_____ ° esi ona 21 (believe) 22 (begin) to get better. But, to be truthful, at times, I get terribly embarrassed. But it’s not only the language that seems so different. There's much more. For instance, . . i Practice imagine that you are Mohsen. Complete the passage by adding one or ‘two adcitional examples and as many details as you can to explain what you mean. You can talk about the food, the weather, the people, or anything you can think of. Pay particular attention to the use of the present tense and the present continuous, but don’t limit yourself to these two tenses. Example For instance. friendships seem very different. People become friends very quickly, but sometimes they don't stay friends very long... C. The Past Continuous Tense The past continuous tense describes actions in progress in the past. «This tense is often used to “set the scene" in speaking or in writing by telling what ‘was happening, what people were doing, wearing, and so on, at a given time in the Past. = The “given” time may be in the recent past or it may be in the more distant past; in ei- ther case, the time is normally specified. ‘Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules for “ing endings and Appendix 4 for a list of verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. See Chapter 6 for more information on when and while, 26 Chapter 1 = aeEy Practicemonsen had a aifcutt first day at Comell University. Complete the following exercise about Mohsen’s experience, Use the simple past and past ‘continuous tenses. The First Day Mohsen's first day at the university as less than perfect. ee While he tohis chemistry lecture,he Toa 2 Geales) that the walk ________onger than he it, Takes an would. In fact, he _ to the classroom just as the teacher himself. This Mohsen a lot, He Ta) 7 apse into the roomand_______to find aplace aoe) vam to sit. While he ________ around, the professor TO Took) Tart to talk to him. Mohsen could not undersiand what the professor , but he too embarrassed to tell Diep Bee the professor that he ____, so the professor continued speak- 7 at undarstanay ing. The professor to help him find a seat. Finally, the Tan) professor_______-_toanempty chair. Mohsen Toon T7 understand this form of communication and down quickly. Tes EJ Practicenead the following story and complete it by adding the verb in simple ast or past continuous form as appropriate. (Note: You may find that one or two ‘sentences can take the simple present tense as well.) A Late Night Surprise One night around 10:00 PM., Charlie Scruggs _was reading pig (ead) newspaper in his favorite armchair. Everyone asleep ex- Tbe cept for Charlie. Suddenly, there a knock at the door. 2a) “Who it at this hour of the night?” he Biba) "Language and Leaming = 27himself, Charlie and TESA TED to the front door. As he the door, Swale 7 open) he ___________. someone running away from his house, He eee) ______ to mun after the person when he 98 abou) Toes something at his feet. While ____ to get a closer look, the 7 11 (bend down) & “ thing at his feet _____________a_ tiny cry. “My goodness!” Reto Charlie, “What _________ this?” Charlie Btn Taba ______ to get very close. Whatever it 75 nee Gowd Tete was wrapped in a blanket, Charlie ______________ the blanket. He Tear what he . Tt a "a teannatbelevey 9a) 20) baby! Practice pretend you are a detective who has come to Charlie Scruggs’s home after Charlie reported finding a baby on his doorstep. You want to know exactly what happened, so you make a list of questions to ask Charlie. Work with a partner to make a list of ten questions to ask Charlie. Then find another pair of students. Make a new pair ‘with one student. Your partner can make a new pair with the other student. Take turns playing Charlie and the detective. when you are the detective, write down Charlie's answers to your questions. After you have finished the role play, write the answers into a report about the incident. Ell Practice the following passage relates @ funny story. Fill in the blanks with either the simple past or the past continuous form of the verb. In some cases, either is, possible, but be ready to explain any differences in meaning that may occur. An “Embarrassing” Moment About ten years ago, my boyfriend and I_Were vacationing _ in Mexico ‘wacation) when we suddenly to get married, right then and there! co) Neither of us ____ much Spanish, but a hotel receptionist: Diean spear aa a meeting with a priest for 1:00 PM. Unfortunately, we car) ________ caught in traffic, so we __________an hour late +d 50a Chapter 1" =#1.17_ The Future Continuous Tense for our meeting. When we Sa the oPrest are) patiently. Of course, Tema 7 wait Sip abe rassed and to apologize for being late. While the priest want) himself,I_____ my sentence from Eng- TO nirocue Ti Wwanslate7 sent lish to Spanish. After a pause, I finally said, “Lo siento mucho . . . Estoy em- barazada.” Later that night, 1 why the priest had sud- 2 fear denly turned red and left the meeting without a word. Embarazada doesn’t mean “embarrassed”, it means “pregnant”! D. The Future Continuous Tense ‘The future continuous tense refers to actions that will be in progress in the future. It is commonly used within one of two time frames: at @ point in time in the future or during @ period of time in the future. 'n some cases, both the simple future and the future continuous may be appropri- ate, but there is a difference in tone between the two tenses, Generally, the future Continuous Is friendlier and more conversational in tone. Compare: When will you be go- ing to Chicago? (more conversational) with When will you go to Chicago? (more formal) Uses Examples ‘Time Expressions — APointin'Time | What will Howard be doing at 3.00? 4 3.00 (4.00), by (at) that time, next | inthe Future | He'll be resting then, Monday, tomorrow night, and soon A Period of What will he be doing between 5:00 and 7:00? during the afternoon (evening), from. | Time in the Hell be eating dinner with friends. 5:00 to 7:00, news week (month), and Future soon Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules for -ing endings and Appendix 4 for a list of verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. eA EX Practice You are a reporter trying to get an interview with the president. Your partner is the president's alde and has the schedule of the president's activities, This schedule is confidential and only he or she may look at it. Ask your partner at least ten questions about when you will be able to see the president. Your partner will answer your questions by referring to the schedule, Use the future continuous or the simple mum Language and Learning 2930 future in your questions and answers. in some cases, either tense is possible; however, be ready to explain any differences in meaning that might occur. Example Reporter: Will he be available at 8:00 A.M.? Aide: Sorry, he'll be eating at 8:00. The President's Schedule 8:00-9:00 eat breakfast 9:00-9:30 read newspapers and mall 9:30-10:00 do exercises 10:00-10:30 swim 10:30-12:00 take nap 12:00-1:00 eat lunch 1:00-5:00 0 horseback riding 5:00-7:00 attend cocktail party 7:00-8:00 prepare for speech 8:00-9:00 give speech ED Practice what does the future hold for you? Use the following time expressions to make statements about your future. Meke at least one statement using will or be going to, one using the future continuous, and one using the present continuous for each time expression. Examples soon I'm going to return to my country soon. Noriko will be arriving soon David is leaving for South America soon 4. tomorrow 4. amonth from now 2. tomorrow at 3:00 PM. 5. next year 3. before long $ 6. in 2020 Chapter 1 == ™Error Analysis Most ofthe following sentences have one or more errors in the use Of verbs. Find the errors and Correct them. If a sentence has no. error, make no changes, Example Mark is coming from the United States, but now he studies in Florence this year. Correction: Mark comes from the United States, but he is studying in Florence this year. 1. Mark is trying to learn Italian, but it isn't easy. 2. When he was arriving in Florence, he immediately enrolled in a language school, 3. Ithas been three months, but when people are speaking to him, he still isn’t understanding them. 4. Yesterday Mark was going to the language lab. 5. When the class was over, Mark was waving good-bye to his teacher. 6. At the same time, she beginning to motion for him to come to the front of the class. 7. When Mark got to the front of the class, his teacher was still waving, but she looking confused. 8. She said that she was simply waved good-bye to Mark, 9. Mark suddenly realizes that the Italian good-bye gesture is very similar to the American come here gesture. 10. Mark will be study for the next year in Florence, 11. When Mark goes back to the United States next year, he will be speaking per- fect Italian. 12. At least that is what he is wanting! Using What You've Learned Discussing Communication Problems ‘Anyone who spends time ina new Culture has some problems with miscommunication. they may involve misinterpreting language or not understanding an unfamiliar culture. in small groups, talk about experiences that you have had with miscommunication, Start with setting the scene and then describe the incident itself Example The three of us arrived in the New York airport late in the afternoon, It was really busy. As we were going through customs. “ Language and Learning 31‘The Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel (Eider) wi 1e Passage Discuss the questions with a group. Do you know a religious explanation for why the world has so many languages? What are some positive things about the existence of so many languages? What are some negative things? ig Read the passage. Babel All the world once spoke a single language, but this changed at Babel. Men had been journeying east for many months when they came upon the land of Shinar. “Come,” they said. “We have been traveling days without end. Let us build ourselves a city and a tower with a top in the heavens, and make a name for ourselves”! But the Lord came down to see the city and tower which mortal men were building, And He said, “Here they are, one 32 Chapter 1Tenses Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect people with a single language, and now they have begun to do this. After this, nothing they want to do will be beyond their reach. Come, let us go down there and confuse their speech. When we finish, they will have lost their one language and in its place there will be many.” So the Lord went down to the city, And after He had done this, the city was given the name “Ba. bel” because there the Lord had made a babble of the language of the world ‘make a name for oneself make oneself famous § 1deas answer the questions with a partner. According to the story, why was the Lord angry when he saw the city? What did he do? Do you know any other explanations for why we have thousands of languages in the world? ‘The perfect tenses generally refer to events that are completed before another time. The exact completion time is not stated, however. Examples ‘Time Frames Dale has finished the assignment sometime before now ‘He had finished by 6:00 yesterday. sometime before 6:00 He will have finished by 6.00 tomorrow. sometime before 6:00 Adverbs and other time expressions are often used with the perfect tenses. Explanations Tenses Examples Most adverbs follow auxiliary verbs Present Perfect Have you ever stuilied Spanish? and precede the main verb, Longer Tve already taken two Spanish courses. ‘ime expressions usually come at the Istill haven'¢taken a writing class ‘beginning or end of the sentence. ‘Still goes before the auxiliary verb. Past Perfect Until that time, she hadn't visited Spain Yel goes at the end of a question. It usually ¥et, but she'd visited South America -g008 at the end of a negative staiement, several times, Dubit can also follow nor. Until then, she hadn't yet visited Spain, Fature Perfect | He will already have finished all of his courses by next June Language and Leaming 33B. The Present Perfect Tense The present perfect tense frequently refers to these: ‘Events that happened (or did not happen) at an unstated time in the past = Repeated past actions Note that if the specific past time is given, the simple past tense is used. (I have gone there. | went there yesterday.) RUM ie ‘Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules for ad endings and Appendix 1 for a list of iregular past participles. [il Practice Make a TO 00 list for the week or month. What have you started to do? What haven't you started yet? What have you already finished? When? Use the following ideas and add at least five of your own. Make a chart like the example on page 35, and write five original sentences for each category. Use the present perfect tense and already, not... yet, and still, except in sentences with specific times in the past. buy a (birthday) do laundry organize my desk take the garbage out present for... . do my homework pay bills vacuum call my parents download new music pick my room up. wash the floors check my email go grocery shopping senda (birthday) card write in my Journal clean my computer go over my finances to... write letters hard drive up iron study vocabulary 34 Chapter1 ===TO DO Have Already | When? Haven't Finished | Still Haven't Done Yet Started aah Do last Friday's homework | still havent started last Friday's homework Take the garbage | I've already taken | | took it out out the garbage out. | last night Iron | haven't finished the ironing yet. | Practice Use the simple present, present perfect, or simple past tense to complete these short passages. it will help if you underline the time expressions fist. Example There___have been __(be) many changes in linguistic theory in the last 50 years. For example, the idea that all languages share certain elements ___became __ (become) popular inthe 1960s. 1, For thousands of years, scientists children learn languages. Recently, researchers (make) a number of discoveries that help explain how language is acquired. We (know / now) that all healthy children Go) through the same steps while learning their (Go) this at approximately the (live). 2, Deaf children (have / always) a difficult time learning language. However, over 100 years ago, teachers (begin) using sign language with deaf children. This (help) Helen Keller in the late 1800s, and it thousands since her time, (wonder) how native tongues. They same period no matter where they (help) 3. Linguist Noam Chomsky (be) famous for several decades. He (do) some of his greatest work in the 1960s. Since then, he (Continue) to make important discoveries about language. Language and Learning 354, Children ____ (be / always) able to learn two or three languages at the same time. Years ago, however, most linguists ______ (believe) that being monolingual—leaming only one language—was better for a child's intellectual development. Since the 1960s and 70s, those ideas___________ (change). A great deal of research inthe last decades_______ (show) the opposite to be true. 5. A famous research study on language learning __________ (be) conducted in Canada in the 1970s. This study ___ (demonstrate) that bilingual children _ (have) certain advantages over monolingual children. Since then, researchers (conduct) many other studies on language development and bilingualism. In almost, all cases, bilingualism. (prove) to be beneficial C. The Perfect Continuous Tenses: An Overview ‘The perfect continuous tenses refer to actions that begin before and continue up to another time or event. The duration of the first action is often given. The second time or ‘event is either given or (especially in the case of the present perfect continuous) understood. | 1.21 | The Perfect Continuous Tense: 36 Chapter 1 mmmD. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense ‘The present perfect continuous tense can describe actions or situations that began in the past and continue to the moment of speaking. “The present perfect continuous tense often implies that the action or situation will continue in the future, “This tense stresses the continuous nature of the activity; itis not normally used with ‘expressions that indicate repeated action {one time, two times, and so on). QQ A practice answer tne following questions. Then tell a partner your answers. Example ve been studying English since 4th grade. How long have you been studying English? How long have you been studying history (computer science, Chinese, ete,)? }. How long have you been living in your current home? - How long have you been playing soccer (tennis, volleyball, golf, etc.)? . How long have you been playing the piano (guitar, violin, drums, ete.)? - How long have you been working at that store (restaurant, club, ete.)? ~ How long have you been doing oil painting (gymnastics, youa, ete.)? . How long have you been working on this exercise? PNABA HH Language and leaming 37E. The Present Perfect Continuous and Present Perfect Tenses Sometimes the present perfect continuous and present perfect tenses have similar ‘meanings. In these cases, both the present perfect and the present perfect continuous tenses can have a past-to-present time frame. «= This meaning of the present perfect tense occurs most commonly with verbs such as begin, expect, hope, lve, study, teach, wait, and work. «« In addition, this use of the present perfect tense occurs with verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. « Ingeneral,a time expression is used to give this meaning and time frame to the pre- sent perfect tense. APEMO Soa sacn ae UC MCC a (te Ce Time Expressions APeriod of Time Joe has been studying here since March, | Since + a point of time in the past from the Past to Joe has studied here since March. | the Present | | | He has been living in Otrawa for three months. for + aperiod of time | He has lived in Ottawa for three months, | He has been working hard all day. all + a.period of time | | | He has worked hard all day. { | i in many cases, however, the present perfect and the present perfect continuous tenses have different meanings. » The present perfect continuous tense stresses actions or situations that began in the past and continue to the present, while the present perfect tense usually describes actions or situations that began and ended at an unspecified time in the past. « The present perfect continuous tense stresses the continuous nature of an event or situation, while the present perfect tense is normally used with expressions that indi- cate repeated action (one time, two times, and so on). 1.24 | The Present Perfect Continuous and Present Perfect Tenses PTR kbs ee ALLL | Uses | Examples Meaning aaa { ‘A Period of Time ‘The sun has been setting for the last 5minutes. ‘The sun is still setting. i] from the Pastto have been learning Japanese. | Tam stillJearning Japanese. | | | the Present | | Th has set. “Time in the Past. Ihave learned Japanese. | Tinow Japanese now. "Note: See Appendix 2 for epelling rules for-ing and -ed endings, Appendix | for irregular past participles, and “Appendix 4 for verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. See Chapter 5 for more information on since 38 Chapter 1aPractice Complete the following with either the present perfect continuous or the resent perfect form of the verb. In some cases, both forms are possible, but be ready to explain any difference in meaning that may occur. Example Deaf people have communicated (communicate) with American ‘Sign Language (ASL) for over a century, 1. But not only people to exchange ideas. earn) to use this sign language 2, Researchers 1960s. (teach) ASL to chimpanzees since the 3. The most famous of these chimps, Washoe, ___________ (learn) to understand and use over 150 different signs. = One of Washoe’s first trainers, Beatrice Gardner, ie). a However, other researchers “education.” (continue) Washoe's 6. For the past several years, Washoe____________(live) at the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute (CHCI) at Central Washington University. 7. At CHCI, Washoe other chimps, (Share) her living space with four 8. Washoe ASL signs that she knows. (teach / also) her four roommates many of the 9. She and the other chimps__________ (se) ASL to communicate with themselves and with humans for several years, 10. Washoe, perhaps the most famous chimpanzee in the world, (celebrate / recently) her 42nd birthday, F. The Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous Tenses Both the past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses refer to activities or situations that had ended before another event or time in the past. The second event or time must be either mentioned or implied = The past perfect tense stresses the completion of the earlier activit perfect continuous tense stresses the duration. 1 These tenses are somewhat formal and appear more often in written English than in spoken English, while the past mun Language and Learning 39™ Both tenses are frequently used in complex sentences using more than one time in the past. See Chapter 5 for more examples of complex sentences. Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules for -ed and -ing endings, Appendix 1 for alist of inregular past participles, ‘and Appendix 4 for a list of verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. By Practice rit in the folowing bianks with the correct form of the verbs in parentheses. Use the past perfect continuous wherever possible. Where this is not possible, use the past perfect. Example Claudia starts her day early. By 7:00 A.M. this morning, she had already gotten up _(get up / already) 4. AtG:45, after she________ (sleep) for eight hours, Claudia —_—____ et up). 2. She______ (finish) breakfast before the newspaper (atrive) 3. By 8:00, she ____ (shower) and (cat) breakfast. 4, At 8:16, she left the house. After she __ (close) and (lock) the door, she began walking to the bus stop. 5. On the way, she noticed that aman____ (follow) her for several blocks. 6, When she reached the bus stop, she sat down. The man sat next to her. They ____ (sit) together for about five minutes when the bus. arrived. 40 chapter) #=™7. Claudia climbed on the bus and took a seat, but she (begin / just) to relax when she realized her purse was missing, 8. She was sure that she (not forget) to bring her purse that morning, 9. When she looked out the window, she saw that the man who (follow) her was running down the street with her purse. 10. When Claudia went to the police station later that day, sorneone (turn in / already) her purse; unfortunately, all the (be) removed. money Ey Practice use either the simple past or the past perfect tense to complete the following passage. Rip van Winkle In the 18th century, Washington Irving wrote a famous tale about a man named Rip van Winkle. In the story, Rip drank a secret potion given to him by a wizard. Soon, Rip fell asleep under a tree and didn’t awake for 20 years. Example When Rip finally woke up, everything seemed (seem) different. In fact, many things__had changed __ (change) 1. His gun (Ge / still) next to him, but it (rust / completely). 2. He (find) his house, but it (be) empty because his wife (pass away / already). Language and Learning 413, Rip ____ (walk) to the center of his village, but no one (recognize) him. That is partly because nobody (see) him for over 20 years, and most of his friends (die) or __________ (move) away from his village. 4, In addition, he _____ ook) quite different. His hair (be) much longer and very dirty. His beard (grow) more than a foot. Also, his clothes. — (disintegrate / almost). 5. Luckily, Rip______ (find) his daughter, who was now an adult, andhe _____ (move) in with her family. Practice imagine that you, too, drank the secret potion, Last year you woke up from your 20-year nap. Make at least six sentences (three with the past tense and three with the past perfect) describing the situation that you found and the changes that had occurred. G. The Future Perfect and Future Perfect Continuous Tenses These tenses refer to actions or situations that will have occurred before another event or time in the future. The second event or time must be either mentioned or implied. = The future perfect emphasizes the completion of an activity As with other continuous tenses, the future perfect continuous emphasizes an activity in progress. Rea a ee Ry tense | : ‘Note: See Appendix 2 for spelling rules for-ed and -ing endings, Appendix 1 for alist of irregular past participles, and Appendix 4 for a list of verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses. 42° Chapter 1 aanEy Practice rap (Rip van winkle’s 8randson) has just been given a magic potion that will make him sleep for 20 years, also. Use either the simple future or the future perfect to talk about how things willbe different when he wakes up. Example When Rap wakes up, everything will seem (seem) different. In fact, many things _w/ll have changed (change) 1. His gun rust / completely). (be / still) next to him, but it 2,He________ find) his house, but it (be) empty because his wife_____________ (pass away / already). 3. Rap____ (walk) to the center of his village, but no one (recognize) him. That is partly because nobody (See) him for over 20 years, and most of his friends Ge) or______ move) away from his village. 4, In addition, he ook) quite different, His hair (be) much longer and very dirty, His beard (grow) more than a foot. Also, his clothes (disintegrate / almost) 5. Luckily, Rap (find) his daughter, who (be / now) an adult, and he (move) in with her family, Ey Reviews in tne bianks with the verb discuss Choose from all tenses. in many Cases, more than one tense may be appropriate, However, be ready to describe any differences in meaning that might result. Example We___discussed _this problem last year 1. They_______the problem since 10:00 A.M. 2. Some students the problem when we came to class, 3. They (probably) the problem when class ends, 4. We it a number of times in the past, 5. Inever this problem last year. 6. We this problem for two hours by the time he arrives, 7. College students this issue quite often these days. mmaLanguage and Leaning 438. Marion and Vittorio __the problem right now. 9. After they ________it for three hours, they reached a decision. 10, They ____ (never) this issue again. [D Review create sentences using the following time expressions. Use as many different tenses as you can with each time expression, but be ready to explain the differences in meaning that may result. 4. for two hours last Thursday 6. tomorrow 2. for the past 15 minutes 7. every morning at 6:00 3. when I saw the fire 8. at the moment 4. in 2004 9. when I wasa child 5. when we meet in 2020 10. since we last met Error Analysis Each of the following sentences contains an error related to verb tense. Identify the errors and correct them. think Example [ that English is impossible to learn. ip) 1, Before I had studied English, I thought it was an easy language 2, Now | am knowing that it isn't easy, 3. My language has had only a litte slang 4. Tam studying English since April, and I only begin to learn some of the common slang words. 5. Ihave been tried to learn more of these words every day. 6. Last night, for example, I have studied from 9:00 PM. to midnight. 7. Twas studying for three hours when I finally quit. 8. I had gone to my teacher last Monday and she was telling me to see her after class. 9. But when I went to her classroom after school, she already left. 10. It’s now May 15; by the middle of June, I will be studying English for three months. 11, On June 23, I am studying the tenses in English. 42. On June 30, I will be studying the verb tenses for one week, 44° Chapter 1 ===Practice Go back to the passage “Babel” on page 32 and underline the uses of the present perfect (have + past participle) and perfect continuous (nave + been + present participle) tenses. Then answer the following questions. 1. How do the following sentences differ in meaning? Now they have begun to do this Now they are beginning to do this 2. What is the difference between the following sentences? When we finish, they will have lost their one language When we finish, they will lose their one language. 3. Was the city given the name Babel before or after the Lord had made a babble of the language of the world? Which verb tense indicates which action came first? EE Review Fil in the blanks with appropriate forms of the verbs in parentheses. in some cases, more than one verb form may be appropriate. However, be ready to explain any differences in meaning that may occur. Esperanto at a Glance ‘The grammar is based on 16 fundamental rules, which have no exceptions. For example, all adjectives end in -a, all nouns end in -o, and the simple verb ‘has only six inflections: Infinitive Present Past Future Conditional | Imperative I As Is Os Us U Esti Estas Estis Estos Estus Estu Studi Studas Studis Studos Studus Studu. Helpi Helpas Helpis Helpos Helpus Helpu Esperanto ‘The idea of a universal language tes interested people since the ino time of Babel. In the 1870s, a Polish teenager named Ludwik Zamenhof to d ch a I . famenho! = levelop such a language. He cas his new language Esperanto, which “hope.” At that time, he ina Pol- neeny ave ish town where Poles, Russians, Germans, and Jews all 5 epee mumsLanguage and Leaning 4546 their own languages. Zamenhof _______________ that language differences Sbelevey the major cause of difficulties among different ethnic a) groups. By 1890, he _______-____ his first book on Esperanto, and within a short time, thousands of people _________ this new > earn Tanguage. Esperanto ___________ simple to leam and use. The grammar a based on 16 fundamental rules. There 7m = no exceptions and no irregularities. In addition, the ac- cent or stress always _____-__ on the last syllable of a word, and d i every letter _______one and only one sound, At first, Esperanto __________a great success. Within a few years, hundreds of thousands of people —____-_ Esperanto. (In fact, people_____ over 10,000 books in Esperanto since 1900.) 7 torte) interest in th However, after a few decades, interest in the language — Today, it_______ still popular among thousands of people, but, few __________ that, Esperanto__a universal ORIG Become) Janguage. This ____, however, that there __a har reae) te Tneven i In fact, English ———_ i universal tongue. In fact, Englist aT to become just such a language. Unlike Esperanto, English —_____ thousands of ex: : j es Pars ceptions and irregularities, But it____--—_-__ the greatest number of speakers, and this number _________ Today, _ there B wow replay bs close to a billion speakers of English. By the year 2020, well over a billion and a half people __________ English. Some ex- (peal rts ____ that by 2100, English —__ th pe 30 (predict) m Engl ‘31 (become) e first truly universal language. Chapter 1 ==CATA deers ea Practice The last 100 years have seen more change than any other period in the tory of mankind. With a partner, make at least five sentences for each of the following: 1. changes that had taken place before you were born 2. changes that have taken place since you were born 3. changes that will have taken place before you die Example Before | was born, humans had landed on the moon, Since | was born, computers have become very popular. Before | die, we will have explored another solar system. Modal ‘Auxiliaries and Related. Structures Sepak ons Se Previewing the Passage Discuss the questions with a group. In your language, how would you ask a close friend to lend you a book? Would you use different words to ask your boss the same thing? sa Language and learning 47Reading Read the passage. Language and Politeness Every language has certain forms that are used to show respect or po- liteness. For example, in English, “Would you please open the door?” is nor- mally a more polite request than “Open the door, would you?” or simply “Open the door.” Moreover, “You might see a doctor” is usually a more polite suggestion to someone who is sick than “You should (taust) see doctor.” In Japan, politeness is extremely important, and the Japanese language has many polite forms. In an informal situation, a Japanese person can talk about another person’s return to his house by simply saying, “He came home." However, a more formal situation may produce the sentence, “The fact of his return happened.” And if local politicians are announcing the re- turn of their leader, they might say softly, “He has become visible.” Discussing Ideas Discuss the questions with a group. Compared to English, does your language have many polite forms? How is politeness expressed in your language? Grammar Structures and Practice A. Introduction to Modal Auxiliaries Modal auxiliaries form a special group because they have only one form for all persons of the verb and because they can have several meanings, depending on their context. Example: Simple smoodal + verb, ‘He should arrive at any moment Continuous ‘modal + be + present participle ‘He may be arriving soon. | Perfect. modal + have + past participle ‘He must have hada problem. Perfect Continuous | modal +have deen + present participle | Hemight have been driving that old car. Note: In Chapters 8 and 10, you will study further uses of these auliaries. 48 Chapter 1= ==A variety of phrases and expressions have meanings similar to modal auxiliaries, 1.28 Structures Related to Modal Auxiliaries Related Structure | Modal Auxiliary | ‘Related Structure can, could, be able to ought to, should ‘be supposed to, had better, need to can, may, might be allowed to | shall, will be going to, be about to must haveto, have got to Ei] Practice Read the folowing sentences. Find another way to express the same Idea, Example | may go tomorrow. | might go tomorrow. 1, Deb can't go out because she must study for the test. 2. 1am able to translate from Korean to English 3. They should keep their promise 4, You are going to enjoy that movie. 5. We weren't able to help her. 6. He has to take ten courses in Spanish in order to major init 7. Idon't feel good; I might be getting a cold. 8. Ihad better study more, or I am not going to do well in this class. 9. She was allowed to go to the movie, but she wasn't allowed to stay out late. 10. We are supposed to review this chapter for the test, 11. You have got to study more. 12. They shall arrive at 8:00 PM. B, Modals of Inference, Prediction, and Probability Certain modal auxiliaries and related structures are often used to express logical con- clusions about an event or situation, Adverbial expressions such as possibly, probably, or most likely can also be used with inferences and predictions, "m= Language and Learning 49rediction, and Probal | Uses (Words and | Examples Meaning | | Phrases j | Present or | There is a dog barking outside. more certain Future ntust | « That must (has to) be Marty's dog. Inference fee | may = That may (might) be Marty’s dog. might | could = That could be Marty's dog, Jess certain Past ‘There was a dog barking outside last night. more certain | Inference must have . That must have been Marty's dog. | | | may have: » That may (might, could) have been | mighthave Marty's dog less certain couldhave | Affirmative | | How will the court rule? ‘more certain Predictions will | « They will decide against the union. should ., They should decide against the union. could » They could decide against the union. may | « They may decide against the union, | might = They might decide against the union. Jess certain | Negative ‘|__| How will the court mute? more certain Predictions will not |» They won't decide against the union. | | shouldnot |, They shouldn't decide against the union. | cannot | They can't (couldn't) decide against | could not. the union may not «. They may not decide against the union. | might not . They might not decide against the union Jess certain’ “Notes Can is not used in making a positive Practice Give at least two reactions to each of the following statements with could, may, might, or must. Example There’sa light on in the house. Somebody must be home. Someone must have forgotten to turn it off 1. Thear a scratching noise. 2. The traffic is moving very slowly. 3. Jack didn't go home for Christmas. 4, Paula has gained weight all of a sudden. 50 Chapter 1 aan5. The Browns aren't having their holiday party this year. 6. I didn't do well on the final exam. 7. He had only known her for two months before he proposed. 8. Ann has been looking for a job for several weeks, but she hasn't gotten one yet, 9. Thomas and his wife have not been at any of our meetings lately. 10. Jack is having problems with his roommate, El Practice pead each of the following predictions of the famous astrologer and Dalim reader Madame DePriest. Then make an appropriate comment with a positive or negative modal. Example In 2020, we will discover little green men living under the Earth. That can't be possible 1. The United States will revert to an English colony in 25 years 2. Inten years, the CD will vanish like the vinyl record has. 3. Madonna will undergo plastic surgery that keeps her a constant 40 years old, 4. People will talk to their computers instead of using a keyboard. 5. The world will run out of drinkable water in our lifetime, 6. There will be a high-speed ship linking the Far East to the West Coast of the United States. 7. The nations of the world will do away with passports because all people on the Earth will be entered into a worldwide computer network as soon as they are born. 8. In 100 years, there will be no paper or metal money. 9. Some sports stars will become rich enough to buy their own countries. 10. It will rain tomorrow. C. Modals of Social Interaction Modals of social interaction include can, could, might, ought to, should, will, and would, The choice of modal auxiliary depends on the need for politeness or formality and on the relationship between the speaker and the person he / she is addressing “"" Language and Learning 51| 7.30 | Modals of Social Interaction Uses Explanations Examples ‘Meaning | Making Would is asofter request than wil, Would youmind helping me? more formal | Requests and could is softer than can. In general, | Would you help ine? formality isshown by using would and Could youhelp me? t could rather than ea and will, an youhelp me? Will you help me? Jess formal | Asking for | May and might are more formal than Might I speale with Bruce? amore formal | Permission | can and could. May I speak with Bruce? } Could I speak with Brace? | ‘Can Ispeak with Bruce? Jess formal Giving Advice While snust has the feeling of a ‘You must arrive on time. stronger | and Making | requirement or very strong advice, ‘Youshonld arrive on time. | | Suggestions | ight and could make the advice ‘You ought to amive on time. | | seem more like a suggestion than ‘You might arrive on time. | required action. You could arrive on time, weaker | [Gj Practice In English, commands and requests show varying degrees of politeness or formality. A list of commands follows. Suppose that you are speaking to each of these people. Change the commands to appropriate requests. a classmate the president of your school your best friend your son or daughter your students your teacher Example Open the door. Speaking to the president of the university, you should use very formal language. It would be appropriate to say, for example: Would you mind opening the door for me? Speaking to your son or daughter, you could say: Open the door. please 1. Pass the salt. 7, Lend me some money. 2, Give me the homework assignment. 3. Help me with this problem. 4, Don't talk so much. 5. Stop talking and listen to me. 6. Tum off the lights before you leave. 52 Chapter 1 am= 8. Wash the dishes. 9. Tell me the time. 10. Don't make noise. 11. Wait a minute. 12. Don’t do that.