Module 2: Computer Fundamentals

Definition of Computer:

a computer is something which computes or calculates. It is a machine that takes in raw data and
performs some calculations on it and gives us the formed output in the desired format.
OR
A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations based on
instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It has the ability to accept data (input),
process it, and then produce outputs.

History of computer:

Fig 1: History of computers

reference :
https://www.javatpoint.com/history-of-computer

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Key terms related to Computer:

Computer Networking & Repair Terms & Definitions

Computer networking is the term for a set of computers connected together that share resources.
The most common computer network is the internet. Here are 50 terms and their definitions that
you should know the definition of as a computer repair technician.

1.LANs
Local area networks, or LANs, are computers that are close enough to connect usually in the same
building.

2.WANs
Wide area networks, or WANs, are computers that are too far apart for a local area network and are
therefore connected by telephone or radio waves.

3.Wi-Fi
Wireless fidelity, or Wi-Fi, is wireless local area networking for computers or devices that connect
to the internet via a wireless access point (WLAN).

4.SOHO
Small office/home office, or SOHO, is sometimes called a virtual office. The term SOHO describes
the network of a small office or home office.

5.TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP, is a set of networking protocols
allowing multiple computers to communicate.

Soldering Terms & Definitions

Soldering is a term that describes the process of joining two pieces of metal using a filler metal.

6.Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is the joining of small intricate parts that have low melting points.

7.Hard Soldering
Hard soldering is the connection of two pieces of metal at a high temperature.

Digital and Binary Electronics Terms & Definitions

Digital and binary electronics are digital electronics that handle digital signals with discrete bands
of analog levels.

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8.Binary Number Systems

This is a base 2 numerical system which uses two different symbols to represent number values.
The two different symbols are 0 and 1.

9.Logic Gates
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. Every terminal is in one of the two binary
conditions, 0 or 1.

10.Shift Registers
Shift registers are used for the storage or transfer of data using the binary number system.

11.Memory
Memory is a temporary storage area that holds data and instructions for an electronic device to
function.

12.Logic Counters
Logic counters are a number of latches with two stable states that are connected in sequence or in a
series.

Hardware Component Terms & Definitions

Hardware components are the physical parts of a computer. Hardware is directed by the software to
execute commands.

13.Motherboard
A motherboard is a printed circuit board containing the components of an electronic device.

14.Processor
This is the hardware within a computer that executes programs.

15.Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a central processing unit, or CPU, contained on a single integrated circuit.

16.Storage System
A storage system consists of computer components used to retain digital data.

17.Power Supply
The power supply converts main AC current to low-voltage regulated DC current used to power an
electronic device.

18.Expansion Card
An expansion card is a circuit board that can be added to the motherboard to give extra memory for
processing data.

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19.RAM
Random Access Memory, or RAM, is the term given to computer data storage used to store
frequently accessed data to increase the speed of the system.

20.Firmware
Firmware is permanent software programmed into a read-only memory that controls, monitors, and
manipulates the data stored in an electronic device.

21.Peripherals
Peripherals are devices used to input or output data to and from the user and an electronic device.
The most widely used peripheral devices include mice, keyboards, monitors, and printers.

I/O Operation Terms & Definitions

I/O stands for input/output. This term refers to the communication between an electronic device and
a person, the internet, or another information processing system.

22.VGA
Video Graphics Array, or VGA, is the connector typically used to plug a peripheral, most likely a
monitor, to an electronic device.

23.S-Video
A standard definition video connection, or S-Video, separates black-and-white and color signals
from the computer to a monitor.

24.DVI
Digital Visual Interface, or DVI, is used to transmit digital signals from peripherals to a computer.

25.HDMI
High-Definition Multimedia Interface, or HDMI, is used to transmit data between components,
typically an electronic device and monitor or television.

26.PS/2
PS/2 is a six-pin mini-DIN connector used to connect some PC compatible computers with
keyboards and mice.

27.USB
USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is used to connect a computer to devices and peripherals.

28.FireWire
FireWire is an external connector, similar to a USB, that allows high-speed communication and data
exchange between an electronic device and a peripheral.

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29.Serial Ports
A serial port is a communication interface that transfers one bit of data in or out to modems,
terminals, and peripherals.

30.Parallel Ports
A parallel port is a communication interface that transfers several bits of data simultaneously to
peripherals.

31.eSATA
A Serial Advanced Technology Attachment, or eSATA, provides a signal connection for external
storage devices that use the computer for power.

32.SCSI
Small Computer System Interface, or SCSI, is a set of standards for physically connecting and
transferring data between electronic devices and peripherals.

Secondary Storage Device Terms & Definitions

Secondary storage devices are used for external memory directly accessible by the computer, until
deleted or overwritten.

33.Hard Disk Drives

Hard disk drives are data storage devices that use magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital
information. Both internal and external hard drives are available.

34.Optical Disk Drive

An optical disk drive, or ODD, uses laser light to read data from, or write data to, an optical disc
including CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.

35.Floppy Disk Drive

A floppy disk drive, or FDD, is a thin and flexible magnetic storage enclosure that stores data
externally for electronic devices.

36.RAID Systems
Redundant array of independent disks, or RAID, is data storage virtualization that combines
multiple physical disk drives into a single logical unit for data redundancy and/or better
performance.

Operating System Terms & Definitions

An operating system, or OS, consists of the software that supports a computer’s basic functions.
The computer’s basic functions typically manage computer hardware and peripherals.

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37.System Maintenance
System maintenance involves the modification of a system to correct faults, improve performance,
and/or adapt the system to a different environment.

38.Backups
Backing up is the process of archiving a copy of data if needed to restore the original after a data
loss event.

39.Disaster Recovery Plan

A disaster recovery plan, or DRP, is a process to recover and protect a business’s IT infrastructure in
the event of a disaster.

40.Data Restoration
Data restoration is the salvaging of inaccessible, lost, corrupted, damaged, or formatted data from
secondary storage or removable media files.

41.Disk Cleanups
Disk cleanups are designed to free up disk space on a computer’s hard drive.

42.Antivirus Software
Antivirus software detects and destroys computer viruses. A computer virus is code that is capable
of copying itself to corrupt a system or destroy data.

43.Antimalware
Antimalware is software that protects a computer from infections that are aimed at stealing data
from the user or computer.

Malware Terms & Definitions

Some of the different types of malware follow below.

44.Worms
A worm is a self-replicating computer program that penetrates an operating system and intends to
spread malicious code, typically to consume bandwidth, delete files, and/or send documents via
email.

45.Trojan Horses
Trojan Horses are programs designed to breach the security of a computer system typically to allow
hackers to gain access to a user’s system.

46.Rootkits
A rootkit is software designed to hide, and once an operating system has been compromised, it
replaces vital procedures needed to run the Windows operating system.

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47.Spyware
Spyware is software that gives users the ability to obtain information about another user’s computer
activities and to collect personal information or monitor internet browsing activities.

48.Keyloggers
A keylogger is a computer program that records every keystroke made by a computer user, typically
to gain access to passwords and credit card information.

49.Ransomware
Ransomware is software designed to block access to a computer system until a sum of money is
paid.

50.Adware
Adware is a program designed to display advertisements on your computer that redirect the user’s
search requests to the advertising website and collect marketing-type data about the user. Most
adware has your permission to collect data, unlike Trojan Horses that do not have your permission.

Computer Hardware

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Examples of computer hardware

Computer Software:

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a

sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software −

•System Software
•Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users.

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Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

• Close to the system
• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
• Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment.
All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application
software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and
editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following −
• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software
• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software
• Railways Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint

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Primary and Secondary storage devices

What is Primary Storage?

Primary storage is commonly referred to as simply “primary memory” which is volatile in nature
such as the RAM which is a primary memory and tends to lose data as soon as the computer reboots
or loses power. It holds data or information that can be directly accessed by the central processing
unit. RAM is stored in integrated circuits for immediate access with minimum or no delay. It’s a
high-speed data storage medium which is directly connected to the processing unit via the memory
bus, allowing active programs to interact with the processor. Simple speaking, primary storage
refers to internal storage devices that provide fast and efficient access to data or information.
However, it stores data or applications for a short period of time while the computer is running.

Secondary storage is yet another ideal storage solution in the computer’s memory hierarchy that is
used to store data or information on the long term basis, more like permanently. Unlike primary
storage, they are non-volatile memory or commonly referred to as external memory that are not
directly accessed by the central processing unit. They are also called as auxiliary storage which can
be both internal and external, plus beyond the primary storage. Because they are not directly
accessed by the I/O channels, they are relatively slower than primary storage devices when it comes
to data access. However, it’s one of the most valuable assets of data storage hierarchy that is capable
of storing applications and programs permanently. Unlike RAM, it’s a long-term storage solution
that expands the data storage capability.

Primary Storage Secondary Storage

Main Memory or Internal Memory Auxiliary Memory, External Memory, or Secondary Memory

Ram, ROM, Cache, PROM,

HDD CD, DVD, Floppy Disks, Flash Drives
EPROM

Temporarily Stores Data While in

Permanently Stores Data
Use

Volatile Memory Non-volatile Memory

CPU Directly Accesses Data CPU Does Not Directly Access Data

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Power Cuts Cause Data Loss Power Cuts Do Not Cause Data Loss

Limited Storage Capacity Expansive and Scalable Storage Capacity

Faster Data Access Slower Data Access

Basics of operating system

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System,
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users

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OS Types

Components of Operating system

Components of OS

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Introduction to file system

What is a file system?

Let's start with a simple definition:

A file system defines how files are named, stored, and retrieved from a storage device. Every
time you open a file on your computer or smart device, your operating system uses its file system
internally to load it from the storage device.Or when you copy, edit, or delete a file, the file system
handles it under the hood. Whenever you download a file or access a web page over the Internet, a
file system is involved too.

File Attributes

There are different types of information which can be stored in a file such as source or executable
programs, numeric or text data, photos, music, video, etc. The information in a file is defined by its
creator. A file also has a certain defined structure, which depends on its type. A file’s attributes vary
from one operating system to another but typically consist of the following:

• Name: The file name is an information kept in human- readable form which can be defined
by the creator.

• Identifier: This unique tag, usually a number, identifies the file within the file system; it is
the non-human-readable name for the file. 

• Type: This information is needed for systems that support different types of files. 

• Location: This information is a pointer to a device and to the location of the file on that
device. 

• Size: The current size of the file (in bytes, words, or blocks) and possibly the maximum
allowed size are included in this attribute. 

• Protection: Access-control information determines who can do reading, writing, executing,

and so on. 

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• Time, date, and user identification: This information may be kept for creation, last
modification, and last use. These data can be useful for protection, security, and usage
monitoring. 

File Operations

In order to properly define a file, we need to consider the operations that can be performed on files.
The operating system can create, write, read, reposition, delete, and truncate files. Let us also look
into what the operating system must do to perform each of these six basic file operations:

• Creating a file: There are two requirements for creating a file – firstly, there should be
sufficient space in the file system for the file; secondly, an entry for the new file must be
made in the directory.

• Writing a file:To write a file, we need to specify both the name of the file as well as the
information to be written to the file. Given the name of the file, the system searches the
directory to find the file’s location. The system must keep a write pointer to the location in
the file where the next write is to take place. The write pointer must further update whenever
a write occurs.

• Reading a file:To read from a file, we again need to specify the name of the file and where
(in memory) the next block of the file should be put. Again, the directory is searched for the
associated entry, and the system needs to keep a read pointer to the location in the file where
the next read is to take place. A Read pointer is maintained by the OS, pointing to the
position up to which, the data has been read. Once the read has taken place, the read pointer
is updated.

• Repositioning within a file:Re-positioning is simply moving the file pointers forward or

backward depending upon the user’s requirement. The directory is searched for the
appropriate entry, and the current file position pointer is repositioned to a given value. This
file operation is also known as a file seek.

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• Deleting a file: To delete a file, we search the directory for the named file. Having found the
associated directory entry, we release all file space, so that it can be reused by other files,
and erase the directory entry. Hence, deleting the file will not only delete all the data stored
inside the file, but it will also delete all the attributes of the file.

• Truncating a file: Truncating is simply deleting the contents of the file without deleting the
file attributes.The user may want to erase the contents of a file but keep its attributes. Rather
than forcing the user to delete the file and then recreate it, this function allows all attributes
to remain unchanged — except for file length—but lets the file be reset to length zero and
its file space released.

These six basic operations comprise the minimal set of required file operations. Other common
operations include appending new information to the end of an existing file and renaming an
existing file. These basic operations can then be combined to perform other file operations, such as
creating a copy of a file or copying the file to another device, such as a printer or a display—by
creating a new file and then reading from the old and writing to the new. It should then be easy to
see how other similar operations, such as renaming a file, can be implemented.

Windows OS Architecture:

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In the image above we can see the HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer), which is the first abstraction
layer that abstracts the hardware details from the operating system. The operating system can then
call the same API functions and the HAL takes care of how they are actually executed on the
underlying hardware. Every driver that is loaded in the kernel mode uses HAL to interact with the
hardware components, so even the drivers don’t interact with hardware directly. The kernel drivers
can interact with the hardware directly, but usually they don’t need to, since they can use HAL API
to execute some action. The hardware abstraction layer’s API is provided with the hal.dll library file
that is located in the C:\WINDOWS\system32\ directory as can be seen below:

The rest of the system kernel components are provided by the following libraries and executables:
• exe : manages user processes and threads
• sys : user and graphics device driver (GDI)
• dll : access to resources like file system, devices, processes, threads and error handling in
Windows systems
• dll : access to windows registry, shutdown/restart the system, start/stop/create services,
manage user accounts
• dll : create and manage screen windows, buttons, scrollbars, receive mouse and keyboard
input
• dll : outputs graphical content to monitors, printers and other output devices
• dll : dialog boxes for opening and saving files, choosing color and font
• dll : access to status bars, progress bars, tools, tabs
• dll : access the operating system shell
• dll : access to networking functions
The programs can use Windows API (Win 32 API) to implement the needed actions. But the
WinAPI uses the described DLL libraries underneath. Right above the kernel mode is the user
mode, where the most important library is ntdll.dll. That can be used as an entry point into the
kernel if some process needs services of the kernel.

Linux OS Architecture:
The Linux operating system's architecture mainly contains some of the components: the Kernel,
System Library, Hardware layer, System, and Shell utility.

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1. Kernel:-The kernel is one of the core section of an operating system. It is responsible for
each of the major actions of the Linux OS. This operating system contains distinct types of
modules and cooperates with underlying hardware directly. The kernel facilitates required
abstraction for hiding details of low-level hardware or application programs to the system.
There are some of the important kernel types which are mentioned below:
1. Monolithic Kernel

2. Micro kernels

3. Exo kernels

4. Hybrid kernels

2. System Libraries:-These libraries can be specified as some special functions. These are
applied for implementing the operating system's functionality and don't need code access
rights of the modules of kernel.

3. System Utility Programs:-It is responsible for doing specialized level and individual
activities.

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4. Hardware layer:-Linux operating system contains a hardware layer that consists of several
peripheral devices like CPU, HDD, and RAM.

5. Shell:- It is an interface among the kernel and user. It can afford the services of kernel. It
can take commands through the user and runs the functions of the kernel. The shell is
available in distinct types of OSes. These operating systems are categorized into two
different types, which are the graphical shells and command-line shells. The graphical line
shells facilitate the graphical user interface, while the command line shells facilitate the
command line interface. Thus, both of these shells implement operations. However, the
graphical user interface shells work slower as compared to the command-line interface
shells.

Introduction to computer related crimes:

Computer crime or popularly known as cyber-crime is a threat to every country. Cyber crime is the
easiest way to do as your do crime in a virtual world. It is also sometimes the hardest to catch the
criminal. Cyber crime can be very devastating for a country as it directly impacts its national
security, economic prosperity, and public safety. Cyber crime is on the rise and so as the law
enforcement. There are chances that you may be directly or indirectly involved in a cyber crime.

Types of cyber crime

Cyber crime includes many types of crimes which are white collar crimes, theft crime, fraudulent
crimeand even sex crimes are counted as a part of cyber crime.
1. Hacking: Hacking or unauthorized access is a process of accessing some other computer
without the permission is referred to unauthorized access. Hacking is a crime which is very
popular in many parts of the world. Many people are learning hacking tricks to access
someone computer using the internet. There is a penalty on hacking depending upon the
level of hacking that is done. An ideal hacking can easily get you behind the bars for 10
years.
2. Corporate Account takeover: Corporate account takeover is also a form of cyber crime
which falls under cyber theft category. This type of computer crime is usually done on a
well-established corporate company. A person takeover the company funds account and
transfer all the money to some other account using malwares and other types of electronic

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code reading gadgets. People with big bank balances are the potential candidates for the
account takeover.
3. Frauds: Fraud is also a serious crime which is done with a person or a group of the people
to collect some money from them by using the fraud means. Mostly the frauds are done
because of the money. People do invest their money by their will and ends up losing all the
money.
4. Identity Theft: Identity theft is also a serious crime in which a identity of a person is stolen
and illegally used on the internet. Identity theft is done using electronic gadgets which
secretly scans the identity issued by the government and makes a carbon copy of it.

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