IMMUNE

SYSTEM
ANIMAL
The immune system has an important role
to play: it protects the body from
infectious toxins, germs, and cell shifts that
may make you sick. It is made up of a
number of organs, cells and proteins.
Immune System
❑The immune system is made up of two
parts: the innate, (general) immune
system and the adaptive (specialized)
immune system. These two systems work
closely together and take on different
tasks.
Innate Immune System
❑It the body's first line of defense against germs invading
the body.
❑It reacts in the same way to both germs and foreign
objects, which is why it is often referred to as the
"nonspecific" immune system.
❑It acts very quickly, but it has little ability to stop germs
from spreading.
❑The innate immune system consists of :
▪ Protection offered by the skin and mucous
membranes
▪ Protection offered by the immune system cells
(defense cells) and proteins
Protection by the skin and
mucous membranes
❑Both the outer and inner surfaces of the human
body form a vital part of the innate immune
system.
❑The closed surface of the skin and of all mucous
membranes already provides a physical shield
against germs, which stops them from entering.
❑Organic compounds such as ammonia, enzymes or
mucus prevents bacteria and viruses from getting a
foothold.
❑Movements made, for example, by hair-like
structures in the bronchi (cilia) or intestinal
muscles stop germs from settling in the body.
❑Tear fluid, sweat and urine (which flushes the
urinary tract organs) have a similar effect.
Protection by the immune system
cells (defense cells) and proteins

❑The innate immune system

stimulates special immune
system cells and proteins as
germs migrate through the skin
and mucous membranes and
enter the bloodstream.
❑Immune system cells cause
swelling and inflammation,
sometimes with fever, and with
help of some enzymes.
Scavenger cells:
Neutralizing germs
❑Bacteria or viruses invading the body may
be avoided by scavenger cells right away
(phagocytes). Scavenger cells are special
forms of white blood cells (leukocytes).
These cells enclose germs and "digest"
them. The traces of these germs transfer
to the surface of the scavenger cells to be
identified by the adaptive immune system.
❑There are also other groups of immune
system cells that release chemicals that
destroy bacteria and other germs. Both
germs and body tissue and immune system
cells die and decay in response to the
immune system. Their remains produce
pus, a yellowish substance.
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The role of proteins
❑A total of nine different enzymes activate each
other in a process similar to a chain reaction.
❑The tasks of these enzymes shall include:
▪ marking germs as targets for scavenger cells;
▪ attracting other cells of the immune system
from the bloodstream;
▪ destroying the cell walls of bacteria to
destroy them,
▪ battle viruses by removing the viral
envelope (the outer layer of the virus) or
cells that have been infected with viruses.
Natural Killer Cells: Quest for
modified cells in the body
❑Natural killer cells make up the third big
component of the innate immune
system. They excel in the detection of
cells that are infected with a virus or have
become tumorous. To do this, they look
for cells that have surface modifications,
and then kill the cell surface by using cell
toxins.
Adaptive Immune System (AIS)
❑The adaptive immune system takes over if the
innate immune system is unable to kill the
germs. It precisely targets the type of germ that
triggers the infection. But to do so, the germ
has to be identified first. This means that the
reaction is slower than the innate immune
system, but when it does, it is more precise.
❑The adaptive immune system is made up of:
▪ T lymphocytes in the tissue between the
body's cells
▪ B lymphocytes, also found in the tissue
between the body's cells
▪ Antibodies in the blood and other bodily
fluids
T Lymphocytes
❑T lymphocytes (also called T cells) are
produced in the bone marrow and then
transferred to the thymus via the bloodstream
where they mature.
❑The "T" in their name comes from the word
"thymus."
❑T cells have three main tasks:
▪ Chemical messengers are used to activate
other cells of the immune system in order
to start the adaptive immune system (T
helper cells).
▪ They detect and destroy virus-infected
cells or tumor cells (cytotoxic T cells).
▪ Some T helper cells become memory T
cells after the infection has been defeated.
They can "remember" which germs have
been defeated and are ready to activate
the adaptive immune system quickly if
there is another infection.

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B Lymphocytes
❑B lymphocytes (B cells) are formed in the bone marrow
and then mature into specialized immune system cells.
They take their name from "B" in "bone marrow.“
❑B cells are activated by T helper cells: T helper cells are
in contact with B cells that match the same germs as
they do. This enables the B cells to multiply and
transform into plasma cells. These plasma cells rapidly
produce very large amounts of antibodies and release
them into the blood. Because only the B cells that
match the attacking germs are activated, only the exact
antibodies needed is activated.
B Lymphocytes
❑Some activated B cells transform
into memory cells and become part
of the "memory" of the adaptive
immune system.
❑The various cells of the adaptive
immune system interact either
directly or by soluble chemical
messengers, such as cytokines
(small proteins). These chemical
messengers are mainly proteins
formed by various cells in the body.

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Antibodies
❑Antibodies are protein and sugar
molecules that accumulate in the
bloodstream.
❑They are produced by the immune
system to destroy germs and foreign
substances. Antibodies can easily
detect and bind to germs and other
potentially harmful substances. This
neutralizes the "intruders" and
attracts the aid of other immune
system cells.
❑Antibodies are formed by
lymphocytes B. Germs and other
compounds that may induce the
production of antibodies are often
referred to as antigens.
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This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
Antibodies
❑Antibodies have the following three primary functions:
▪ They neutralize germs, e.g. by binding viruses or bacteria
directly to the cell surface or by adding to their toxins.
This stops germs from latching and infecting the body's
normal cells.
▪ They activate other cells of the immune system by
binding to their surfaces. Scavenger cells are also best
able to fight off germs that are loaded with antibodies.
▪ They activate proteins that help to react to the immune
system. Adaptive immune system antibodies also assist
the adaptive immune system.
❑Human antibodies are classified into five isotypes (IgM, IgD,
IgG, IgA, and IgE) according to their H chains, which provide
each isotype with distinct characteristics and roles.
IgG
❑IgG is the most abundant antibody
isotype in the blood (plasma),
accounting for 70-75% of human
immunoglobulins (antibodies).
❑IgG detoxifies harmful substances
and is important in the recognition
of antigen-antibody complexes by
leukocytes and macrophages.
❑IgG is transferred to the fetus
through the placenta and protects
the infant until its own immune
system is functional.

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IgM
❑IgM usually circulates in the blood,
accounting for about 10% of human
immunoglobulins.
❑IgM has a pentameric structure in
which five basic Y-shaped molecules
are linked together.
❑B cells produce IgM first in response
to microbial infection/antigen
invasion. Although IgM has a lower
affinity for antigens than IgG, it has
higher avidity for antigens because
of its pentameric/hexameric
structure.
❑IgM, by binding to the cell surface
receptor, also activates cell signaling
pathways.

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IgA
❑IgA is abundant in serum, nasal
mucus, saliva, breast milk, and
intestinal fluid, accounting for
10-15% of human
immunoglobulins.
❑IgA forms dimers (i.e., two IgA
monomers joined together).
IgA in breast milk protects the
gastrointestinal tract of
neonates from pathogens.
IgE
❑IgE is present in minute
amounts, accounting for no more
than 0.001% of human
immunoglobulins.
❑Its original role is to protect
against parasites.
❑In regions where parasitic
infection is rare, IgE is primarily
involved in allergy.

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IgD
❑IgD accounts for less than 1% of
human immunoglobulins.
❑IgD may be involved in the
induction of antibody production
in B cells, but its exact function
remains unknown.

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