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INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................3

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR .................................................................................................3

Abnormality Through The Ages ................................................................................................4

Abnormality De ned ..................................................................................................................5
DSM-V .......................................................................................................................................7
ANXIETY DISORDERS ....................................................................................................7

Phobic Disorders .........................................................................................................................8

Social Phobia ...........................................................................................................................8
Agoraphobia ............................................................................................................................9
Speci c Phobias ......................................................................................................................9
Panic Disorders ............................................................................................................................9
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders ...........................................................................................10
Post-traumatic Stress Disorders ..............................................................................................10
MOOD DISORDERS .....................................................................................................11

Major Depressive Disorder ......................................................................................................11

Persistent Depressive Disorder ...............................................................................................12
Bipolar Disorder ........................................................................................................................12
CyclothymiC disorder ...............................................................................................................12
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................13

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 INTRODUCTION

S
o we’re done with Neuropsych, Human Development, Personality, Learning, and
Altered States of Consciousness. Now we move on to Abnormal Psychology.
Before we start with this topic - a warning. This chapter delves into different
psychological disorders and some of you might be tempted to self-diagnose. Don’t. Only a
professional can diagnose whether you have a disorder or not. So, no matter how tempted
you might be to self-diagnose or to diagnose other people- please don’t. Ok? Good. Now,
on with the show…

Abnormal behaviors. Psychological disorders. Mental disorders. It is common around

the world - in all countries and all societies. Because disorders have become fairly
common, we often inundate ourselves with questions, such as: How do I react to someone
who has a disorder? What can be done? How can I help? What are the factors that can
produce/develop mental illness? Can this happen to anyone? To me? To someone I know?

Why is there such a fascination with disturbed people? Is it possible that we see
ourselves in them even when we're in good health? We all feel, think, and act in ways that
disturbed people do from time to time. We, too, claim to experience anxiety, depression,
withdrawal, suspicion, or delusion, albeit less intensely and for a shorter period of time. It's
no surprise that studying psychological disorders can cause a strange sense of self-
recognition, illuminating our own personality. William James (1842–1910) said it best: “To
study the abnormal is the best way of understanding the normal”.

So what exactly constitutes abnormal behavior? Let’s get started.

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
hat exactly is meant by the term "abnormal behavior"? What constitutes abnormal

W or maladaptive behavior? Who gets to decide what is and isn't normal? The
branch of psychology concerned with understanding the nature of individual
pathologies of the mind, mood, and behavior is called Abnormal Psychology. It is
essentially the study of people who are atypical or unusual - with the intent to to predict,
explain, diagnose, identify the causes of, and treat maladaptive behavior.
Psychopathology more sensitive and less stigmatizing term that is used to refer to the
scienti c study of psychological disorders (Ciccarelli & White, 2018; Cummings, 2020;
Gerrig, 2012).

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 ABNORMALITY THROUGH THE AGES

De ning abnormality is a dif cult process, and our understanding of what is abnormal
has evolved signi cantly over time. The word “abnormal” has not always meant the same
thing. Here are a few explanations of mental illness throughout the ages:

✓ Human skulls with small holes made while the person was still alive
have been discovered as early as 3000 BCE. Many of the holes have
healed, indicating the person survived. Although trephining or
trepanning, or cutting holes in the skull of a living person, is still
done today to relieve brain pressure, it is possible that this was
done in ancient times to free the victim's from “spirits” possessing
his/her body (Gross, 1999; as cited in Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

✓ Ancient Greece’s Hippocrates believed that physical and mental

illness were a result of an imbalance of body’s four humors - vital uids in the body
(phlegm, black bile, blood, and yellow bile). Although he was incorrect in his
assumption, he was the rst to attempt to explain abnormal behavior in terms of a
biological process (Ciccarelli & White, 2018; David et al., 2014).

✓ During the Middle Ages, spirit possession was considered to be the root cause
abnormality. The preferred treatment of choice was exorcism - the religious casting
out of a spirit from its host body (Lewis, 1995; as cited in Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

✓ Witchcraft became more popular during the

Renaissance, and mentally ill people (mostly
women) were almost certainly labeled
witches and executed. Witches allegedly
made pacts with the Devil (Trivia: Wiccans
don’t believe in the devil, let alone worship
it), performed satanic rituals, ate babies, and
poisoned crops. Pope Innocent VIII
sentenced witches to death in 1484. Two
Dominican priests wrote the infamous
Malleus Male carum (The Witches' Hammer) to help inquisitors identify suspected
witches. Over the next two centuries, thousands of people would be accused of
witchcraft and executed (Ciccarelli & White, 2018; David et al., 2014).

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 ✓ In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, asylums sprung up all over Europe. Many
were obsolete leprosariums due to the decline of leprosy after the late Middle Ages.
Asylums housed beggars and the mentally ill, but conditions were appalling; with
residents were chained to their beds and left to their own devices. Some asylums
were even made into public attractions. There was a London asylum, St. Mary's of
Bethlehem Hospital (the word bedlam is derived from this hospital’s name) where the
public could buy tickets to watch the inmates' antics, just like we would pay to see a
circus sideshow or animals at the Zoo (David et al., 2014).

ABNORMALITY DEFINED

It's not as easy as it seems to de ne abnormal behavior, abnormal thinking, or

abnormal behavior. What does it mean to exhibit abnormal behavior and abnormal
thinking? It's complicated, as evidenced by various abnormality criteria. Current de nitions
of abnormality are based on several factors:

✓ Statistical & Social Norm Deviance. A statistical

de nition is one way to distinguish between normal
and abnormal. Behavior that occurs frequently would
be considered normal, while behavior that is
statistically rare would be considered abnormal. Or
how far a person's behavior or thinking deviates from
societal norms. For example, refusing to wear clothing
in a society that prohibits nudity is likely to be statistically rare and may be regarded
as abnormal. However, deviation (difference) from social norms is not always labeled
as negative or abnormal. The situational context (a person's social or environmental
setting) can also in uence how behavior or thinking is labeled.

✓ Subjective Discomfort. A sign of abnormality is when

the person experiences a great deal of subjective
discomfort - emotional distress or emotional pain
while engaging in a particular behavior. An example
would be of a woman who is anxious about leaving
her house but is also anxious of being unable to
leave; her wanting to leave but being unable to
leave can possibly cause the woman to experience a
certain level of subjective discomfort.

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 ✓ Maladaptiveness. A behavior is considered maladaptive when said behavior impairs
the day-to-day functioning of an individual. It is maladaptive meaning that the person
nds it hard to adapt to the demands of day-to- day living and may cause the person
to be a danger to themselves or to others.

Working De nition of Abnormality

To get a clear picture of abnormality, all of the above factors must be considered. A
possibly abnormal psychological functioning or behavior must meet a number of criteria
for psychologists and other psychological professionals (at least two of these criteria must
be met to form a diagnosis of abnormality):

1. Is the thinking or behavior unusual, such as experiencing severe panic when faced with
a stranger or being severely depressed in the absence of any stressful life situations?

2. Does the thinking or behavior go against social norms? (And keep in mind that social
norms change over time—e.g., homosexuality was once considered a psychological
disorder rather than a variation in sexual orientation.)

3. Does the behavior or psychological function cause the person signi cant subjective
discomfort?

4. Is the thought process or behavior maladaptive, or does it result in an inability to

function?

5. Does the thought process or behavior cause the person to be dangerous to self or
others, as in the case of someone who tries to commit suicide or who attacks other
people without reason? (Ciccarelli & White, 2018)

Abnormal behavior that meets at least two of these criteria may be classi ed as a
psychological disorder - “a syndrome marked by a clinically signi cant disturbance in an
individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior” (Adapted from American
Psychiatric Association, 2013; as cited in Myers, 2014, p. 651). They are “patterns of
behavior or thinking that cause signi cant distress, harm others, or impair daily functioning”
(Ciccarelli & White, 2018, p. 586). A reminder, though. Insanity and abnormality are not
synonymous. Insanity is a legal term. In the United States, for example, a mentally ill person
who commits a crime is not held accountable for their actions because they were unable to
distinguish between right and wrong at the time of the crime (Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

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 DSM-V
T h e D S M -V ( D i a g n o s t i c a n d
Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders-5th edition) is a manual of
psychological disorders and their
symptoms. It contains diagnostic
labels and descriptions that provide a
common language and shared
concepts for communication and
research (Myers, 2014). The DSM has
been revised several times as our
understanding of psychological
disorders has evolved. The Fifth
Edition of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
was published in 2013. The DSM-5
describes approximately 250 mental
Table 1. DSM-V Disorders (from Psychology in your life, p. 504)
disorders. Each disorder is described
in terms of its  symptoms, the disorder's typical progression, and a set of diagnostic criteria
that must be met in order to diagnose it. The DSM-5 uses a single axis for all disorders,
with provisions for noting signi cant and relevant facts about the individual (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013; as cited in Ciccarelli & White, 2018). Of the 19 major
categories of disorders, we will only be discussing a few disorders from the ff. Categories:
anxiety disorders, mood disorders, feeding and eating disorders, sexual dysfunctions,
schizophrenia, and personality disorders. Let’s get started!

ANXIETY DISORDERS

H
ello anxiety, my old friend… Anxiety can be de ned as a negative mood state that
is accompanied by bodily symptoms such as increased heart rate, muscle tension,
a sense of unease, and apprehension about the future (APA, 2013; Barlow, 2002;
as cited in Cummings, 2020, p. 185). Anxiety is a normal part of life that helps us function
optimally. For people with anxiety disorders, however, anxiety can be overwhelming and
dif cult to manage. Anxiety disorders are “psychological disorders characterized by
distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. They are a
class of disorders wherein the primary symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety. In

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 addition to stress, anxiety disorders are caused by a combination of biological (genetic)

and psychological factors (Ciccarelli & White, 2018; Cummings, 2020). We will discuss
anxiety disorders as well as disorders such as OCD, PTSD, and acute stress disorders.
Earlier DSM editions classi ed these as anxiety disorders. The DSM-5 now categorizes
them differently. OCD is now classi ed as “Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders,”
while PTSD and ASD are classi ed as “Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders” (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013; as cited in Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

PHOBIC DISORDERS

We all have fears, right? Some of us have a fear the dark, of spiders, of snakes, etc. But
when is it just a fear - and when is it a phobia. Phobias are “persistent and irrational
narrowly de ned fears that are associated with avoidance of a speci c object or situation”
(Oltmanns & Emery, 2015, p. 171). It is a persistent and
irrational fear of something. This “something” could by
anything - it might be an object or a situation or may
involve social interactions. If people encountered a live
snake while walking, many of them would be terri ed and
would most likely take precautions to avoid it. A person
with a snake phobia would avoid a book with a picture of
a snake. Avoiding a live snake is rational; avoiding a
picture of a snake is not (Ciccarelli & White, 2018). This is
me in a nutshell. I have a debilitating fear of snakes. I have
never seen one “live” - but as a child, I was pranked with
one of those plastic snake toys wherein if you manipulated the tail it would start to slither (as
I am writing this, I have just placed my feet on the chair across from me because I am afraid
a snake is right under the table…sheesh). Anyway, somebody kept on poking my legs with
the plastic snake. I was crying and screaming, but nobody put a stop to it - in fact everybody
around me kept on laughing. So, fast forward almost 34 years later, I cannot watch or read
anything that has photos of snakes on it - from a kid’s picture book on animals to cartoon
snakes. I even had my nephew cover photos of snakes in my photography books with post-
its. That’s how deathly afraid I am…CSagarbarria).

Social Phobia
One of the more common phobias experienced by people is social phobia (also
called social anxiety disorder). It involves a fear of being placed in social situations and of
interacting with others. People with social anxiety disorder avoid situations that could be
embarrassing or humiliating for fear of being judged negatively by others. As a result, they

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 are very shy. Social phobias include stage fright, public speaking, and urinating in public
restrooms. People with social phobias are often shy as children (Sternberger et al., 1995; as
cited in Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

Agoraphobia
In Greek, agoraphobia literally means “fear of the marketplace”. It is a type of anxiety
disorder characterized by a fear of being trapped in situations from which escape may be
dif cult or impossible should something go wrong. People with agoraphobia fear or avoid
crowds or wide open places - situations such as attending concerts, traveling by boat, or
car or plane, or even being home alone, among others. They try to avoid situations where
they feel they have no control
and start to panic (Ciccarelli &
White, 2018; Myers, 2014).

Speci c Phobias
A speci c phobia is an
irrational fear of a certain object
or situation, like certain animals
or small, enclosed spaces
(claustrophobia). Other phobias
include fear of injections
(trypanophobia), dental work
(odontophobia), blood
(hematophobia), washing and
bathing (ablutophobia), and
Table 2. Unusual Speci c Phobias (from Psychology in your life, p. 507) heights (acrophobia).

PA N I C D I S O R D E R S

Panic disorders, as the name suggests, is characterized by frequent and disruptive

panic attacks. What are panic attacks? It's a sudden onset of severe fear/panic marked by a
slew of physical stress symptoms, often accompanied by feelings of impending death; the
physical symptoms include: racing heartbeat, rapid breathing, a sensation of being “out of
one’s body", dulled hearing and vision, sweating, and dry mouth (Kumar & Oakley-Browne,
2002; as cited in Ciccarelli & White, 2018). Panic attacks usually last from a few minutes to
half an hour (average is 10-15 minutes). It is a panic disorder when panic attacks
become regular occurrences. I sometimes get panic attacks. It usually happens when I’m
stressed and overwhelmed. I remember the rst time it happened. It started as palpitations

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and I thought nothing of it because I usually get those sometimes. But the palpitations were
not stopping and I was breathing rapidly because I felt like I was running out of air. My
whole body felt tingly, my legs felt weak — I was close to passing out. Anyway, after a couple
of more panic attacks brought about by stress, I decided to see my psychiatrist. He gave me
anti-anxiety meds for it and I TRY (emphasis on try) to avoid stress (easier said than done). -
AVarias

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDERS

As previously stated, despite the fact that

anxiety is a prevalent symptom,   OCD is no
longer categorized as an anxiety disorder in
the DSM-5. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is
now classi ed as "Obsessive-Compulsive and
Related Disorders." However, for the sake of
expediency, we shall discuss it here. Most
people think they know what OCD is - they
describe being a “neat freak” as OCD. It’s not.
What exactly is OCD? Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is when “intruding, recurring
thoughts or obsessions create anxiety that is only relieved by performing a repetitive,
ritualistic behavior or mental act (compulsion)”. OCD is when recurring intrusive thoughts
(obsessions, such as a fear of germs on one's hands) are followed by some repetitive,
ritualistic behavior or mental activity (compulsions, such as repeated hand washing,
counting, etc.). Almost everyone has an obsessive thought or or some ritual that helps
them feel better. The difference between liking and wanting to do the ritual (but is not
needed to do so) versus being compelled to do it (meaning you have no choice and you
suffer when you are unable to do it). Let’s look at an example: It's one thing to wash your
hands once or twice after picking up garbage and throwing it in the trash, but it's quite
another to have to wash your a thousand times to avoid becoming sick. The distress
generated by a failure or inability to perform the compulsion is a distinct feature of OCD
(Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

P O S T-T R A U M AT I C S T R E S S D I S O R D E R S

As with OCD, PTSD is no longer categorized as an anxiety

disorder in the DSM-5 but is now classi ed under “Trauma- and
Stressor-Related Disorders”. Once called “shell shock” or “battle
fatigue”, PTSD (Post-traumatic Stress Disorder) is characterized

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 by “haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling,

and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience” (Myers,
2014). When individuals are exposed to extreme stress or emotional trauma, such as being
involved in a tragic accident, being raped, ghting in active combat, or surviving a natural
disaster, they usually express unpleasant emotions long after the threat has passed. They
may acquire PTSD in severe circumstances (Ciccarelli & White, 2018).

MOOD DISORDERS

M
ood disorders are disorders in which mood is severely disturbed, they can be
mild, moderate, or severe (existing at either end of the full range). We frequently
refer to ourselves as "depressed" when we are upset or sad about something in
our lives. While these sentiments are quite common, only long-term episodes that
signi cantly impair a person's life are classi ed as depressive illnesses.
Depressive disorders are a type of mood disorder marked by persistent and overwhelming
sadness (Grison & Gazzaniga, 2016); while Bipolar disorders are characterized by mania or
hypomania and possibly depressed mood (Cummings, 2020). We will be discussing the ff:,
Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder, Cyclothymic Disorder and
Bipolar Disorder (in DSM-5, Bipolar Disorder and Cyclothymia have been reclassi ed and
is now categorized under Bipolar and related disorders while Major Depression and
Dysthymia are nor categorized under Depressive disorders.

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

The most common of

depressive disorders is
Major Depressive
Disorder (MDD; also called
major depression). MDD is
characterized by “episodes
of severe depression
characterized by downcast
mood, feelings of
hopelessness and
worthlessness, changes in
sleep patterns or appetite,
loss of motivation, loss of
Table 3. Common features of Depression (from Abnormal Psychology in a pleasure in usual activities”
Changing World, p. 246)

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 (David et al., 2014). Major depression is not simply a state of sadness or the blues. In
addition to experiencing a decreased appetite and considerable weight loss or weight
gain, those suffering with MDD may also experience physical disturbances and a dramatic
slowing down in their motor (movement) activities. Following a depressive episode, the
person may return to his or her usual state of functioning, but recurrences are common
(David et al., 2014).

PERSISTENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

Adults diagnosed with Persistent Depressive Disorder (also called dysthymia, from
the Greek dys-, meaning “bad” or “hard,” and thymos meaning "spirit") experience a
mildly or moderately depressed moods more often than not for at least two years.
Dysthymia is a chronic pattern of depression that usually begins in childhood or
adolescence and tends to follow through adulthood. in which a person suffers from
chronic mild or signi cant depression or feels "down in the dumps" the majority of the
time. People suffering from persistent depressive disorder may experience many of the
same symptoms as those suffering from major depression, although the symptoms are less
severe (David et al., 2014; Grison & Gazzaniga, 2016; Myers, 2014). Full disclosure: we’ve
both been diagnosed with Dysthymia, and it’s true what they say na it feels like being down
in the dumps…CSagarbarria|AVarias

BIPOLAR DISORDER

Bipolar disorders, as previously mentioned, are

characterized by mania or hypomania and possibly
depressed mood (Cummings, 2020). Bipolar
disorders entails periods of mood that may range
from normal to manic, with or without episodes of
depression (Bipolar I Disorder), or spans of normal mood interspersed with episodes of
major depression and episodes of hypomania (Bipolar II Disorder) (mania - excessive
excitement, energy, elation, or irritation; hypomania - level of mood that is elevated but at a
level below or less severe than full mania; APA 2013; as cited in (Ciccarelli & White, 2018).
Manic episodes are characterized by rapid speech, excessive energy, poor judgment,
restlessness and excitability, and an in ated mood and sense of self (David et al., 2014).

CYCLOTHYMIC DISORDER

Another type of bipolar disorder is cyclothymic disorder, which is de ned by

recurrent and alternating episodes of hypomania and depression lasting at least two years.

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 Cyclothymia's mood swings are milder than those associated with bipolar disorder, and
they typically begin in late adolescence or early adulthood and last for years. It is the
bipolar equivalent of dysthymia (Cummings, 2020; David et al., 2014; Oltmanns & Emery,
2015)

REFERENCES
Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2018). Psychology Global Edition (5th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.

Cummings, J. A. (2020). Abnormal Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press.

https://openpress.usask.ca/abnormalpsychology/

David, J. S., Rathus, S. A., & Greene, B. S. (2014). Abnormal Psychology in a Changing World (9th Edition)

(9th ed.). Pearson.

Grison, S., & Gazzaniga, M. (2016). Psychology in Your Life (Second ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.

Myers, D. G. (2014). Myers’ Psychology for AP (Second ed.). Worth Publishers.

Oltmanns, T. F., & Emery, R. E. (2015). Abnormal Psychology (8th Edition) (8th ed.). Pearson.

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