NORZAGARAY COLLEGE

Municipal Compound, Norzagaray, Bulacan

LEARNING MODULE
IN
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
TEACHING
(PROF. ED. 103)

MIDTERM
1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2022-2023

JONATHAN T. PASCUAL
Subject Professor
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

This learning module is for teaching and learning purposes only.

No part of this learning module shall be printed, electronically or
mechanically reproduced, and shared publicly to any form of
social media/online platforms. Anyone who will be directly and
indirectly involved shall be administratively dealt with.

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PROF ED 103 Property of Norzagaray College
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 Table of Contents
Cover Page .............................................................................................................................................. 1
Welcome Note ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Study Guides and House Rules ................................................................................................................. 3
Course Outline ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Learning Task 6: Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences ....................................................... 7
Pre-Assessment 6....................................................................................................................................... 7
Content Development 6 .............................................................................................................................. 8
Post Assessment 6 ….……………………………………………………………………………………………..10
Learning Task 7: Learners with Exceptionalities……………….……………………………………………… 10
Pre-Assessment 7 …………………………………………………………………………………………………11
Content Development 7……………………………………………………………………………………………11
Post Assessment 7 ................................................................................................................................... 13
Learning Task 8: Behaviorism, Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner……………………………………13
Pre-Assessment 8 .................................................................................................................................... 13
Content Development 8 ............................................................................................................................ 13
Post Assessment 8 ................................................................................................................................... 16
Learning Task 9: Neo-Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura…...…………………………………….………….16
Pre-Assessment 9 .................................................................................................................................... 16
Content Development 9 ............................................................................................................................ 17
Post Assessment 9 ................................................................................................................................... 20
Learning Task 10: Gestalt Psychology….……………...…..………………………………………..................20

Pre-Assessment 10…………………………………………………………………………………………….… 20

Content Development 10 ….………………………………………………………………………………………21

Post-Assessment 10..…………………………………………………………………………………….………..23

Midterm Examination……………….………………………………………………………………………………24

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 NORZAGARAY COLLEGE
Municipal Compound, Brgy. Poblacion
Norzagaray, Bulacan

I. WELCOME NOTE

Greetings of Safety amidst Pandemic Time!

We, in the College of Education aims to bring out the BEST in you.

Despite of the uncertainties brought by COVID-19 Pandemic, one thing is for sure, LEARNING
continues, though it is different from the normal face to face learning environment that you had
in the past. Start the new semester right so that you will end up right.

May you see the earnest desire of Norzagaray College, to continue providing quality, accessible
and free education. Therefore, soar high and give pride to your Alma Mater.

Acknowledge our Creator in everything you do, and He will direct you in the right path. Your
Subject Professor is just an instrument of God’s grace, and you must develop the value of hard
work and dedication as you continue your journey into learning.

Do not hesitate to contact your Instructor with the contact details below:

Instructor: Jonathan T. Pascual

Class Schedule: BSEd 2A (Friday;12:30 PM-03:30 PM) & BSEd 2B (Wednesday;10:30 AM-1:30
PM)
Contact Details :
Facebook and FB Messenger: https://www.facebook.com/jonathan.pascual.5030
E-mail Address: [email protected]
Mobile Number: 09232066859

II. INTRODUCTION

This module is a response to the need for outcomes-based instructional material for
Outcomes-Based Teaching and Learning (OBTL). OBTL is Outcomes-Based Education (OBE)
applied in the classroom. The shift to an outcomes-based quality assurance made explicit in
CHED Memo 46 s. 2012 necessitates the articulation of educational goals in terms of learning
outcomes. Learning outcomes are what students know and are able to do after instruction. The
teacher is a facilitator of learning. As a catalyst of learning, the presence of the teacher ought to
add flavor, vigor, light and life in the classroom. Perhaps the thought that our students have no
choice over the kind of teacher assigned to them can inspire us to be truly facilitative in our
ways. This module on Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching is written that may be helped in
your task to facilitate learning.

This Learning Module is designed appropriate for the new learning modality of this
pandemic time. It includes solely written activities taking into consideration both face-to-face and
virtual classes. Every learning opportunity is named a Learning Task which consists of the topic
overview, desired learning outcomes, pre-assessment exercise, content development, and post-
assessment activity.

III. STUDY GUIDES AND HOUSE RULES

This module is designed for you to learn and acquire competencies both in school and at home.
The assistance of your subject instructor will be provided to you as needed. Accomplishing the
learning tasks honestly will greatly help and prepare you to become competent and competitive
in the practice of your future field of specialization/expertise. The following Study Guide and

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House Rules will help you meet the desired learning outcomes successfully and to say at the
end of the module “I made it”.

1. Be aware and follow your class schedule to manage your time in reading and understanding
every part of the module. Read it many times until you get the point.

2. If you did not understand the readings and other tasks, re-read. If this will not work, find all
possible resources. You may ask help from your family members and friends. If this will not
work again, text me (subject instructor) so that I can call or text you back for assistance.

3. Finish your learning tasks/activities as scheduled. Remember you have more from other
subjects to accomplish. You may browse and read the different materials even prior to doing the
tasks in each of the module.

4. Read and understand the assessment tasks/activities provided in the module before you start
doing. Aim for the highest standards.

5. In accomplishing all the assessment tasks/learning activities, write legibly and with relevance.
Think before you write. Avoid erasures and writing in all caps.

5.1 Your answers should be composed of complete and grammatically correct

sentences. Do not use abbreviations and acronyms unless these are introduced in the
readings, and do not write in text-speak.

5.2 In the self-processed discussions, write appropriate and well-thought arguments and
judgements. Avoid expressing approving or disapproving with what is expressed in the
material. You need to support your inputs in the discussions from reliable information or
from empirical observation. Do not write uninformed opinions.

5.3 Write your answers brief and concise as you can.

5.4 Cite and include your references to avoid plagiarism.

5.5 Use a yellow paper for your written outputs/learning tasks.

6. Submit the accomplished learning tasks/activities as scheduled. Make sure you will follow it
up with me through all means of communication available for you.

7. Wait for my feedback to your accomplished learning tasks/activities.

8. Keep in touch with your Instructor through any available means, if needed.

9. Be honest even if others are not, even if others will not, and even if others cannot. He who
walks honestly walks successfully.

10. Lastly, as NCNIAN you need to always demonstrate the core values of Professionalism,
Responsible, Integrity, Diversity and Excellence.

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 COURSE OUTLINE IN PROD ED 103
1st Semester, AY 2022-2023

I. Course Code: PROF. ED. 103

II. Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
III. Course Description: This course explores the fundamental principles, processes
and practices anchored on learner-centeredness and other educational
psychological theories as these apply to various teaching-learning delivery modes to
enhance learning.
IV. Credit Units: 3
V. Pre-requisite: Prof. Ed. 102
VI. Course Objectives: At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1. Articulate the rootedness of education in the philosophical, psychological, socio-
cultural, historical, legal and political context (CMO 75-82, s. 2017)
2. Discuss the 14 learner-centered psychological principles as applied in the
teaching-learning process.
3. Demonstrate understanding of various theories on learning and development and
on motivation.
4. Apply the various psychological theories of learning and motivation to facilitate
intrinsically motivated and self-directed learning.

VII. Course Content

Topics Time Allotment

Preliminary Period Week 1 (August 22-27, 2022)
I. Class Orientation
• VMGO’s and Core Values
• Course Outline
• Course Requirements
• Grading System
• Classroom Rules and Regulations
Part I: Introduction
II. Metacognition Week 2 (August 29-September 3, 2022)
III. Learner-Centered Psychological Week 3 (September 5-10, 2022)
Principles
Part II Week 4 (September 12-17, 2022)
IV. Theories Related to Learner’s
Development Story
V. Individual Differences Week 5 (September 19-24, 2022)
Preliminary Examination Week 6 (September 25-October 1,
2022)
Midterm Period
VI. Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple
Intelligences Week 7 (October 3-8, 2022)
VII. Learners with Exceptionalities Week 8 (October 10-15, 2022)
VIII. Behaviorism, Pavlov, Thorndike, Week 9 (October 17-22, 2022)
Watson and Skinner
IX. Neo-Behaviorism: Tolman and Week 10 (October 24-29, 2022)
Bandura
X. Gestalt Psychology Week 11 (October 31-November 6,
2022)
Midterm Examination Week 12 (November 7-12, 2022)
Final Period
XI. Information Processing Week 13 (November 14-19, 2022)
XII. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Week 14 (November 21-26, 2022)

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 XIII. Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Week 15 (November 28-December 3,
Learning/Subsumption Theory 2022)
XIV. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory Week 16 (December 5-10, 2022)
XV. Constructivism: Knowledge Week 17 (December 12-17, 2022)
Construction and Concept Learning
Final Examination Week 18 (December 19-23, 2022)

Suggested Readings and References:

1. Lucas, Maria Rita D & Corpuz, Brenda B., Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching, 5th
ed (2020). Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Cubao, Quezon City

Course Requirements:

• Write-ups
• Oral Recitation
• Pre and Post-assessment
• Major Examination
• Outcomes-Based Course Requirement: Demonstration Teaching

Grading System:

• Class Standing 70%

Class Performance 60%
Class Attendance 10%
• Major Examination 30%
100 %

Prepared by:

JONATHAN T. PASCUAL, LPT,RPm.,MAPsy

Instructor

Noted by:

MARICAR JOY C. BULURAN, Ph,D

Dean, College of Education

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LEARNING TASK 6: Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Topic Overview

One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles. Individuals think
and learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will always be different learning
characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of processing information.

Desired Learning Outcome: At the end of Learning Task 6, the learners should be able to:

1. describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences.

2. pinpoint your own learning/thinking style/s and multiple intelligences.
3. plan learning activities that match learners’ learning/thinking styles and multiple
intelligences.

Pre-Assessment Activity No. 6

What type of learner are you? What’s your style? Answer the Learning Style Inventory
below by putting a check (/) mark on the letter of your answer. Then, answer the questions that
follows:

1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I:

(V) watch someone show me how.
(A) hear someone tell me how.
(K) try to do it myself
2. When I read, I often find that I:
(V) visualize what I am reading in my mind’s eye.
(A) read out loud or hear the words inside my head.
(K) Fidget and try to “feel” the content.
3. When asked to give directions, I:
(V) see the actual places in my mind as I say them or I prefer to draw them.
(A) have no difficulty in giving them verbally.
(K) have to point or move my body as I give them.
4. If I am unsure how to spell a word, I:
(V) write it in order to determine if it looks right.
(A) Spell it out loud in order to determine if it sounds right.
(K) write it in order to determine if it feels right.
5. When I write, I:
(V) am concerned how neat and well-spaced my letters and words appear.
(A) often say the letters and words to myself.
(K) push hard on my pen or pencil and can feel the flow of the words or letters as I form
them.
6. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember it best if I:
(V) wrote them down
(A) said them over and over to myself
(K) moved around and used my fingers to name each item
7. I prefer teachers who:
(V) use the board or overhead projector while they lecture
(A) talk with a lot of expression
(K) use hands-on activities
8. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when:
(V) there is a lot of clutter or movement in the room
(A) there is a lot of noise in the room
(K) I have to sit still for any length of time
9. When solving a problem, I:
(V) write or draw diagrams to see it
(A) talk myself through it
(K) use my entire body or move objects to help me think

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 10. When given written instructions on how to build something, I:
(V) read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together
(A) read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together
(K) try to put the parts together first and read later
11. To keep occupied while waiting, I:
(V) look around, stare or read
(A) talk or listen to others
(K) walk around, manipulate things with my hands, or move/shake my feet as I sit
12. If I had to verbally describe something to another person, I would:
(V) be brief because I do not like to talk at length
(A) go into great detail because I like to talk
(K) gesture and move around while talking
13. If someone were verbally describing something to me, I would:
(V) try to visualize what she was saying
(A) enjoy listening but want to interrupt and talk myself
(K) become bored if her description gets too long and detailed
14. When trying to recall names, I remember:
(V) faces but forget names
(A) names, but forget faces
(K) the situation that I met the person other than the person’s name or face

Scoring Instructions: Add the number of responses for each letter and enter the total below. The
area with the highest number of responses is your primary mode of learning.

Visual Auditory Kinesthetic

V = _____ A = ______ K = ______

(Retrieved from: http://www.gigglepotz.com/learnstyles.pdf)

1. What do your scores tell you about your learning and thinking styles?
2. Do you agree with your scores?
3. Is it possible for one to score equally on the three styles? Explain.

Content Development

The inventory you just answered reflects whether you are a visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic learner. This is only but one way of describing the variations of learning and teaching
styles. A. Hilliard describes “learning style” as the sum of the patterns of how individuals
develop habitual ways of responding to experience. Howard Gardner identified nine kinds of
intelligences that individuals may have.

Learning/Thinking Styles

Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information.

They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering, or problem solving.
Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions. Your style is usually
described as a personality dimension which influences your attitudes, values and social
interaction.

There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles.

Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input
and maintain a dominance in one of the following types:

Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial expressions to fully
understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block
their view. They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including diagrams,
illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs. During a
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lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the
information.

Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of
speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances.

Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. They benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively exploring
the physical world around them. They tend to prefer “learning by doing,” preferring the use of
psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and
motor coordination.

Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in
Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a
person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures”. Gardner
believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities – a person can be low in one
domain area but high in another. All of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of
strength.

His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of intelligences. In
order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that match these kinds of
intelligences. The nine kinds are:

Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see” things in one’s mind
in planning to create a product or solve a problem.

Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and written word. This
intelligence is always values in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of
intelligence and achievement.

Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) – learning through reasoning and

problem-solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are asked to
adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.

Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) – learning through interaction with one’s environment. This
intelligence is the domain of “overly active” learners. It promotes understanding through
concrete experience.

Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms, and music. This includes not only
auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses.

Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a decidedly
affective component of learning through which students place value on what they learn and take
ownership for their learning.

Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with others. Not the domain of
children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence promotes collaboration
and working cooperatively with others.

Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification, categories and hierarchies. It is not
simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.

Existential (Spirit Smart) – learning by seeing the “big picture”: Why are we here?” What is my
role in the world?” What is my place in my family, school, and community?” This intelligence
seeks connections to real world understanding and application of new learning.
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Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews, advance
organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with the new
ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the
right and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information (Write directions
on the board and give them orally.)
7. Use of variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing
summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.)
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The example you’ve provided is
an excellent one to point to the concept of ….”).

(From Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning styles.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation).

Post Assessment Activity No. 6

1. Choose a topic from your field of specialization.

2. Think of at least ten (10) learning activities relevant to the topic you picked.
3. Indicate the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences that each learning
activity can address. Remember, a learning activity may address both
thinking/learning style and multiple intelligence.

Topic Learning Activity Learning Style/Multiple Intelligence

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LEARNING TASK 7: Learners with Exceptionalities

Topic Overview

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is the
presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as persons
who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Learning Task 7, the learners should be able to:

1. describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.

2. define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap.

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3. demonstrate “people first” language when referring to exceptional learners and advocate for
its use.

Pre-Assessment Activity No.7

Watch at least one (1) of the following films.

1. The Rain Man
2. I am Sam
3. Son-rise a Miracle of Love
4. The Life of Helen Keller

Answer the following questions based on the film you watched.

1. Describe the main character in the movie you watched.

2. What was his/her exceptionality? Describe.
3. What problems/difficulties did the main character experience?
4. Who provided support? What support did he/she get from his/her environment?

Content Development

From the movie you watched you saw the challenges that confront a person with special
needs. The person’s adjustment entails the support of the people around him. As a future
teacher, you would probably encounter learners with special needs, more so if special education
is your major. It is therefore necessary that you have both the right information and proper
attitude in dealing with special learners. This well help you perform your task to facilitate
learning. Let us begin by differentiating the words disability and handicap.

Disability. It is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s

ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to physical, sensory, or mental
condition” (Shiefelbusch Institute). The word disability has become the more accepted term,
having replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive service and
support for exceptional learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2,
uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-
school youth with training…..

Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as disability. A
handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of
disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by
both the person and his environment. Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an
individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have the same disability but not the same degree
of being handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign
language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual would not have as much
handicap as the second one.

Categories of Exceptionalities

There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. For this short
introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in Omrod’s Educational
Psychology (2000).

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning Disabilities. It involves difficulties in specific cognitive processes like

perception, language, memory, or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples include
dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).

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 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both of
these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and
impulsive behavior.

Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken language

including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds… correctly, stuttering, difficulty in
spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Autism. It is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and

communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism usually have
an intense need for routine and a predictable environment.

Mental Retardation. It refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in

adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting
themselves appropriately in social situations.

Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like

depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb
learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions (usually
long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental
alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control.

Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different
types of disability, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it
necessary to make specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.

Sensory Impairments

Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic
nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness

Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is

unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in
academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.

People-First Language

This language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person
with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-first language tells us what conditions
people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is similar to saying “person
with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities
include:

• Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the mentally
retarded)
• Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferrable to
confined to a wheelchair)
• Avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as
condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a disability.

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 • Avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferrable to is a polio victim, and has
multiple sclerosis is preferrable to suffers from multiple sclerosis) (Department of
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).

Post- Assessment Activity 7

Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the
other guidelines given in this module.

1. The teacher thought of many strategies to teach the mentally challenged.

2. Their brother is mentally retarded.
3. Their organization is for the autistic.
4. He is a polio victim who currently suffers from post-polio syndrome.
5. There was a blind girl in my psychology class.
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LEARNING TASK 8: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner

Topic Overview

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior.
It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards
and punishment). Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Learning Task 8, the learners should be able to:

1. explain the basic principles of behaviorism.

2. make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
3. determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.

Pre-Assessment Activity No.8

1. Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in elementary or high school.

2. Are there things that when you encounter at present (see, hear, touch, smell) make you
“go back to the past” and recall this teacher? What are these things?
3. What kinds of rewards and punishments did he/she apply in your class? For what
student behaviors were the rewards and punishments for?

Content Development

Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.
Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he
stumbled upon classical conditioning.

Pavlov Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no
response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog-initiated
salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds
before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned
stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.

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Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate at other similar sounds.

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response
to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time but
will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which people would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with
food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the
bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original

S-R framework of behavioral psychology. He explained that learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such associations or “habits” become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model S-R
theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more than
others because of rewards.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three (3)
laws of learning:

Law of Effect. It states that a connection between a stimulus and response is

strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between stimulus
and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative.

Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is
practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this.
However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found
that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.

Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness learner has to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a
stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the
teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And
suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready to
respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing so.

John B. Watson. He was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas.
He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and
rage.

Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment

concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the
rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert
was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later,
the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small
animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without
the loud noise.

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Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the
stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory. Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden
Two, is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and
Human Behavior (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning
function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics, and education.

Operant Conditioning. It is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in
overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli)
that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word,
hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is
reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
An example is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children who behave well
during the lesson.

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a

response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact it is
a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5
for the two grading periods will no longer take the final examination. The negative reinforcer is
“removing” the final exam, which we realize is a form of reward for working hard and getting an
average grade of 1.5.

A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a

consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who
always comes late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment) and
therefore, loses points for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of
repeatedly coming to class late.

Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not
reinforced are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may
extinguish that behavior.

Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,

reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully
through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement
schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.

Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of
time has passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food
(reinforcer) every 10 minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.

Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount
of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food
(reinforcer) in different intervals, not every ten minutes.

Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it presses
the bar 5 times.

Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times,
then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So, the bird will not be able to predict how many times it
needs to press the bar before it gets food again.

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 Post- Assessment Activity 8

Observation

1. Choose one (1) place where you can observe adult-child interactions – such as in a
mall, church, playground, market, etc. Spend one hour observing such adult-child
interactions. Focus your attention on the stimulus-response-consequence patterns you
observe. Describe the consequences you observe.
2. What kinds of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you observe?
3. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement and punishment
consequences from the adult?

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LEARNING TASK 9: Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

Topic Overview

With new research, explanations provided by the basic principles of behaviorism

appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into view which maintained
some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded others and added new ideas which later came to
be associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorists, then, were a
transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.

Desired Learning Outcomes:

At the end of Learning Task 9, the students should be able to:

1. explain Toman’s purposive behaviorism.

2. explain Bandura’s social learning theory.
3. give specific applications of each theory in teaching.

Pre-Assessment Activity 9

1. Solve maze A. Enter on the left side and exit at the top. Solve maze B. Enter on the top
and exit on the left side.

Answer the following questions:

a. How did you solve Maze A? What strategy did you use? 9(trial and error, examined
the maze before proceeding with your pen, etc.)
b. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?

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 2. Read the following news article.

10-Year-Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself

After Watching Saddam Execution
The Associated Press
HOUSTON Jan 4, 2007 (AP)

Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by hanging himself from a
bunk bed was apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the Houston-area
City of Webster, said Webster Police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico’s mother told police he had
previously watched a news report on Saddam’s death.
“It appears to be accidental,” Claunch said. “Our gut reaction is that he was
experimenting.”
An autopsy of the fifth-grader’s body was pending.
Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said the boy was a happy and curious child.
He said Sergio had watched TV news with another uncle on Saturday and asked the
uncle about Saddam’s death.
“His uncle told him it was because Saddam was really bad,” Gustavo said. “He (Sergio)
said, “OK,” and that was it.”
Sergio’s mother, Sara Pelico De Leon, was at work Sunday while Sergio and other
children were under the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the children found Sergio’s body
in his bedroom.
Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while on a bunk bed. Police
investigators learned that Sergio had been upset about not getting a Christmas gift from his
father, but they don’t believe the boy intentionally killed himself.
Clinical Psychologist Edward Bischof of California said children of Sergio’s age mimic
risky behaviors they see on TV such as wrestling or extreme sports without realizing the
dangers. He said TV appeared to be the stimulant in Sergio’s case.
“I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to act out without
having the emotional and psychological maturity to think the thing through before he acts on it,”
Bischof said.
Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the apartment complex
activity center. Gustavo said the family is trying to put together enough money to send Sergio’s
body to Guatemala for burial.
“I don’t think he thought it was real,” Gustavo said of Saddam’s hanging. “They showed
them putting the noose around his neck and everything. Why show that on TV?”

(retrieved from www.abcnews.go.com)

Answer the following questions:

a. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself? What facts
made them give this reason?
b. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
c. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young people (preschool
to college)? Cite specific examples.

Content Development

There are two (2) theories reflecting neo-behaviorism that stands out. Edward Toman’s
Purposive Behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. Both theories are
influenced by behaviorism (which is focused on external elements in learning), but their
principles seem to also be reflective of the cognitive perspective (focused on more internal
elements).

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Toman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs
and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through
purposeful and goal-directed behavior. Tolman stated in his Sign Learning Theory that an

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organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal., i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful
behavior.

Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already
meaningful stimulus (the significate) through a series of pairings; there is no need for
reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your maze activity, the new stimulus or “sign”
(maze B) became associated with already meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you
may have connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and used your knowledge and
experience in maze A to learn to respond to maze B.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman held the notion that an
organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than
merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive
toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive, and cognitive.

Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed
at random starting locations in a maze, but the food was always in the same location. Another
group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same
pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location
performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned
the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is tendency to “learn location”
signified those rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze.
He also found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to school
every day, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So, when transportation re-
routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest
way.

Latent Learning. It is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until
needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman, it can exist
even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently
“learned the maze” by forming cognitive maps of the maze but manifested this knowledge of the
maze only when they needed to.

Applied in human learning, a two-year old always see her dad operate the T.V. remote
control and observes how the T.V. is turned on or how channel is changed, and volume
adjusted. After some time, the parents are surprised that on the first time that their daughter
holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to press for what function. Through
latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even though she has never done before.

The concept of intervening variable. These are variables that are not readily seen but
serves as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced
by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental
variables. Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening
variable.

Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not
essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he
observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a
cognitive map, even in the absence of reinforcement.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It
considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational
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learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s
execution on TV and then must have imitated it.

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to
be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists
say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not
necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior
change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has
become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and
expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the
behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theorists and cognitive learning theorists.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling?

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that
the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a student who changes dress to
fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus
reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the
actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The
teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such
behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we
learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my
multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This
student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is
known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response
and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this
by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of
children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the
group of children began to also hit the doll.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

1. Attention. The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention. The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction. The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate
the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to
replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical
motion.
4. Motivation. The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learners
must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four
conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior
differently.

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

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 2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners
about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternate to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using
shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient
means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make
sure that the four essential conditions exist: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and
motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not
model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

Post- Assessment Activity 9

Choose three (3) key concepts of Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s
Social Learning Theory and write how you can apply these concepts as you
teach.

3 Key Concepts of Edward Tolman How will I apply it in my teaching

1.
2.
3.
3 Key Concepts of Albert Bandura How will I apply it in my teaching
1.
2.
3.

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LEARNING TASK 10: Gestalt Psychology

Topic Overview

Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the
foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic
focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products of perception.

Desired Learning Outcome: At the end of Learning Task 10, the learners should be able to:

1. describe the different gestalt principles.

2. list ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process.
3. Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt principles in the teaching-learning
process.

Pre-Assessment Activity No. 10

Examine the three (3) pictures below. These are just some illustrations that “challenge”
our perceptual skills.

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 What was your experience in figuring out the three (3) pictures? (easy, took time, etc.)
What helped you perceived the interesting pictures? How did you go about examining the
pictures? (focus on the background, the foreground, the shape, etc.)

Content Development

When you looked at the pictures in the activity, your mind followed certain principles of
perception. Gestalt psychology is concerned with such principles.

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the
importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt
means “form” or “configuration.” Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt
Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather
active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information, but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Factors like past
experiences, needs, attitudes, and one’s present situation can affect their perception.

One may have difficulty both the words “you” and “me” in the first picture in the activity if
one is trying to forget an ex-sweetheart who caused pain; or simply because he was looking on
the foreground and not the background.

According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by
certain principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or
situations we meet.

Gestalt Principles

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Insightful Learning

Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight.
The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described
experiements with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems.
In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out
of reach but can be reached by climbing on and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler’s apes
(Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of
boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack one box on another,
and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks
which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler’s very intelligent ape, was able to
master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach the
food. In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement,
but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler
referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

The six getalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on learning.
Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theor focusing on “life
space” adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that
affect his perceptions and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes,
and feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates.
All these forces interact and impact on the person’s learning.

Post Assessment Activity No. 10

List at least five (5) ways to apply gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process.
Give supporting example for each item.

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