OEC 754 MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

UNIT IV PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND BIOTELEMETRY 9

Diathermies- Shortwave, ultrasonic and microwave type and their applications, Surgical Diathermy,
Biotelemetry.

DIATHERMIES
➢ Definition: Diathermy is the treatment process by which cutting, coagulation of tissues are obtained.
i. Application of high-frequency electromagnetic energy
ii. Used to generate heat in body tissues.
iii. Heat produced by resistance of tissues.
iv. Also used for non-thermal effects
➢ Advantages:
i. Treatment can be controlled easily.
ii. Use of appropriate electrodes permit the heat to be localized only in the region to be treated.
iii. Amount of heat that is to be delivered can be adjusted accurately.
iv. Inter lying tissues, muscles, bones, internal organs, etc, can be provided with heat by using high
frequency
➢ Physiologic Responses to Diathermy
• Not capable of producing depolarization and contraction of muscles
• Wavelengths too short
➢ Physiologic Effects Are Those of Heat in General
• Tissue temperature increase
• Increased blood flow (vasodilatation)
• Increased venous and lymphatic flow
• Changes in physical properties of tissues
• Muscle relaxation
• Analgesia
➢ Types of diathermy
• Shortwave diathermy
• Ultrasonic diathermy
• Microwave diathermy
• Surgical diathermy

SHORT – WAVE DIATHERMY

➢ The heating of tissues is carried out at a high frequency of 27.12 MHz and a wavelength of 11 m. By
using currents with very high frequencies, the motor nerves are not stimulated and there is no
contraction of muscles.
➢ Thus there is no discomfort to the patient. The output of R.F oscillator is applied to the pair of patient
electrodes.
➢ The R.F energy heats the tissues and promotes the heating of injured tissues and inflammations. The
power delivered is about 500w. The electrodes or pads are not directly contact with skin.
➢ Usually layers of towel are interposed between the metal and surface of body. The pads are forming
capacitor plates and the body tissues between the pads act as dielectric. Thus the whole arrangement
forms a capacitor.

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Fig: Short wave diathermy unit

Fig: Block diagram of short wave diathermy unit

There are two methods of short-wave diathermy, they are:
i)Capacitive method and
ii)Inductive method
Capacitive Method:
Here, the patient electrode pads form a capacitor plates and the body tissues between the pads
acts as a dielectric. Thus the whole arrangement forms a capacitor. When the RF current is applied to thbe
electrodes, the capacitor produces heat in the interlying tissues. This technique is called as capacitive
method.

Inductive Method(Inductothermy)
• In the inductive method a flexible cable is coiled around the arm or knee or any other
portion of the body which is to be treated.
• This is used where the plate electrodes are inconvenient to use. When the electrostatic

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field set up is given between the ends of the cable, deep hesting of the tissue occurs. The superficial tissues
are heated by the eddy current that are produced due to the magnetic field around the cable. This
technique is also called as Inductothermy.

➢ When R.F current applied to the pads, the dielectric loss of the capacitor produces heat in the
intervening tissues. This technique is called condenser or capacitor method.
➢ In inductive method, a flexible cable is coiled around the arm. When R.F current is passed through
the cable.
➢ Deep heating in the tissue results from electrostatic field set up between its ends and heating in the
superficial tissues is obtained by eddy currents set up by magnetic field around the cable.
➢ Instead of continuous R.F waves, R.F pulses of 65 µs with on interval between pulses of 1600 µs are
also used. This is called Dia-pulse shortwave diathermy.
➢ The rate of pulsation is from 80 to 600 pulses/ sec with peak power of 293 to 975 w. By this methods
the excess tissue fluid associated with Cellular damage is reduced, Heating rate is enhanced, No
danger of burns, the depth of penetration is correctly adjusted.
MICROWAVE DIATHERMY
➢ In this method the tissues are heated by the absorption of microwave energy. The frequency
used is about 2450 MHz.
➢ Better results are obtained by the microwave method and it is more advantageous than the short
wave method.
➢ There is no pad electrodes and flexible cable.
➢ Microwave is transmitted into body and treat directly from the direction of unit.
➢ Microwaves are produced with the help of magnetron
➢ Proper cooling arrangements are made for the purpose of cooling the magnetron.
Precautions
• Necessary precautions should be taken during this method of treatment
• Excessive dosage causes skin burns and the skin should be dry as the waves are rapidly absorbed
by water.
Disadvantages
• Patients with implanted pacemaker should not undergo this treatment
• There are possibilities of over heating
• Care should be taken while the treatment is made near the eyes.
ULTRASONIC DIATHERMY
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➢ Ultrasonic therapy is used where short wave treatment is failed and where localization of heat effect
is desired. It is very helpful to cure the diseases of peripheral nervous system.
➢ The heating effect is produced due to the absorption of ultrasonic energy by the tissues. The effect of
ultrasonic on the tissues is a high speed vibration of micro massage.
➢ Micro massage is used in the treatment of soft tissue lesions.
➢ Ultrasonic massage is better because of greater depth of massage can be obtained without any pain
to the patient.
➢ R.F oscillator produces a high frequency alternating current which excites the piezo electric
transducer. The ultrasonic waves can be applied in contained or pulsed mode.
➢ In case of pulsed mode, micro massage is obtained effectively without any thermal effect. In front of
crystal, there is a metal face plate which is made to vibrate by the oscillations of crystal. Ultrasonic
wave are emitted from this plate.

Fig: Block diagram of an Ultrasonic diathermy unit

➢ The amount of ultrasonic energy absorbed by the tissues is depending upon the frequency of
ultrasonic waves.
➢ The frequency ranges from 800 KHz to 1 MHz and the output power can be varied from 0 to 3 w/cm2.
The treatment timer is an electrically operated contact which can be set from 1 to 15 min.
➢ It switches off the output power often the present time.
➢ The transducer probe is in direct contact with the body through an electrode gel. In case of large
areas to be treated, the probe is moved up and down to obtain uniform distribution of ultrasonic
energy.
➢ If there is a wound, the treatment is carried out in a warm water both to avoid the mechanical contact
with the already injured tissues.

SURGICAL DIATHERMY
➢ It is found that when high frequency current in the range 1 -3 MHz is applied, heating of the tissue
takes place.
➢ The evolving steam bubbles in the tissues at the surgical tip continuously rupture the tissue and by
that way the cutting action is obtained.
➢ Similarly, during the passage of the high frequency current through the tissue, the tissue is heated
locally. So that the tissue is melted instantaneously and sealing of the capillary and other blood
vessels is taking place.
➢ Thus, the coagulation of the tissues takes place. The use of high frequency current is to avoid the
intense muscle activity and the electrocution hazard which occurs if low frequencies are used.

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Apart from the thermal and therapeutical applications, the high frequency currents are also used for
surgical purposes like cutting and coagulation.
Cutting:
When a high frequency current flows through sharp edge of a wire or the point of a needle
into the tissue, there is a high concentration of current at this point. The tissues get heated and as a
result the cells immediately under the electrode are torn apart by the boiling of cell fluid. The other
electrode called indifferent electrode has large area of contact with the patient and the RF current is
passed through it induces only a very little heat at the electrode. This type of tissue separation is
called as electrosurgical cutting.

Coagulation:
The coagulation process is achieved by the high frequency current flowing through the tissue
and results in heating and coagulation. The process of coagulation is accompanied by a greyish-white
discoloration of the tissue at the edge of electrode. Better coagulation is achieved by high frequency
currents as this does not cause burning. The continuous radio-frequency current is used for cutting
and burst wave radio-frequency is used for coagulation. The electrode melts through the tissues and
seals capillaries and other vessels. Even if the high-frequency surgery is not used, the method of
electrocoagulation can be used.

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➢ The various electro surgery techniques using diathermy unit are

1. Fulguration: By passing sparks from a needle or ball electrode, the heat is developed near the
tissue without touching it and due to the passage of electric arc, destruction of superficial tissues
take place. It is related to the localized surface level destruction of tissues.
2. Desiccation: The needle point electrodes are stuck into tissue, while passing electric current a
local increase in heat creates drying of tissues. This is called desiccation which produces
dehydration in tissues.
3. Elytrotomy: When the electrode is kept above the skin, an electrical arc is sent. The developed
heat produces a wedge-shaped cutting of tissue on surface. Continuous R.F current is used for
cutting.
4. Coagulation: When the electrode is kept above the skin, high frequency current is sent through
the tissues in the form of bursts and heating it locally so that it coagulates from inside. The
concurrent use of continuous R.F current for cutting and a R.F wave burst for coagulation is called
Hemostasis mode.
5. Blending: When the electrode is kept above the skin, the separated tissues can be combined
together by an electric arc. This is called blending.
➢ The Logic board is the main part of the unit which produces the necessary waveforms for cutting,
coagulation and hemostasis mode of operation.
➢ An astable multivibrator generates 500 kHz square pulses. The output from this oscillator is divided
into a number of frequencies using binary counters. These frequencies are used as system timing
signals.
➢ A frequency of 15KHz provides a gating signal which gives the repetition rate for the three cycles of
250 kHz signal which make up the coagulating output having a pulse width of 12us.
➢ The Frequency of 250 kHz is used for cutting, after the high-power amplification by push pull
amplifier.

Fig: Block diagram of electrosurgical diathermy unit

➢ The output of the push pull amplifier is given to a transformer so that the voltage is stepped up and
the output signal from the unit is well isolated.
➢ To indicate each mode of operation, diathermy unit is provided with an audio tone generator.
➢ When coagulation output is delivered, 1 kHz audio signal is heard. Similarly 500 Hz for cutting and
250 Hz for hemostasis.

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➢ The isolator switch provides an isolated switching control between the active hand switch and rest
of unit.
➢ The logic board receives information from the foot switch, finger switch and alarm sensing points.
➢ The construction of the foot switch is to avoid any explosion formed by the existence of anesthesia
gases near the electrical contacts.
Special Features
(i) To secure safety for the patient or operator, the output unit is isolated and insulated from the low
frequency primary and secondary voltages.
(ii) The bipolar electrodes are used such that the active electrode is mounted in an insulated handle
and in different electrode is placed at the back of patient in the form of plate.
(iii) The output of the unit may be earth referenced or isolated. The isolated output dose not produce
any fibrillation and any serious burns.
(iv) The active electrodes for cutting are in the form of needle electrode and the active electrode for
coagulation are in the form of a ball or plate.
(v) These are circuit integrity monitors like patient circuit continuity monitor, alternate path current
monitors etc.
(vi) The frequency of operation is from 20 KHz to 1 MHz. The output power for cutting is about
400w and for coagulation is 150 w.
Advantages:
✓ It provides simple and ffortless surgery.
✓ This coagulation method prevents the contamination of bacteria.
✓ Simplified method of coagulation saves time.
✓ Bleeding can b arrested immediately by touching the spot with the coagulation electrode.

COMPARISON BETWEEN VARIOUS DIATHERMY TECHNIQUES:

Various types of diathermy techniques available. Penetration into the skin is varied depending
upon the technique.
The heat penetration is different for fat, muscle, bone.
Short-wave Diathermy:
• In short-wave capacitive method diathermy, maximum heating effect is obtained in fat. It is reduced
in muscle. It is further reduced in bone.
• In short-wave inductive diathermy, maximum heating effect is obtained in fat, muscle interface.
• In ultra short-wave diathermy, heating effect is more in the fat-muscle interface.
Microwave Diathermy:
• In this technique, more heating effect is obtained in fat-muscle interface. There is no heating effect
in bone.
Ultrasonic Diathermy:
• Maximum heating effect is obtained in bone. In fat and muscle, the heating effect is less.

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BIO TELEMETRY SYSTEM

➢ Bio telemetry is electrical technique for conveying biological information from a living organism to a
location where this information can be observed or recorded.
➢ Thus, it refers to the communication between a living system and an observer.
➢ Today bio telemetry is extended for monitoring Patients in a hospital from a remote location for
monitoring Astronauts in space patients who are on the job or home carrying implanted pacemaker.
Athletes running a race.
Elements of Bio-telemetry:
➢ The transducer converts the biological signal into electrical signal. The signal conditioner amplifies
and modifies the signal for effective transmission.
➢ The transmission link connects the signal input blocks to the read-out device by wire or wireless
mean.

Fig: Block diagram of Bio-telemetry system

Design of a Bio-telemetry system:

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1. The telemetry system should be selected to transmit the bioelectric signals with maximum fidelity
and simplicity.
2. There would not be any constraint for living system and any interference with the living system.
3. The size and weight of the telemetry system should be small.
4. It should have more stability and reliability.
5. The power consumption should be very small.
6. For wire transmission shielding of cable is a must to reduce noise level.
Radio telemetry system:
Most biotelemetry systems are involved with radio transmission and reception of bio signals. There are
single channel and multichannel
Single channel telemetry system:
• For a single channel telemetry system, a miniature battery-operated radio transmitter is connected
to the electrodes of the patients.
• The transmitter broadcasts the biopotential to a remote place in which the receiver detects the radio
signal and recovers signal for further processing.
• The receiving system can be located in a room separately from the patients. The only risk is shock to
the patient.
• The only risk is to shock the patient. It is due to the battery powered transmitter itself. Since it is kept
low, there is negligible risk to the patient.

Fig: Block diagram of a typical single channel telemetry system

• Bio signal from the patient is converted into electrical signals by the transducer.
• They are amplified and filtered at the conditioner. Further they are frequency modulated or pulse
modulated. Frequency modulation provides the high noise interference rejection and high stability.
• The bio signals are amplified to radio frequency range of few hundred KHz to about 300 KHz and
then they are transmitted by transmitter antennas.
• At radio receiver the corresponding frequency are received and then they are demodulated,
amplified and displayed.
Transmission of bioelectrical variables:
➢ In a single channel telemetry system, the measurements are made under any of the two categories.
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Active Measurements: Here the bioelectric variables like ECG, EMG, EEG are directly
o
measured without any excitation voltage.
o Passive Measurements: Here the bioelectric variables like blood pressure, temperature,
blood flow etc. are measured indirectly using transducer and excitation voltage.
Tunnel diode FM transmitter
➢ The tunnel diodes exhibit a specific characteristic known as negative resistance. They have
extremely low values of inductance a capacitance.
➢ It is used for the transmission of EMG, ECG, respiration rates.

Fig: Single channel FM transmitter

➢ Tunnel diodes are used as active devices and this circuit has higher fidelity and sensitivity.
➢ Total weight is 1.44 gm with battery and the size is small.
Radio Frequency used – 100 to 250 MHz
Frequency response – 0.01 Hz to 20 kHz
Input impedance – 300 kilo ohms to mega ohms
Temperature stability of carrier frequency – 0.05% /0C
➢ Varactor diode is basically a reverse biased PN junction which utilizes the inherent capacitance of
depletion layer.
➢ Varactor diodes are voltage capacitors used for frequency modulation.
➢ The signal is transmitted through the inductor L of the tank circuit of RF oscillator.
Advantages:
➢ All the signal can be transmitted by using the circuit.
➢ No shielded room is needed.
➢ Interference is much reduced.
Hartley type FM transmitter
➢ It consists of two stages, first stage is known as driver amplifier stage and second stage is known as
oscillator circuit stage.
➢ R4,R5,R1,R2,R3 are used as Biasing Resistors.
➢ In this circuit the capacitor C and inductor L from the tank circuit components of the Hartley
oscillator. The capacitors C1 is coupling capacitor. Q1 is a driver amplifier transistor and it drives
the next stage.
➢ Q2 is the oscillator transistor. By using LC tank circuit, the specified frequency can be designed.
➢ The capacitance between emitter and base of the transistor is voltage sensitive is used to frequency
modulate the carrier.

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➢ The amplitude of the input signal may vary from 10uV to several milli volt and the transmission
range is usually from few meters to 30 meters at a power consumption level of milli watts
➢ Bandwidth of the signals is from few 100 Hz to 1000Hz.

Pulsed Hartley oscillator

➢ A pulsed Hartley oscillator used for transmission of temperature signals .
➢ To measure temperature, a thermistor is placed in the place of R .
➢ To measure pressure, the pressure changes should be given to move the core M
➢ To measure pH or any voltage suitable electrodes are connected across the voltage input X and X1.
➢ The transmitter is modulated by varying the rate of pulses of radio frequency oscillations.
➢ The transducers and conditioners are integrated into components of the oscillator transmitter.
➢ Continuous wave operation can be obtained by reducing the value of the resistor R 1.

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Advantages:
• The circuit is simple.
• It consumes low power.
Disadvantages:
• Error can be produced by the power supply voltage variations.
• Interference can be generated over wide frequency band.

Radio Telemetry with sub carrier system

Transmitter side:
➢ When the position of transmitter to the body or other conduction object change, the carrier
frequency and amplitude will change due to the loading change of the carrier frequency resonant
circuit.
➢ If the signal has a frequency different from the loading effect, they can be separated by filters.
Otherwise the real signal will be distorted by loading effect.
➢ To avoid this loading effect the sub carrier system is needed. The signal is modulated on a sub
carrier to convert the signal frequency to the neighborhood of the sub carrier frequency.
➢ Then the RF carrier is modulated by this sub carrier carrying the signal.
• The 20 KHz sub carrier signal is given to amplitude modulator.
• The signals are amplified and forwarded to the transmitter.

Fig. Biotelemetry system with a sub carrier system

Receiver side:
➢ At the receiver end the receiver detects the RF and recovers the sub carrier carrying the signal.
➢ At the receiver side, the signals are passed to demodulator, demodulated signal is filtered,
amplified by amplifier and then they are given to additional demodulator.
➢ It is used to convert the signal from the modulated sub carrier system and to get the original
signal.
➢ This technique is used for recording bio signals for several weeks. Finally, the signal is displayed.

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Fig: Circuit diagram of implant stress transmitter

➢ The signal from the strain gauge (SG) changes the resistance of the two arms of a bridge to amplitude
modulate the 20kHz subcarrier generated by the tunnel diode TD 2. This amplitude modulated
subcarrier is fed to a FM circuit to frequency modulate the 100 MHz RF carrier.
➢ The tunnel diode TD1 serves as the RF carrier oscillator and modulator. The transistor Q amplifies
the carrier and radiates it out through the coil L 2
➢ At the receiving end, the discriminator output of the conventional FM receiver produces the 20 kHz
subcarrier. It can be selected out by a filter.
➢ Then this subcarrier is amplified and detected again to get stress information. The stress signal with
about 1/30 Hz can be recorded for several weeks using this circuit.
Multi-channel telemetry system: (frequency selection on telemetry applications)
➢ Most bio medical experiments need simultaneous recordings of several signals. Each signal
requires a telemetry channel when the number of channels is more simultaneous operation of
several single channel unit is difficult. Thus, multiple channel (multiplex) telemetry system is
adopted.
➢ There are two types 1. Frequency division multiplex 2. Time division multiplex

(a) Frequency division multiplex system: Each signal is frequency modulated on a subcarrier
frequency. Then these modulated subcarrier frequencies are combined to modulate the main R.F
carrier.
At the receiver side the modulated subcarriers will be separated by the proper band pass filters
after the first discrimination.
The individual signals are recovered from these modulated subcarriers by the second set of
discriminators.
The frequency of the subcarriers has to be carefully selected to avoid interference. The low pass
filters are used to extract the signals without any noise.

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Fig: Frequency division multiplex system

(b) Time division multiplex system: Since most biomedical signals have low frequency bandwidth
requirements, we can use time division multiplex system by the time-sharing scheme.
The transmission channel is connected to each signal channel input for a short time to sample
and transmit that signal.
Then the transmitter is switched to next signal channel in a definite sequence. When all the
channels have been scanned once a cycle is completed and the next cycle will start. The operation
is repeated again.
At the receiver end the process is reversed. If the number of scanning cycles per second is large
and if the transmitter and receiver are synchronized the signal in each channel at the receiver
side can be recovered without any distortion.

Fig : Time division multiplex system

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Conditions:
➢ The scanning frequency fn should be at least greater than twice the maximum signal frequency fs.
(ie) fn>2fsmax
➢ If Tn=1/fn=scanning period and tn is the sampling time of each channel than the maximum no. of
channels n=Tn/Tn. Practically the no. of channels is smaller than the calculated value of ‘n’ to avoid
interference between channels.
Advantages of biotelemetry:
1. Used to record the bio signals over long periods.
2. Patient is not disturbed during recording
3. For future reference or to study the treatment effect
4. Monitor the athletes running a race.
5. For monitoring the persons who are in action the biotelemetry is an ideal one.
6. For recording on animals, particularly for research, the biotelemetry is greatly used.
Uses of bio-telemetry:
1. Biotelemetry helps us to record the bio signals over long periods and while the patient is engaged
in his normal activities.
2. The medical attendants can easily diagnose the nature of disease by seeing the telemetered signals
without attending the patient’s room.
3. Patient is in his room without any mechanical disturbance during recording by means of
biotelemetry.
4. To study the treatment effect biotelemetry is the essential one.
5. For recording on animals, particularly for research the biotelemetry is greatly used.
6. For monitoring the persons who are in action the biotelemetry is an ideal one.

PART A
a. What are the advantages of biotelemetry system?
The advantages of biotelemetry systems are
(i). It is used to record the biosignals over long periods and while the Patient is engaged in his
normal activities.
(ii). The medical attendant or computer can easily dragonize the nature of Disease by seeing the
telemeter biosignals without attending patient Room
(iii). Patient is not disturbed during recording.
(iv). For recording on animals, particularly for research, the biotelemetry is greatly used

b. What is meant by diathermy? (Nov/Dec -2014)

Diathermy is the treatment process by which, cutting coagulation of tissues are obtained.

c. List the types of diathermy.

The types of diathermy are
i)Short wave diathermy
ii)Microwave diathermy
iii)Ultrasonic diathermy
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iv)Surgical diathermy

d. What are the application of Bio-Telemetry? (May/June-2013)

The most common usage for biotelemetry is in dedicated cardiac care telemetry units or step-down
units in hospitals. Although virtually any physiological signal could be transmitted, application is
typically limited to cardiac monitoring.

e. What are the choices of radio carrier frequency for medical telemetry purpose? (Nov/Dec-
2016)
The biosignals are amplified to radio frequency range of few hundred KHz to about 300 KHz and then
they are transmitted by transmitter antenna's.

f. What is mean by transducer?

It is a device which detects or senses the bio signal and converts it in to an electrical signal for bio
signal processing

g. Define strain gauge?

It is a electrical device which is used to measure stress or pressure in terms of strain using the
principle of change of resistively due to mechanical stress

h. How are transducer are classified?

They can be classified into different types based on the energy conversion, application and so on.
They are two types Active transducer: Passive transducer

i. What is the principle of diathermy? (Nov/Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2014)

High frequency currents, apart from their usefulness for therapeutic applications, can also be used in
operating rooms for surgical purposes involving cutting and coagulation. The frequency of current
used in surgical diathermy units is in the range of 1-3MHz in contrast with much higher frequencies
employed in short – wave therapeutic diathermy machines.

j. What is the use of ultrasonic diathermy? (Nov/Dec 2011)

It is used for curing the diseases of peripheral nervous system, skeletal muscle system and skin
ulcers.

k. What is meant by single channel telemetry? (Nov/Dec 2015)

For a single channel system, a miniature battery-operated radio transmitter is connected to the
electrodes of the patients. This transmitter broadcasts the bio potential over a limited range to a
remotely located receiver, which detects the Radio signals and recovers the signals for further
processing.

l. List the two types of multiplexing involved in multi-channel wireless telemetry? (Nov/Dec
2013)
The two types of multiplexing involved in multi-channel wireless telemetry are
1. Time division Multiplexing
2. Frequency division Multiplexing

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m. Specify the frequencies used for biotelemetry? (Nov/Dec 2012)

The frequencies used for biotelemetry are of the order of 37,102,153,159,220 and 450MHz.

n. Give the types and frequencies of operation of diathermy units. (Nov/Dec 2012)
The types and frequencies of operation of diathermy units are 1. Fulguration -100Hz 2. Deciccation-
100Hz 3. Electrotomy-500Hz 4. Coagulation-250Hz 5. Blending-500Hz

o. Name the instrument needed for a bio-telemetry system. (Nov/Dec 2010)

The instruments needed for a bio-telemetry system are 1. Tunnel Diode FM transmitter 2. Hartley
type FM transmitter 3. Radio Telemetry with a sub-carrier 4. Pulsed Hartley oscillator

p. What is use of high frequency current in diathermy?

The use of high frequency current is to avoid the intense muscle activity and the electrocution hazard
which occurs if low frequencies are used.

q. Where is ultra-sonic diathermy used?

Ultra-sonic diathermy is used where short-wave treatment is failed and in cases where localization of
the heart effect is desired.

r. Name few diseases that can be cured by ultrasonic diathermy?

The few diseases that can be cured by ultrasonic diathermy are 1. Neurits 2. Arthritis 3. Skin ulcers.

s. List the applications of biotelemetry (june 2017)

Motor racing, Agriculture, Water Management, Rocketry, Flight Test

t. What are the choices of radio carrier frequency for medical telemetry purposes? (dec 2016)
Use and Outcomes of Telemetry Monitoring on a Medicine Service. Telemetry is a powerful tool for
real time monitoring of a patient's heart rhythm and QRS pattern. Beds with telemetry monitoring
are limited and expensive in most institutions; therefore, the use of this resource would ideally be
evidence based.

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