PHY 101

GENERAL PHYSICS I
Lecture 2

KINEMATICS

DR. A. E. ADEOYE
[email protected]
07065535536

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 Kinematics
Out line
• KINEMATICS: definition,
• Motion and types of motion
• Relative Motion
• Motion in One Dimension using Parameters that describe motion (Time, distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration; average and instantaneous velocity and acceleration
• Distance/Displacement - Time graph
• Velocity- Time graph
• Constant Acceleration
• Freely Falling Objects
• Coordinate System
• Vectors and Scalar Quantities

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Kinematics……….

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, you will be able to
1. Define motion.
2. List and give example of types of motion
3. Define the velocity and acceleration of a particle undergoing rectilinear motion.
4. Distinguish between average and instantaneous velocity of a particle undergoing rectilinear motion
5. Derive all equation of motion
6. solve problems concerning rectilinear motion of objects using the equations of motion
7. define a vector
8. express a vector in terms of its components in two dimensional coordinate denote system
9. Add and subtract vectors
10. define the NULL vector
11. multiply a vector by a scalar quantity
12. express a vector in terms of unit vectors in a plane.

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 KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of the motion of objects without referring to what causes the motion. Motion is a
change in position in a time interval.
Types of Motion

There are four main types of motion:

Random motion
An object is said to undergo random motion when it moves in an irregular manner with no preferred direction
or orientation.

Example
Movement of a butterfly and Brownian motion
an irregular motion of particles suspended in water or of smoke
particles suspended in air.

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Linear/Translational Motion

When rigid objects move away from one point in space to another without rotating, the motion is said to
be translational. In translational motion, you will observe that every point in the body remains relatively
fixed to one another. Each part of an object undergoing pure translational motion follows the same
path.

Examples

• When you move from your home to the study centre;

• A car travelling from Enugu to Abuja, along the road;

• An insect crawling from one point to another.

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Rotational Motion
An object undergoes rotational motion when its movement requires its complete turning. We mean that all points
in the body move in concentric circles such as the point P in a rotating wheel. The centre of these circles all lie on
a line called the axis of rotation.
Example
• Rotational motion of a record disc
• The movement of the blades of an electric fan;
• The earth spinning about its axis.

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Oscillatory (or Vibrational) Motion

You describe an object as undergoing oscillatory motion when its movement is periodic. That is, the object
undergoes a `to and fro' movement about an axis, reversing the direction of its motion and returning regularly
to its original position.

Example
• The motion of a pendulum as it swings back and
forth
• The vertical motion of a disturbed mass hung from
a spiral spring or an elastic band

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Note that the actual motion of most objects is quite complicated. The motion of an object is usually a
combination of these different types of motion.

• The wheel of a car in motion combines rotational motion and translational motion;
• The earth moves round the sun (translational) as well as spins about its north south axis (rotational);
• A complex gas molecule with many atoms may undergo random, translational, rotational and oscillatory
motions.

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Relative Motion
An object undergoes relative motion when there are two bodies between which there exists a relative separation.
Such a motion involves the change of position of one object relative to another which may or may not be fixed.
➢ If you are sitting in the school bus travelling pass a bus stop on which your friend is standing, there is said to
be relative motion between you and your friend.
A person sitting still at the back seat of a moving bus has the same speed as that of the bus relative to the earth.
But if he now walks towards the driver of the bus, he has a speed relative to the earth which is more than that of
the bus.
Now, imagine the bus is moving at 30 𝑚/𝑠 and the person walks at 2 𝑚/𝑠 towards the driver, his forward speed
relative to the earth is 32 𝑚/𝑠 (i.e 30 𝑚/𝑠 + 2 𝑚/𝑠). But when he walks back from the driver to his back seat with
the speed of 2𝑚/𝑠, his speed relative to the earth is now 18𝑚/𝑠 (i. e 30 𝑚/𝑠 − 2𝑚/𝑠).
Relative to the earth, the speeds of the person are different in the two occasions. In this illustration, the points of
reference are the earth and the bus.
• The parameters used in describing motion are time, displacement (distance in a specified direction), speed,
velocity and acceleration.
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Motion in One Dimension/Motion along a Straight Line
A straight line motion or one-dimensional motion could either be vertical (like that of a falling body), horizontal, or
slanted, but it must be straight.
▪ Position and Displacement
The position of an object in space is its location relative to some reference point, often the origin (or zero point).
For example, a particle might be located at 𝑥 = 5𝑚, which means the position of the particle is 5𝑚 in positive
direction from the origin. Meanwhile, the displacement is the change from one position 𝑥1 to another position 𝑥2 . It
is given as
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 (2.1)
• Average Velocity and Average Speed
The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement ∆𝑥 that occurs during a particular time interval ∆𝑡 to that
interval. It is a vector quantity and is expressed as:
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = (2.2)
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
The average speed is the ratio of the total distance covered by a particle to the time. It is a scalar and is expressed
as:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (2.3)
∆𝑡
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 Kinematics……….

Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

The instantaneous velocity describes how fast a particle is moving at a given instant. It is expressed as:

∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity; that is, speed is velocity that has no indication of direction either
in words or via an algebraic sign. For example, a velocity of +5𝑚/𝑠 or −5𝑚/𝑠 is associated with a speed of 5𝑚/𝑠.

Example 1: The position of a particle moving on an 𝑥 axis is given by 𝑥 = 7.8 + 9.2𝑡 − 2.1𝑡 3 , with 𝑥 in meters and 𝑡
in seconds. What is its velocity at 𝑡 = 3.5𝑠? Is the velocity constant, or is it continuously changing?
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 7.8 + 9.2𝑡 − 2.1𝑡 3
𝑣= = = 0 + 9.2 − 3 2.1 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 9.2 − 6.3𝑡 2 (∗)
At 𝑡 = 3.5𝑠,
68𝑚
𝑣 = 9.2 − 6.3 3.5 2 = −
𝑠
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
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Acceleration
When a particle’s velocity changes, the particle is said to undergo acceleration. The average acceleration𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔
over a time interval ∆𝑡 is

∆𝑣 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = … (2.4)
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
where the particle has velocity 𝑣1 at time 𝑡1 and then velocity 𝑣2 at time 𝑡2 . The instantaneous acceleration (or
simply acceleration) is the derivative of velocity with respect to time:
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= … (2.5)
𝑑𝑡
Equation 3.6 can also be written as
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎= 𝑣 = = 2 … (2.6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In words, the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the second derivative of its position 𝑥(𝑡) with respect to
time.
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Example 2: A particle’s position on the 𝑥-axis is given by 𝑥 = 4 − 27𝑡 + 𝑡 3 , with 𝑥 in meters and 𝑡 in seconds. (a) find
the particle’s velocity function 𝑣(𝑡) and acceleration 𝑎(𝑡). (b) Is there ever a time when 𝑣 = 0?
Solution:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑎 𝑣= = 4 − 27𝑡 + 𝑡 3 = −27 + 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑎= = −27 + 3𝑡 2 = 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑏 0 = −27 + 3𝑡 2

𝑡 2 = 27ൗ3 = 9
𝑡 = 3𝑠

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Distance/Displacement - Time graph
In motion along a straight line the speed is equal to the magnitude of the velocity. Such motions can be
represented on distance/displacement - time graph as shown below

In (a), distance x = 0 when t = 0.

That is, the timing is started when the body passes a reference point 0 on the
path
𝐴𝐵 x
The slope of the graph = 𝐵𝐶 = t represents the speed (v) of the body.
The distances covered in the above diagrams are for:
x = 𝑣𝑡

In (b), x = xo at t = 0.
This means that timing was started when the body was at a distance xo
from the reference point on the path.
The straight line graph shows that the body covers equal distances in
equal time (speed is uniform).
𝐴𝐵 x
The slope of the graph = 𝐵𝐶 = t represents the speed (v) of the body.,
x = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑡 i.e. x𝑜 + slope x time
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 Kinematics……….

Fig.(c) representing the motion of a body when the speed changes with
time, the instantaneous speed at any instance is the slope of the graph
at that instance. For example, the instantaneous speed at P is
𝐴𝐵
represented by 𝐵𝐶 , the slope of the target to the curve at P.

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Speed/Velocity -Time Graph
The speed/velocity-time graph of a moving object could be plotted as shown in Fig. above. The graph provides
information about the moving object. The following can deduced from the graph.
(i) the slope of the graph gives the acceleration of the
moving object;
(ii) the area under the graph is the distance covered;
(iii) a straight line graph parallel to X - axis shows that the
object is travelling with uniform velocity. That is, the
object has zero acceleration or retardation,
(iv) a straight line graph inclined to the X - axis shows that
the object is undergoing uniform acceleration or
retardation;
(v) a non-linear graph shows that the object is undergoing
non uniform acceleration or retardation. The
acceleration or retardation at any point is the slope of
the tangent to the curve at that point.

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 Kinematics……….

Example 3
An object travelling along a straight path has the following velocities for the first 12 seconds of the motion.

Sketch the velocity - time graph for the motion.

Obtain from the graph:
(a) the uniform acceleration during the first stage of the journey;
(b) the retardation during the last stage of the journey;
(c) for how long did the object travel altogether; and
(d) what was the total distance travelled.

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Constant Acceleration
In many types of motion, the acceleration is either constant or approximately so. The following equations
describe the motion of a particle with constant acceleration:
s/n Equation
1. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
2. 1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
4. 1
𝑠 = 𝑢+𝑣 𝑡
2
5. 1 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡
2
Note that these equations are only applicable if
acceleration is constant.

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Example 1: The driver of an automobile traveling at 100 km/hrs suddenly sights an obstacle 50 m ahead of him
(i) what minimum acceleration must be applied to the car by applying the brakes, in order to avoid hitting the
obstacle? (ii) How long does it take to bring the automobile to a halt?
Given
100𝑋 1000
(i) 𝑢 = 100𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 = 60𝑋60
= 27.78 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣=0
𝑠 = 50 𝑚
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎= = - 7.7 m/s2
2𝑠

(ii) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
0 = 27.78 + 7.7𝑡
𝑡 = 3.6 𝑠

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Freely Falling Objects

In the absence of air resistance, all objects dropped near the Earth’s surface fall toward the Earth with the
same constant acceleration under the influence of the Earth’s gravity.
A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone, regardless of its initial
motion. Objects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest are all falling freely once they are
released. Any freely falling object experiences an acceleration directed downward, regardless of its initial
motion.
For free fall under gravity, 𝑎 = +𝑔 for downward motion and 𝑎 = −𝑔 for upward motion
The Value free-fall acceleration (g) value of 𝑔 near the Earth’s surface decreases with increasing altitude.
Furthermore, slight variations in 𝑔 occur with changes in latitude. At the Earth’s surface, the value of 𝑔 is
approximately 9.80 m/s2. Unless stated otherwise, for making quick estimates, use 𝑔 = 10 m/s2.

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Example 2: A cat can jump vertically upward to a height of 3.2 m. What is it effective take off velocity?. (take g =
9.8 m/s2)
Solution
𝑣 = 0 at the highest point
𝑠 = 3.2 𝑚
𝑎 = −𝑔 = −9.8 m/s2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

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COORDINATE SYSTEM
A coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers , or coordinates, to uniquely determine the
position of the points. There are various form of coordinate system e.g. cartesian, polar, spherical coordinate etc
• Cartesian coordinate system
The Cartesian coordinate system (rectangular coordinates) is used in system in which horizontal and vertical
axes intersect at a point taken to be the origin

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Polar coordinate system

Sometimes it is more convenient to represent a point in a plane by its plane polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃)

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In this polar coordinate system, r is the distance from the origin to the point having cartesian coordinates (x, y),
and 𝜃 is the angle between r and a fixed axis. This fixed axis is usually the positive x axis, and 𝜃 is usually
measured counterclockwise from it. From the right triangle, find sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃
Therefore, starting with the plane polar coordinates of any point, we can obtain the cartesian coordinates, using
the equations
𝑋 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
From trigonometry definitions
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

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NOTE:
These four expressions relating the coordinates (x, y) to the coordinates (r, 𝜃) apply only when 𝜃 is defined, as
shown in diagram (a). 𝜃 in other words, when positive 𝜃 is an angle measured counterclockwise from the
positive x axis. (Some scientific calculators perform conversions between cartesian and polar coordinates
based on these standard conventions.) If the reference axis for the polar angle 𝜃 is chosen to be one other
than the positive x axis or if the sense of increasing 𝜃 is chosen differently, then the expressions relating the
two sets of coordinates will change.

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Example
The cartesian coordinates of a point I the xy plane are (x,y) = (-3.50, 2.50)m as shown in the diagram. Find the
polar coordinates of the point.

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Vectors and Scalar Quantities

Physical quantities can generally be classified as (i) Scalars and (ii) Vectors.
• Concept of Scalars
Scalars quantities are those quantities which have only magnitude or numerical value but no direction in space,
examples are length or distance, mass, volume, density, work, time, speed, temperature and energy.

• Concept of Vectors
Though we know that many measurable physical, quantities have magnitude or numerical value as well as
direction, such quantities are not completely described unless their magnitudes and directions are specified.
These groups of quantities are known as vector quantities. Examples are: Weight, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, momentum, electric field etc.
Vector quantities are those quantities which have both magnitude (and size) and direction in space.

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Vector Representation
In a diagram, a vector is represented by an arrow. The arrow is drawn in the direction of the vector. The arrow
head gives the sense of direction. Using a scale, the length of the arrow is chosen to be operational to the
magnitude of the vector.

Diagrammatic representation of vectors

• a vector is represented by a bold face symbol such as 𝐴.Ԧ The magnitude of the vector A is A or 𝐴
Ԧ 𝐵, 𝐶Ԧ
• it is usual to put an arrow over the symbol to denote a vector quantity e.g.𝐴,

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Addition and Subtraction of Scalars and Vectors

• Addition and Subtraction of Scalars
The process of adding scalars is straightforward. They add just like ordinary numbers by ordinary algebraic
methods.
Example: (i) 5 𝑐𝑚3 + 7 𝑐𝑚3 = 12 𝑐𝑚3
(ii) 5 𝑘𝑔 − 2 𝑘𝑔 = 3 𝑘𝑔

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Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Unlike the scalars, in adding or subtracting vectors, you have to consider both sizes and directions of the vector
quantities under consideration.
• Resultant vector
A single vector which has the same effect as two or more vectors acting in the same direction is called the
resultant vector. Addition of vectors gives rise to a resultant vector.
Examples : Consider the following examples
i) Vectors acting in a straight line
ii) Vectors acting in the same direction

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Suppose a man walks 2 km due East and his wife walks 3 km due East. What is the resultant vector (velocity)?
Solution
Let us represent the magnitude by the scale I cm = l km; and direction y an arrow head. Therefore, the man
covering the distance of 2 km and his wife 3 km both due East would be represented thus:

The resultant vector (R) would take into consideration the magnitude and directions of both journeys as shown
below:

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Vectors acting in opposite directions

Suppose the man in our example above walks due East while his wife walks due West, the resultant vector
would then be as shown in the diagram below:

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Vectors Inclined at an Angle

Let us consider a man starting a journey from a point A and walks 3 km due North, then he turns and walks 5 km
due East. What would be his Resultant Vector (displacement)?

Solution
To find the resultant vector, you would either employ the Pythagoras rule (because the vectors are at right angle
to each other) or by scale drawing.
(i) Using Pythagoras rule
The magnitude of the resultant is given by:
(𝐴𝐸)2 = (𝐴𝑁)2 + (𝑁𝐸)2
𝑅 = 32 + 52 = 5.83 km
To obtain the direction (angle α) we use the relation
𝑜𝑝𝑝 5
tan 𝛼 = = = 1.667
𝑎𝑑𝑗 3
𝛼 = tan−1 1.667 = 59.040

This implies that the resultant vector is 5.83km, North 59.04° East.

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Note that in general there are three methods of adding or compounding vectors inclined at angles to each other
for the purpose of finding the resultant. These are:
(i) The triangle method.
The resultant vector R = A + B is the vector drawn from the tail of A to the tip of B. This procedure is known as
the triangle method of addition

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(i) The parallelogram method.

An alternative graphical procedure for adding two vectors, known as the parallelogram rule of addition,

In this construction, the tails of the two vectors A and B are

joined together and the resultant vector R is the diagonal of a
parallelogram formed with A and B as two of its four sides.
When two vectors are added, the sum is independent of the
order of the addition. The geometric construction above and is
known as the commutative law of addition:
𝑨+𝑩=𝑩+𝑨

𝑨+ 𝑩+𝑪 = 𝑨+𝑩 +𝑪
This is called the associative law of addition
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(i) The Analytical method

Resultant vector obtain by Cosine rule and Sine rule to find the direction. In this case, you only have to draw a
sketch of the parallelogram and use the Cosine rule and Sine rule to find the direction.
Example 1: A car travels 20.0 km due north and then 35.0 km in a direction 60.0° west of north, as shown in
diagram below. Find the magnitude and direction of the car’s resultant displacement.

The magnitude of R is obtained by applying cosine rule with

𝜃 = 1800 − 600 = 1200
𝑅2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
The direction of R measured from the northerly direction can be obtained using
sine rule

sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃
=
𝐵 𝑅
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Components of Vector and Unit Vector
A two-dimensional vector can be represented as the sum of two vectors. Consider figure A above, the vector 𝐴Ԧ can
be expressed as
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ
Vectors 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 and 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 are called vector components of 𝐴. Ԧ 𝑖Ƹ 𝑎nd 𝑗Ƹ are unit vectors along the 𝑥 axis and 𝑦 axis
respectively.
A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1 and specify a particular direction.
Let 𝜃 be the angle which the vector 𝐴Ԧ makes with the positive 𝑥-axis,
then we have
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴 = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦
𝐴𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑥
Ԧ
In three dimensions, a vector 𝐴can be expressed as
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 + 𝐴Ԧ𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠
Here, the magnitude is expressed as
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴 = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧

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Resultant of more than two vectors
To find the resultant of more than two vectors, each vector is resolved in two perpendicular directions, add all the
horizontal components and all the vertical component for example

For the horizontal component

෍ 𝐹𝑋 = 𝐹1 cos 𝜃1 + −𝐹3 cos 𝜃3 + −𝐹4 cos 𝜃4 + 𝐹4 cos 𝜃4

For the Vertical component

෍ 𝐹𝑌 = 𝐹1 sin 𝜃1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 sin 𝜃3 + −𝐹4 sin 𝜃4 + −𝐹5 sin 𝜃5

So the resultant;

𝑅= (෍ 𝐹𝑋 )2 + (෍ 𝐹𝑌 )2

σ 𝐹𝑌
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
σ 𝐹𝑋

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Kinematics……….

Addition/Subtraction of Vectors by Components

Example:
෠
If 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘and ෠ Find the magnitude of 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 and 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 .
𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ + 5𝑘.
Solution:

𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘෠ + 𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ + 5𝑘෠ = 3𝑖Ƹ + 7𝑗Ƹ + 9𝑘෠

𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘෠ − 𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ + 5𝑘෠ = 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠

Hence their magnitudes will be

𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 3 2 + 7 2 + 9 2 = 139

𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = 1 2 + −1 2 + −1 2 = 3

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 Kinematics……….

Multiplication of Vectors
(i) Dot Product or Scalar Product
The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors and the cosine of the
smaller angle between them.
Ԧ 𝐵 = 𝐴Ԧ 𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 𝑆
𝐴.
where 𝑆 is a scalar quantity.
Example:
Find the angle between the two vectors 𝐴Ԧ = 3𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ + 5𝑘෠ and 𝐵 = 3𝑖Ƹ + 4𝑗Ƹ − 5𝑘.
෠
Solution:
Ԧ 𝐵 = 𝐴Ԧ 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐴.
Ԧ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 = 3 × 3 + 4 × 4 + 5 −5 = 0
𝐴.
𝐴Ԧ = 32 + 42 + 52 = 50
𝐵 = 32 + 42 + −5 2 = 50
Ԧ𝐵
𝐴. 0
cos 𝜃 = = =0
Ԧ
𝐴 𝐵 50 × 50
𝜃 = 90𝑜
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 Kinematics……….

(ii) Cross Product or Vector product

The vector product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product of the
magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them and is in the direction perpendicular to
the plane containing the two vectors. Thus if 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵 are two vectors, then their vector product (or cross

product), written as 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵, is a vector 𝐶Ԧ defined as

𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 = 𝐴Ԧ 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛

where𝜃 is the angle between the two vectors and 𝑛 is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of vectors 𝐴Ԧ

and 𝐵.

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Revision Questions
1. For a motion under uniform acceleration, show that
i. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1
ii. 𝑠 = 𝑢+𝑣 𝑡
2
1
iii. 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 2 𝑎𝑡 2
2. A bullet fired vertically upwards reaches a height of 500 𝑚. Neglecting air resistance, calculate the magnitude of the
initial velocity of the bullet [take 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 ]

3. Given the displacement vectors 𝐴 = (3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 4𝑘) 𝑚 and 𝐵 = (2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 7𝑘) 𝑚, find the magnitudes
of the vectors (a) 𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 and (b) 𝐷 = 2𝐴 − 𝐵 (c) 𝐷(𝐶 + 𝐴) and (d) 𝐶. (𝐴 𝑋 𝐵)

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END OF
NOTE

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