Chapter 1 – Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Chapter 1

Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

1-1 Definition of metrology:

The word metrology is derived from the Greek word ‘Metro’ mean
measurement and ‘Logy” mean science.
Metrology is the field of knowledge concerned with measurement and include
both theoretical and practical with reference to measurement, whatever their level
of accuracy and in whatever fields of science and technology they occur. Thus
metrology is the science of measurement associated with the evaluation of its
uncertainty. Metrology is also therefore concern with the methods, execution and
estimation of accuracy of measurement, the measuring instrument and the
inspectors.

The principal fields of metrology and its related applications are as follows:
a- Establishing the unit of measurement, reproducing these units in the form of
standards and ensuring the uniformity of measurements.
b- Developing methods of measurements and estimation of their accuracy.
c- Analyzing the accuracy of methods of measurement.
d- Design, manufacturing and testing gauges of all kinds.

1-2 Types of metrology:

Metrology is separated into categories with different levels of complexity and

accuracy:
a- Scientific metrology deals with the organization and development of
measurement standards and with their maintenance (highest level).
b- Industrial metrology has to ensure the adequate functioning of measuring
instruments used in industry as well as in production and testing processes.
c- Legal metrology is the part of metrology which treats units of measurement,
methods of measurement and measuring instruments in relation to statutory,
technical and legal requirements. It assures security and appropriate accuracy
of instruments. Legal metrology is directed by a national organization which
is known as National Service of Legal Metrology. The activities of legal
metrology are:
 Control – testing, verification, standardization of measuring
instruments
 Testing of prototypes / models of measuring instruments.
 Examination of a measuring instrument to verify its conformity to the
statutory requirements.

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d- Fundamental metrology may be described as scientific metrology,

supplemented by those parts of legal and industrial metrology that require
scientific competence. It signifies the highest accuracy in the field of
metrology. It is divided in accordance with the following eleven fields: mass,
electricity, length, time and frequency, thermometry, ionizing radiation and
radioactivity, photometry and radiometry, flow, acoustics, amount of
substance and interdisciplinary metrology.
e- Deterministic metrology is a new philosophy in which part measurement is
replaced by process measurement. In this technique full advantage is taken
of the deterministic nature of production machines (machine with automatic
controls) and all automatic subsystems are optimized to maintain
deterministic performance within acceptable quality levels.

1-3 Inspection:

Inspection is necessary to check all materials, products, and component parts at

various stages during manufacturing, assembly, packaging and installation in the
customer’s environment. It is the quality assurance method that compares materials,
products or processes with established standards.
The inspection activity is required to:
a- Ensure the material, parts, and components conform to established standards.
b- Meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
c- Provides the mean of finding the problem area for not meeting the
established standards.
d- Produce the part having acceptable quality levels with reduced scrap and
wastages.
e- Purchase good quality of raw materials, tools, and equipment that govern the
quality of finished product.
f- Take necessary efforts to measure and reduce the rejection percentage for
forthcoming production batches by matching the technical specification of
the product with the process capability.
g- Judge the possibility of rework of defective parts and re-engineer the process.

1-4 Measurement:

Measurement is a complex of operation carried out by means of measuring

instruments to determine the numerical value of the size which describes the object of
measurement. A physical measurement could be defined as the act of deriving
quantitative information about the physical object or action by comparison with a
reference.
Accuracy in measurement is the degree to which the measured value of the quality
characteristic agrees with the true value. The accuracy of a method of measurement is
referred to its absence of bias to the conformity of results to the true value of quality
characteristics being measured. As the exact measurement of a true value is difficult, a
set of observations are made whose mean value is taken as the true value of the quantity
to be measured. Therefore, the measured value is the sum of the quantity measured and
the error of the instrument. As both of them are independent of each other, the standard

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deviation of the measured value is the square root of the square of the standard deviation
of the true value (Ϭtrue) and the square of the standard deviation of the error of the
measurement (Ϭerror).
𝝈𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = √𝝈𝟐𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 + 𝝈𝟐𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

Precision is the degree of repeatability in the measuring process. Precision of a

method of measurement refers to its variability when used to make repeated
measurements under carefully controlled conditions. A numerical measure of precision
is the standard deviation of the frequency distribution that would be obtained from such
repeated measurements. This is referred as Ϭerror.
Precision is mainly achieved by selecting a correct instrument technology for
application. The general guideline for determining the right level of precision is that the
measuring device must be ten times more precise than the specified tolerances, e.g., if
the tolerance to be measured is ±0.01 mm, the measuring device must have a precision
of ± 0.001 mm. the master gauge applied should be ten times more precise than the
inspection device.

1-5 Methods of measurements:

Measurement is a set of operations done with the aim of determining the value of
the quantity which can be measured by various methods of measurements depending
upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error. The methods of
measurements are classified as follows:
a- Direct method: This is the simplest method of measurement in which the
value of the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any
calculations, e.g. measurement by scales, Vernier calipers, micrometers for
linear measurement, bevel protractor for angular measurement, etc. It
involves contact and non-contact type of inspections. Human insensitiveness
can affect the accuracy of measurement.
b- Indirect method: In this method, the quantities which are related to quantity
to be measured are measured directly and then the value is calculated by
mathematical relationships, e.g. angle measurement by sine bar, three-wire
method for measuring the screw pitch diameter, density calculation by
measuring mass and dimensions for calculating volume.
c- Absolute (fundamental) method: This method is based on the measurement
of the base quantities used to define a particular quantity, e.g. measuring a
quantity (length) directly in accordance with the definition of that quantity
(definition in length with units).
d- Comparison method: In this method, the value of a quantity to be measured
is compared with a known value of the same quantity or another quantity
related to it. In this method, only deviations from master gauges are noted,
e.g. dial indicators or other comparators.
e- Substitution method: In this method, the quantity to be measured is
measured by direct comparison on an indicating device by replacing the
measuring quantity with some other known quantity, which has the same
properties to be measured, e.g. measuring a mass using the Borda method.

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1-6 Factors affecting on process of measurement:

Following various factors affect the measurement:

a- Measuring instrument: the accuracy or exactness of the measurement
process is mainly depending on the various static (reliability, range,
accuracy, precision, etc.) and dynamic (sensitivity, repeatability, etc.)
characteristics of measuring instrument.
b- Temperature: as per the international practices, temperature in the test
laboratories should be maintained at 20°C. Temperature affects the liner
dimensions of the specimen as well as instrument performance.
c- The rate of change of temperature: the rate of change of temperature must
not exceed than 1.5°C per hour to avoid the distortion of measuring
instruments.
d- Relative humidity: It is usually maintained at 45±10%. It may be
understood that lower RH results in buildup of static charge which can
damage and invalidate measurement. Higher RH can cause erroneous
measurement, leakage, affects corrosion resistance and reduces insulation
resistance.

1-7 Factors affecting accuracy of measuring instruments:

Following various factors affect the measuring instruments:

a- Standards of calibration for setting accuracy: Traceability, calibration
methods, coefficient of thermal expansion, elastic properties of measuring
instruments, geometric compatibility.
b- Workpiece control during measurement: Cleanliness, surface finish,
waviness, scratch depth, surface defects, hidden geometry, thermal stability.
c- Inherent characteristics of measuring instrument: Range of scale,
amplification, effect of friction, hysteresis loss, backlash, drift error,
handling, calibrating errors, readability, repeatability of measurement,
sensitivity, contact geometry, thermal expansion effects.
d- Inspector (human factor): Skill, training, awareness of precision
measurement, selection of instruments, working attitude, socio-economic
awareness, consistent efforts towards minimizing inspection time and cost.
e- Environmental conditions: Noise, vibration, temperature, humidity,
electrical parameter variations, adequate lighting, atmospheric refraction,
clean surrounding.

To ensure higher accuracy during measuring, the above sources of error are required
to be analyzed frequently and necessary steps should be taken to eliminate them.

1-8 Errors in measurement:

The error in measurement is the difference between the measured value and the true
value of the measured dimension. Error may be absolute or relative. Generally, the
errors in measurements are classified into two testing types, one controllable, which

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should not occur and can be eliminated by careful work and attention; and the other,
random in occurrence, which is inherent in the measuring process.
Systematic or controllable errors may be caused due to calibration errors, ambient
conditions, stylus pressure, and avoidable errors (parallax and misalignment of the
workpiece center of measurement, proper location of the measuring instrument, etc.).
Random errors occur due to a large number of unpredictable and fluctuating causes
that cannot be controlled by the experimenter. They are caused by friction and play in
the instruments hinges or estimation of frictional part of a scale division or may be due
to mispositioning the object.
a- Absolute error: It is defined as the algebraic difference between the result
of measurement and the conventional true value of the quantity measured.
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = |𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|
b- Relative error: It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of
comparison (may be true value or the arithmetic mean of a series of
measurements) used for calculation of the absolute error.
|𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentile error (Ep) is the relative error expressed in percentage form.

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ∗ 100

1-9 Standard of measurements:

Metrology concern itself with the science of measurements and nearly all
measurements in workshop involve measurement of dimension. Production engineer is
specially concern with the measurement of the length and angle. It is well known fact
that without standards of fundamental units, (length, mass, time), it would be not
possible for civilization to exist. Depending on the importance of standards, they are
divided into following subgrades:
a- Primary standards: these are fundamental standards like meter that does
not change their value and it is strictly followed and precisely defined there
should be one and only one material standard preserved under most careful
conditions.
b- Secondary standards: These are close copies of primary standards as
regards design, material and length. Any error existing in these bars is
recorded by comparison with primary standards after long intervals.
c- Tertiary standards: They are reference employed by National Physical
Laboratories (N.P.L.) and are the first standards to be used for reference in
laboratories and workshops.
d- Working standards: These are also line standard (when the distance is
measured between two parallel lines) and having same design as all above.
But these are of less cost and are made from low grade materials. These are
used in general application in metrology laboratories.

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1-10 Measuring instruments and their selection:

Transformation of a measurable quantity into the required information is a function

of measuring instruments. The important characteristics which govern the selection of
instruments are measuring range, accuracy and precision. No measuring instrument can
be built that has perfect accuracy and perfect precision. The precision of an instrument
is an important feature as it gives repeatable readings with required accuracy levels.
Generally, measuring instruments are classified as follows:
a- On the basis of function:
 Length-measuring instruments
 Angle-measuring instruments
 Surface-roughness-measuring instruments
 Geometrical-form-checking instruments
b- On the basis of accuracy:
 Most accurate instruments, they work on the principle of light
interference
 Less accurate instruments, this type consists of tool room
microscopes, comparators, optimeters, etc.
 Very less accurate instruments, these types consist if still less
accurate measuring instruments like dial indicators, vernier,
calipers, steel rules, etc.
c- On the basis of precision:
 Precision measuring instruments
 Non-precision measuring instruments.

1-11 Graduated measuring instruments:

Steel rule (réglette graduée):

This is also called a scale. It is simplest and most common measuring instruments
used to measure length (Figure 1.1). It consists of a strip of hardened steel having line
graduations etched or engraved at interval of fraction. The scale can be graduated one
side or both sides with different units of measurement. The scales are available in the
sizes of 150 mm, 300 mm, 600 mm, and 1000 mm. this is not accurate measuring device
and can be used in general measurement in foundry, steel factories, fabrication works,
etc.

Figure 1.1

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Vernier calipers (Pied à coulisse):

This is also called a vernier scale (Figure 1.2). These can measure the dimension up
to least value of 0.05 mm. These are quite flexible, offering a typical measuring rang of
150 mm, but they are available in sizes that can measure up to 1829 mm (72ʺ). The
translation of the linear form of the workpiece is accomplished by referring the caliper
jaws to measurement scale by mechanical means. Dial vernier calipers (Pied à coulisse
à cadran) and digital vernier calipers (Pied à coulisse à affichage électronique
numérique) are more accurate than vernier calipers, they can measure the dimension up
to least value of 0.02 mm for dial calipers and 0.01 mm for digital calipers.

Figure 1.2

Depth vernier caliper (Pied à coulisse de profondeur):

Depth vernier caliper is an extremely useful tool for measuring the depths of holes,
slots and recesses (Figure 1.3). It features an extra wide base for proper contact. Like
vernier calipers they exist in dial and digital modes also.

Figure 1.3

Height vernier gauge (Pied à coulisse du hauteur où Calibre-trusquin):

This is also a sort of vernier caliper equipped with a special base block and other
attachments which makes the instruments suitable for height measurements (Figure 1.4)

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Along with the sliding jaw assembly, arrangement is provided to carry a removable
clamp. The upper and lower surfaces of the measuring jaws are parallel to base.
The vernier height gauge is mainly used in the inspection of parts and layout work.
This can also be used as scribing instrument.

Figure 1.4

Gear tooth vernier (Pied à coulisse pour dents d’engrenage):

The tooth vernier caliper is designed to measure the thickness of gear teeth at the
pitch line (the chordal thickness of the teeth) using the distance from the top of a tooth
to the chord (Figure 1.5). For the same purpose, it can also be used for measuring hobs,
form and thread tools, etc. The tooth vernier caliper consists of vernier scale and two
perpendicular arms. In the two perpendicular arms one arm is used to measure the
thickness and other arm is used to measure the depth. Horizontal vernier scale reading
gives chordal thickness and vertical vernier scale gives the chordal addendum.

Figure 1.5

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Micrometers (Micromètres):
An outside micrometer consists of a C-shape frame with an anvil and a an accurate
threaded spindle having about 10 to 20 threads per cm and revolves in a fixed nut
(Figure 1.6). The spindle moves as it is rotated in the stationary spindle nut. A graduated
stationary sleeve and a graduated rotating thimble are the bases for determining
measurement. The spindle is threaded for a certain length and is plain afterwards. The
spindle is advanced or retracted by turning a thimble connected to the spindle. The
spindle is slide fit over the barrel and barrel is the fixed path attached with the frame.
The barrel is graduated in the unit of 0.5 mm. The thimble has got 50 divisions around
its periphery on circular portion. Each division corresponds to 0.01 mm. A lock nut is
provided for locking a dimension by preventing the motion of the spindle. In addition
to the standard outside micrometers, micrometers also exist with different anvil and
spindle shapes for specialized applications. Blade micrometers are used for measuring
narrow slots and grooves (Figure 1.7). The disc micrometers are used for measuring
thin materials such as paper as well as for measuring the distance from a slot to an edge
(Figure 1.8). Hub micrometers can be put through a hole or bore to permit the
measurement of the hub thickness of a gear or sprocket (Figure 1.9). Screw thread
micrometers measure the pitch diameter of screw threads (Figure 1.10). Wire
micrometers designed for measuring wire thickness (Figure 1.11). V-Anvil
micrometers are designed to measure the outside diameters of cutting tools such as taps,
reamers, and end mills that have odd number of flutes (Figure 1.12)

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

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Figure 1.8

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11

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Figure 1.12

Inside micrometer calipers (Micromètres d’intérieur):

The inside micrometer is a measuring tool used to measure the inside of holes or
bores. You might use an inside micrometer to measure the wear in an engine cylinder.
The measuring tips are constituted by the jaws with contact surfaces which are hardened
and ground to a radius (Figure 1.13), or measuring rods of different lengths come with
the micrometer. You can do different ranges of measurement by assembling different
rods in the micrometer head (Figure 1.14). Inside micrometers are made with both inch
and metric system scales. The inside micrometer is read like that of the outside
micrometer. More practice is required to get an accurate measurement with an inside
micrometer. You must hold it perfectly straight at right angles to the centerline of the
hole being measured. Then move one end back and forth slightly to get the maximum
reading. Always take two or three additional reading as an accuracy check.

Figure 1.13

Figure 1.14

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3 points inside micrometer (Trois point à l'intérieur micromètres internes)

3 points micrometre is a variant of inside micrometre, which is a high precision
gauge especially designed to make measurements of holes’ diameter in each stage of
processing, from production to testing (Figure 1.15).
The instrument body is constituted by a cylinder, inside of which a rod commands
feelers that protrude radially in respect to the instrument axis. The measurement
accuracy and the instrument centring relative to the hole are ensured by these three
points of contact, out of phase between them of 120°, while the clutch guarantees the
repeatability and a constant measuring pressure.

Figure 1.15

Depth micrometers (Micromètre de profondeur):

Depth micrometers are used to measure the distance of an object feature from a flat
reference surface. Examples of application are the measurement of steps, the depth of
flanges or the bottom surface in a bore, and the height of an object feature in relation to
a reference surface, when accessibility perm its it to be simultaneously contacted by the
base member and the spindle face (Figure 1.16).

Figure 1.16

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Protractors (Rapporteur d’angles):

It is a simplest instrument for measuring the angle between two faces of a
component. It consists of a base plate attached to a main body and an adjustable blade
which is attached to a circular plate containing vernier scale (Figure 1.17a). The
universal bevel protractor with 5 minutes accuracy is commonly found in all tool rooms
and metrology laboratories. It has a base plate or stock whose surface has high degree
of flatness and surface finish. The stock is placed on the work-piece whose angle is to
be measured. An adjustable blade attached to a circular dial is made to coincide with
the angular surface. It can be swiveled to the required angle and can be locked into
position to facilitate accurate reading of the circular scale that is mounted on the dial.
The main scale on the dial is divided into four quadrants of 90 degrees each. Each
division on this scale reads one degree. The degrees are numbered from 0 to 90 on either
side of 0th division. The vernier scale has 24 divisions, which correspond to 46
divisions on the main scale. However, the divisions on the vernier scale are numbered
from 0 to 60 on either side of the 0th division as shown in figure 1.17b.

a b
Figure 1.17

Combination set:
This is the most adaptable and widely used non-precision instrument in layout and
inspection work (Figure 1.18).
The combination set consists of heavy scale which is grooved all along its length,
sliding squaring head is fitted on this groove, protractor and centre head attachment
used with the scale to locate the centre of bar stock. One surface of the squaring head
is always perpendicular to the scale and it can be adjusted at any place by a locking bolt
and nut. The squaring head also contains a spirit level which is used to test the surfaces
for parallelism. For laying out dovetails an included angle is also mounted on the scale.
It can slide to any position and can be locked there. The squaring head and scale can be
used for height and depth measurement.

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Figure 1.18

Dial indicator (Indicateur cadran):

The dial indicator is a precision measuring tool that measures relative distances
(Figure 1.19). It is used to measure difference in distance to two or more locations. The
dial indicator is great for checking alignment and runout.

Figure 1.19

1-12 Non-graduated measuring instruments:

1-12-1 Calipers (Compas de mesure):
For the parts which cannot be measured directly with the scale can be used measured
using calipers. The caliper consists of two legs hinged at top, the ends and legs span the
part to be inspected. The span is maintained and transferred to the scale. Calipers can
be either with firm joint (Figure 1.20) or spring type (Figure 1.21). These can be also
inside and outside type. In spring calipers spring tension holds the caliper leg firmly
against the adjusting nut. These are more accurate and permit accurate sense of touch
in measuring.

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Firm joint outside caliper Firm joint inside caliper

Figure 1.20

Outside spring caliper Inside spring caliper

Figure 1.21

1-12-2 Telescoping gauges (Jauges télescopique):

A telescoping gauge is a measuring tool with spring-loaded plunges used together
with a micrometer to measure the inside of holes or bores (Figure 1.22). Telescoping
gauges are made in sets to measure from small to very large bores. The telescoping
gauge consist of a handle with two plunger-contacts at right angles with to a handle
which both lock simultaneously. The exact size of the hole is found by measuring across
the two ends of the plungers with an outside micrometer.

Figure 1.22

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1-12-3 Small hole gauges (Petit trou jauges):

A small-hole gauge is a measuring tool with a round expandable head that is used
together with an outside micrometer to measure the inside of small holes (Figure 1.23).
Parts, such as valve guides, have very small holes. These holes are too small to use an
inside micrometer or telescoping gauge. Small-hole gauges are made in sets to cover
different diameters of holes. The small-hole gauges consist of an expanding ball head
adjusted to size by a knurled knob to provide an accurate “feel” for obtaining
measurements in a hole or slot.

Figure 1.23

1-12-4 Tap and drill gauges:

Tap (Figure 1.24) and drill gauges (Figure 1.25) consist of a flat rectangular steel
plate with holes accurately drilled and identified according to their size.

Figure 1.24

Figure 1.25

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1-12-5 Screw pitch gauges (Jauge de filetage):

Screw pitch gauges consist of a metal case preserving many separate leaves (Figure
1.26). Each leaf has teeth corresponding to a definite pitch. By matching the teeth with
the thread on work, the correct pitch can be read directly from the leaf.
Metric, Whitworth, triangular and square thread gauges for cutting tools are available
(Jauge à filets) (Figure 1.27). They serve to control the angle of the thread cutting tool
and to set up the tool on the machine.

Figure 1.26

Figure 1.27

1-12-6 Radius gauges (Jauge à rayon):

Radius gauges available as individual leaves and each leaf is marked with the
radius. Designed to check convex/concave radii (Figure 1.28).

Figure 1.28

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1-12-7 Feeler gauges (Jauge d’épaisseur):

These are used to measure width of the gap between two parallel flat faces. Such as
to measure the gap between cylinder and piston. A feeler gauge consists of a narrow
strip of sheet steel of different given grades and thickness from 0.03 mm to 1 mm
(Figure 1.29). There are assemble together to common hinge and can be brought into
use independently. There are called as filler gauges because these are neither forced to
enter to gap or nor to slide freely, but the user should feel its correctness by himself.
One or more gauges can be used together to get any value.

Figure 1.29

1-12-8 Gauge blocks (Cales-étalons):

Gauge blocks are also called Jo blocks, slip gages and Johansson gages, are blocks
of metal or ceramic with two opposing faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise
distance apart. (Figure 1.30). These useful blocks are often utilized when distances
between parallel surfaces need to be measured and a reference for direct measurement
of those lengths and widths become necessary. Today, precision gage blocks are vital
to dimensional quality control and many manufacturing plants use them.

Figure 1.30
An important feature of gauge blocks is that they can be joined together with very
little dimensional uncertainty. The blocks are joined by a sliding process

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called wringing, which causes their ultra-flat surfaces to cling together (Figure 1.31).
This wringing process is used to build up desired dimensions over a range of sizes in
specific increments. The success of the wringing operation depends upon the surface
finish and flatness of the blocks used and absence of dirt, grease, butts and scratches.
A small number of gauge blocks can be used to create accurate lengths within a wide
range. By using 3 blocks from a set of 30 blocks, one may create any of the 1000 lengths
from 3.000 to 3.999 mm in 0.001 mm steps (or .3000 to .3999 inches in 0.0001 inch
steps).

Figure 1.31

1-12-9 Angular gauge blocks (Cales-étalons d’angle):

Angle gauges are made of hardened steel and seasoned carefully to ensure
permanence of angular accuracy, and the measuring faces are lapped and polished to a
high degree of accuracy and flatness like slip gauges (Figure 1.32). These gauges are
about 76.2 mm long, 15.87 mm wide with their faces lapped to within 0.0002 mm and
angles between the two ends to ± 2 seconds.
Use of angle gauges with square plate. As already indicated, the use of square plate
increases the versatility of the application of angle gauges. Generally, the square plate
has its 90° angles guaranteed to within 2 seconds of arc.

Figure 1.32

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1-12-10 Sine bar (Règle sinus):

A sine bar consists of a hardened, precision ground body with two precision ground
cylinders fixed at the ends (Figure 1.32). The distance between the centres of the
cylinders is precisely controlled, and the top of the bar is parallel to a line through the
centres of the two rollers. The dimension between the two rollers is chosen to be a
whole number (for ease of later calculations) and forms the hypotenuse of a triangle
when in use.
When a sine bar is placed on a level surface the top edge will be parallel to that
surface. If one roller is raised by a known distance, usually using gauge blocks, then
the top edge of the bar will be tilted by the same amount forming an angle that may be
calculated by the application of the sine rule.
Due to the nature trigonometry; at large angles, it is susceptible to errors in the length
of the sine bar as well as in the height of the gauge blocks.

Figure 1.32

1-12-11 Level (Niveau de precision):

A spirit level, bubble level or simply a level is an instrument designed to indicate
whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb). It consists of a small glass
tube containing alcohol or similar liquid and an air bubble; the tube is sealed and fixed
horizontally in a wooden or metallic block or frame with a smooth lower surface (Figure
1.34).
The sensitivity is an important specification for a spirit level; its accuracy depends
on its sensitivity. The sensitivity of a level is given as the change of angle or gradient
required to move the bubble by unit distance. If the bubble housing has graduated
divisions, then the sensitivity is the angle or gradient change that moves the bubble by
one of these divisions. 2 mm is the usual spacing for graduations; on a surveyor's level,
the bubble will move 2 mm when the vial is tilted about 0.005 degree. For a precision
machinist level with 2 mm divisions, when the vial is tilted 5 arc seconds the bubble
will move one graduation. This is equivalent to movement of 0.0005 in (0.013 mm)
measured one foot from the pivot point, referred to as 5 ten-thousandths per foot.

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 Chapter 1 – Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Figure 1.34

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