ELEC0014 - Introduction to electric power and energy systems

Voltage control

Thierry Van Cutsem

[email protected] www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/~vct

December 2017

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 Voltage control

Two major differences between frequency and voltage controls:

frequency = “signal” available throughout whole system, whatever its size.
Nothing similar for voltage.

Example:
change of active power setpoint of a generator
⇒ frequency variation sensed by all speed governors
⇒ reaction of all power plants under frequency control
change of voltage setpoint of a generator
⇒ voltages at buses in some neighbourhood are modified
⇒ among the other generators under voltage control, only those in some
neighbourhood have their reactive power modified

frequency hold very close to its nominal value

voltage control is comparatively less accurate
deviation of ±5 % with respect to nominal value is very acceptable
in any case, voltage drops along the network impedances is inevitable.

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 Voltage control

However, voltages must be kept within acceptable limits:

not too high:
degradation of insulating materials
damage to sensitive (electronic) equipment
etc.
not too low:
higher Joule losses in network
disturbed operation of some components: e.g.
commutation failures of power electronics
tripping of some loads (e.g. motors) by undervoltage protections
stalling of induction motors

Two main ways of acting on voltages:

1 inject (resp. extract) reactive power into (resp. from) the network
2 adjust the ratios of transformers equipped with load tap changers

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 Voltage control Voltage correction by shunt capacitors or inductors

Voltage correction by shunt capacitors or inductors

The most economical way of correcting voltage deviations at a bus

control:
manual: by operator from dispatch center
automatic: by a local controller measuring voltage, comparing to threshold
value, and reacting after some delay
this is an adjustment “in steps”, not a fine tuned control
repeated and/or fast switching not possible with the mechanical breakers
→ use power electronics components
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 Voltage control Excitation systems of synchronous machines: overview

Excitation systems of synchronous machines: overview

Components of control chain

Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

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 Voltage control Excitation systems of synchronous machines: overview

Exciter
injects in the field winding a DC current under a DC voltage
can quickly vary vf and if in response to disturbances

rotating (auxiliary) machine on the same shaft as generator : power vf if

provided by turbine
in the past: Direct Current generator
nowadays: Alternating Current generator + rectifier
“static” system: transformer + rectifier

Impedance compensator
voltage drop in step-up transformer partly compensated
voltage controlled at a fictitious point closer to the transmission network
typically Zc ' 50 − 90 % of the transformer series impedance
in what follows, it is assumed that Zc = 0.

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 Voltage control Excitation systems of synchronous machines: overview

Field current limiter (or Over-Excitation Limiter - OEL

In response to a large disturbance (typically a short-circuit), it is important to

let the excitation system produce a high current if in order to support voltage
in such circumstances, if may quickly rise up to a “ceiling” value ' 2Ifmax
Ifmax : permanent admissible value
such high value cannot be tolerated for more than a few seconds
but milder field current overloads can be tolerated for longer ( i 2 dt)
R

inverse time characteristic:

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 Voltage control Excitation systems of synchronous machines: overview

Two techniques to limit the field current:

1 control the exciter with :
min (AVR signal, OEL signal)
main voltage control loop opened when limiter is active
2 inject in the main AVR summing junction a correction signal
zero as long as the limiter does not act
such that the field current is smoothly brought back to its limit
can be seen as an automatic reduction of the voltage setpoint Vo .

The voltage regulator regains control as soon as operating conditions permit.

Stator current limiter

less widespread than rotor current limiter
larger thermal inertia of stator ⇒ slower action, by power plant operator is
enough
two possibilities: decrease voltage setpoint Vo or generated active power P
some generators are equipped with an automatic stator current limiter,
acting on the exciter as the field current limiter does.
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 Voltage control Response to a disturbance of a voltage-controlled synchronous machine

Response to a disturbance of a voltage-controlled

synchronous machine

Simplifying assumptions:
round-rotor machine with synchronous reactance X
saturation and stator resistance neglected
constant active power production P (since we focus on V and Q)
infinitely accurate voltage control: terminal voltage V constant in steady
state.

What happens in the network

1 → 2 : the generator produces more reactive power to keep its voltage constant
1 → 3 : the generator produces less reactive power to keep its voltage constant
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 Voltage control Response to a disturbance of a voltage-controlled synchronous machine

What happens in the voltage-controlled machine

V̄ is constant
When Q varies, under constant P, the extremity of Ēq moves on a parallel to V̄ .

When the emf phasor Ēq ends up:

at point O: zero reactive power
to the right of point O: the generator operates in over-excitation mode
to the left of point O: the generator operates in under-excitation mode

1→2: A→B: Q, Eq and if increase

1→3: A→C: Q, Eq and if decrease
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 Voltage control QV curves of a synchronous machine

QV curves of a synchronous machine

Machine under voltage control

Simplified generic model of an excitation system : first type

In steady state :
vf = Ga Ge (Vo − V )
there must be a permanent error : vf 6= 0 ⇒ V 6= Vo
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 Voltage control QV curves of a synchronous machine

In steady-state :
ωN Laf ω L ω L
Eq = √ if = √N af vf = √N af Ga Ge (Vo − V ) (1)
2 2 Rf 2 Rf

Open-loop static gain : G = Ga Ge ' 20 − 200 pu/pu

(smaller values usually observed in older systems)

The phasor diagram gives :

Q 2 P
Eq2 = (V + X ) + (X )2 (2)
V V
The steady-state behaviour is obtained by substituting (1) for Eq in (2).

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 Voltage control QV curves of a synchronous machine

Example of QV characteristic

Machine with X = 2.2 pu

P and Q in pu on the machine

(voltage and power) base

For each (G , P) combination,

Vo was adjusted to have
Q = 0 when V = 1 pu

The machine experiences a slight voltage drop as Q increases

slope of the curve larger if G is smaller
slope slightly influenced by the value of P
steady-state error stems from proportional control

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 Voltage control QV curves of a synchronous machine

Simplified generic model of an excitation system : second type

PI control with Kp , Ki > 0

In steady state : V = Vo
no permanent regulation error
(assumption made in previous section accurate for this excitation system)
the QV curve is simply an horizontal line
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 Voltage control QV curves of a synchronous machine

Machine under rotor or stator current limit

Example :

nominal apparent power: 1200 MVA

turbine nominal power: 1020 MW

p p
Under stator current limit: S = V IN = P2 + Q2 ⇒ Q= (V IN )2 − P 2

Extreme scenario: machine under limit ⇒ V drops a lot ⇒ generator tripped

by undervoltage protection ⇒ productions P and Q lost !!
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 Voltage control Underexcitation limiter

Underexcitation limiter
As the machine absorbs more and more reactive power:
the extremity of the Ēq phasor moves to the left ( N → M → L)
Eq first decreases, then increases
δ increases

At point M :
δ = 90o
excitation is minimum
Eq = Eqmin = XPV
2
X VQ = −V ⇔ Q = − VX

orange zone: unstable operation under constant excitation (constant Eq ),

stable operation under the control of the AVR;
operation would become unstable if AVR had a failure !

red zone: if an excitation system failure makes Eq drop (even a little) below Eqmin ,
the machine looses synchronism (torque Te too small, due to low if );
it is then tripped by the “loss of field” protection.
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 Voltage control Underexcitation limiter

The underexcitation limiter :

prevents operation to the left of, and in some neighbourhood of point M
keeps a security margin with respect to M.

Capability curve corresponding to δ = δmax (for instance 75o ) ?

Q
phasor diagram projected on V̄ : Eq cos δmax = V +X
V
P
phasor diagram projected on ⊥ V̄ : Eq sin δmax = X
V
X VP V2
 
P
tan δmax = Q
= V2
⇔ P = tan δmax Q+
V +X V X +Q X

Acts on excitation system using the same techniques as for the OEL.
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 Voltage control Synchronous condenser

Synchronous condenser
Synchronous machine equipped with an automatic voltage regulator, used to
control the voltage at one bus of the network
produces or absorbs reactive power, as required by voltage control
not driven by a turbine ⇒ does not produce active power
consumes a small active power corresponding to Joule losses at the stator
and mechanical friction of rotor
still in use nowadays, but static var compensator1 is often preferred.

1 see next section

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 Voltage control Synchronous condenser

Example of synchronous condenser

Shut down nuclear plant Biblis A, Germany: the generator has been converted
into a synchronous condenser (2012)

Capacity : - 400 / + 900 Mvar

Source: Amprion & RWE Power

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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Device using power electronics to inject a fast-varying reactive power into the
network2 .

Usages:
1 load compensation:
balance large loads presenting significant phase imbalance
stabilize voltage (amplitude) near fast varying loads
e.g. arc furnaces, rollers, etc. . .
mitigate voltage flicker: voltage fluctuations with a frequency 2 − 10 Hz causing
visible discomfort in lamps and disturbing some electronic devices
2 network applications:
maintain the voltage at a network bus nearly constant
contribute to stability improvement.

First generation of devices named FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems)

2 in French: compensateur statique de puissance réactive

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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

The thyristor

Electronic component used as a switch

current can flow if the anode voltage is higher than the cathode voltage
(vA − vC > 0) and an impulse is applied to the gate3 (thyristor is “fired”)
current can flow from anode to cathode only (as in a diode): the thyristor
blocks if the current attempts to change direction.

The gate impulses are produced by an electronic control system, independent of

the power part but synchronized with the latter.

3 in French: gachette
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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

First compensator type: Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)

Principle:
switch on/off a number of capacitors banks connected in parallel
use thyristors as bidirectional switches.

shunt compensation is varied in discrete steps

no reaction as long as voltage remains in a deadband
each capacitor can be switched at multiples of a half-period (10 ms at 50 Hz)
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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

t = 0 : capacitor in service
thyristor B is conducting
the current ic leads by 90o the voltage vc across the capacitor

t = t1 : assume that we want to keep the capacitor in service

thyristor B blocks
capacitor remains charged at the peak voltage Vmax
voltage across thyristor A: vc − v = Vmax − v > 0
impulse applied to gate of A as soon as possible (to avoid transients !)
unavoidable delays ⇒ small inductor (not shown) in series with capacitor

t = t2 : assume that we want to take the capacitor out of service

no impulse applied to the gate of B
capacitor remains charged with vc = −Vmax ⇒ wait until time t3 to put it
back into service. 23 / 40
 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Second compensator type: “Thyristor Controlled Reactor” (TCR)

Principle:
fire with intentional delay thyristors placed in series with an inductance
use thyristors as bidirectional switches.

α = firing delay angle4 σ = conduction angle.

4 angle de retard à l’allumage

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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Magnitude of fundamental (@ 50/60 Hz) of current:

V σ − sin σ
Ifund = (σ in radian)
ωN L π
V
σ = π ⇒ Ifund = ⇒ seen inductance is equal to L
ωN L
σ = 0 ⇒ Ifund = 0 ⇒ seen inductance is infinite
To produce reactive power: shunt capacitor placed in parallel 25 / 40
 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Filtering of harmonics

An exercise of Chapter 2 has shown that:

in a current of this shape, there are no even harmonics
mounting in triangle eliminates harmonics of rank 3, 6, 9, etc.

First remaining harmonics : rank 5 and 7. Eliminated by filters.

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Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Filtering of harmonics

More elaborate scheme to also eliminate the harmonics of rank 5 and 7

Phase shift of 30 degrees between the voltages of the two secondary windings

The remaining harmonics are eliminated by means of simpler filters.

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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Bloc diagram and nominal power

Bloc diagram of a TCR

in steady state
and in per unit

Unom : nominal voltage

phase-to-phase

Nominal power:   
1 Unom 1
Qnom = 3 max |BC − | , BC .( √ )2 = max |BC − 2
| , BC . Unom
ωL 3 ωL
If the TCR is designed to produce more reactive power than consume:
1 2
BC > |BC − | and Qnom = BC Unom (3)
ωL
√
In the base (Unom / 3, Qnom ):
K is in the range 25 − 100 pu/pu
if Qnom is given by (3) : BC = 1 pu
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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

QV characteristics and voltage regulation

Example

2
Q in pu on the compensator base Qnom = BC Unom
1
BC = 1 pu BC − ωL = −0.3 pu
voltage setpoint Vo adjusted to have Q = 0 under V = 1 pu
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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Adjustment of compensator operating point:

Q is kept close to zero, to leave a reactive power reserve on the TCR, so that
it is ready to counteract a disturbance in the network
Q adjusted by switching on/off capacitors in parallel with the TCR
mechanically: with breakers
electronically : via a TSC

Static Var System : combination (TCR + TSC) or (TCR + mech. switched caps)
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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

. . . compared to synchronous condensers:

higher speed of response

does not contribute to short-circuit current
easier maintenance (no moving part)
but no internal e.m.f. ⇒ lower voltage support during short-circuits.

. . . with respect to mechanically switched capacitors/inductors:

SVC remains significantly more expensive

justified when there is a need for fast response and/or accurate voltage
control (stability improvement)
otherwise, mechanically switched capacitors/inductors are sufficient.

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 Voltage control Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Reactive power
compensation in Western
French transmission grid

CSPR = Compensateur
Statique de Puissance
Réactive (= SVC)
has a “standby” mode
(to minimize losses):
thyristors switched off
when network voltage
remains in a deadband
reacts mainly to incidents
impacting grid voltages
(“dynamic reactive power
reserve”)
reaction time: 0.10 –
0.15 s

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 Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

Voltage control by load tap changers

Principle

widely used to control voltages in networks of lower nominal voltage

HV sub-transmission and MV distribution networks
where no longer power plants are connected (replaced by more powerful ones
connected to transmission network)
to compensate for voltage deviations in the EHV transmission network and
serve the end consumers under correct voltage

main way of controlling voltages in MV distribution grids.

Other ways available at distribution level:
switch on/off shunt capacitors (but this is mainly for power factor correction)
ajust the active and/or reactive production of distributed generation units
not much used yet, but
likely to be required in the future, with the expected deployment of renewable
energy sources

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 Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

r ' 85-90 to 110-115 %

∆r ' 0.5 − 1.5 %
∆r < 2

Automatic load tap changer: adjusts r to keep V2 into the deadband:

[V2o −  V2o + ]

Voltage setpoint V2o :

standard MV distribution systems “importing” active power:
V2o higher than nominal voltage to counteract the voltage drop in MV grid
in some cases, the tap changer controls a “downstream” voltage |V̄2 − Zc I¯|
I¯ : see figure Zc : compensation impedance
MV distribution systems hosting distributed generation sources and
“exporting” active power:
V2o lower than nominal voltage to avoid overvoltages at MV buses

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 Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

Load tap changers are rather slow devices.

Delay between two tap changes:

minimum delay Tm of mechanical origin ' 5 seconds
intentional additional delay: from a few seconds up to 1 − 2 minutes
to let network transients die out before reacting (avoid unnecessary wear)
fixed or variable
e.g. inverse-time characteristic: the larger the deviation |V2 − V2o |, the faster
the reaction
delay before first tap change (' 30 − 60 seconds) usually larger than delay
between subsequent tap changes (' 10 seconds)
if several levels of tap changers in cascade: the higher the voltage level, the
faster the reaction (otherwise risk of oscillations between tap changers)

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 Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

Behaviour of a distribution network controlled by a load tap changer

Assume the load is represented by the exponential model:

V2 V2
P2 (V2 ) = P o ( o )α Q2 (V2 ) = Q o ( o )β
V2 V2
For simplicity, the reference voltage V2o is taken equal to the LTC set-point.

The power balance equations at bus 2 are:

V2 V1 V2
P o ( o )α = − sin θ (4)
V2 rX
V2 V2 V1 V2
Q o ( o )β − BV22 = − 2 + cos θ (5)
V2 X rX
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 Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

For given values of V1 and r , Eqs. (4,5) can be solved numerically with
respect to θ and V2 (using Newton method for instance)
from which the power leaving the transmission network is obtained as:
V1 V2 V12 V1 V2
P1 = − sin θ (= P2 ) Q1 = − cos θ
rX r2 X rX
repeating this operation for various values of V1 and r yields the curves
shown on the next slide.

Numerical example
transformer: 30 MVA, X = 0.14 pu, V2o = 1 pu
load: α = 1.5, β = 2.4, P2 = 20 MW under V2 = 1 pu,
cos φu = 0.90 (lagging) under V2 = 1 pu
with the compensation capacitor: cos φc = 0.96 (lagging) under V2 = 1 pu

On the SB = 100 MVA base: X = 0.14(100/30) = 0.467 pu

V2o = 1 pu o
P = 0.20 pu Q = P o tan φu = 0.20 × 0.4843 = 0.097 pu
o

B.12 = Q o − P o tan φc ⇒ B = 0.097 − 0.20 × 0.2917 = 0.039 pu

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Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

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 Voltage control Voltage control by load tap changers

Initial operating point: A, where V1 = 1 pu, r = 0.97 pu/pu, and V2 = V2o = 1 pu

Response to a 0.05 pu drop of voltage V1 :

in the short term, r does not change; the oper. point changes from A to B
at point B, V2 < V2o −  = 0.99 pu
hence, the LTC makes the ratio decrease by three positions, until V2 > V2o − 
and the operating point changes from B to C.

Neglecting the deadband 2:

the V2 voltage is restored to the setpoint value V2o
hence, the P2 and Q2 powers are restored to their pre-disturbance values
the same holds true for the P1 and Q1 powers. This was to be expected since:
P1 = P2 (V2 )
P22 (V2 ) + Q22 (V2 )
Q1 = Q2 (V2 ) − BV22 + XI22 = Q2 (V2 ) − BV22 + X
V22
hence, the load seen by the transmission system behaves in the long-term
(i.e. after the tap changer has acted) as a constant power.
This is true as long as the tap changer does not hit a limit.
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