AMPLIFIERS

Lecture Notes

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD

Bogazici University
Institute of Biomedical Engineering

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 IDEAL OP-AMP

R0
v2 v0
−
Rd + A(v2 − v1 )

v1

A = ∞ (gain is infinite)
v0 = 0, when v1 = v2 (no offset voltage)
Rd = ∞ (input impedance is infinite)
R0 = 0, (output impedance is zero)
Bandwidth = ∞
(no frequency response limitations, no phase shift)

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Typical transistor layout of an op-amp.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Inverting Op-Amp
Rf
i
vo
Ri 10
vi − 5
i1 vo
−10 −5 5 10 vi
+ −5

−10

vo = −iRf = −vi RRfi , or vo

vi = − RRfi

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Summing Amplifier
Ri = 10 kΩ
vi Rf = 100 kΩ
−
10
vo
+
vi
5
+15V

Voltage, V
vi + vb /2
0
Rb = 20 kΩ
−5 time
5 kΩ vb
−10 vo

−15V

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 The output of a biopotential preamplifier that neasures EOG is an undesired DC
voltage of ±5V with a desired signal of ±1V superimposed. Design a circuit that
would balance the DC voltage to 0 and provide a gain of 10 for the designed signal
without saturating the op amp.
vb 104 (−10)
vi
Ri
+ Rb
= 0 −→ Rb = − Rvi vb = − 5
= 2 × 104 Ω
i

 
vi vb
vo = −Rf +
Ri Rb
 v vb 
5 i
= −10 +
104 2 · 104
 vb 
= −10 vi +
2

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Non-Inverting Amplifier
Ri Rf

←− i ←− i
− −
vo vo
vi + vi +

Buffer Circuit : Prevents a high source resistance from being

loaded down by a low-resitance load.
vo
10

Rf +Ri
5 Slope = Ri
vo i(Ri +Rf ) Rf +Ri
vi = iRi = Ri −10 −5 5 10 vi
−5

−10

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Differential Amplifiers
−
R4
v1 i i
+ R2
R3
v3 −
R1 vo
v4 +
R3 v5
− R2
R4
v2 +

v5 = v4 R3R+R
4
4
i = v3R−v
3
5
= v5R−v
4
o
−→ vo = (v4 − v3 ) R4
R3
Common Mode : v3 = v4 , −→ Gain Gc = 0.
Differential Mode : v3 ̸= v4 −→ Gain Gd = R R3 .
4

Gd 4
CMRR = Gc must be > 10 for good quality amplifiers.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Wheatstone Bridge
c Req = R2 ∥ R3 + R1 ∥ R4

R1
R2 R3 R1 R4
Req = R2+R3 + R1+R4

2
R
−
Vi + a b Veq = Vab = Va − Vb
R3
Veq = Vi R2R+R
3
− Vi R1R+R
4

4
3 4

R
d 1 R3 −R2 R4
Veq = Vi (R1R+R 4 )(R2 +R3 )

If R1 and R3 increase by ∆R and R2 and R4 decrease by ∆R then

Vab = Vi ∆R
R assuming that initially R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 A blood pressure sensor uses a four active arm Wheatstone strain gage bridge excited
with DC. At full scale, each arm changes resistance by ±0.3%. Design an amplifier
that will provide a full-scale output over the op amps’s full range of linear operation.
Use the minimal number of components.
c If R and R increase
1 3
by ∆R and

R1
R2 and R4 decrease
by ∆R then

2
∆vo = ∆R v = ∆R

R
−
R0 i R i
v
Vi + Ry a b ∆vo = 5 · 0.003
= 0.015V .

R3
Rx 20
Gain = 0.015 = 1333.
Assume R = 120Ω,

4
R
RT = 60Ω.
d Use RT to replace
Ri R3 and
G d · R3
= 60 · 1333 = 80kΩ
∆vo to R4 in the amplifier.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Consider the following circuit for a thermometer:

R3 represents a thermistor with a transfer function R3 (T ) = r∞ e βT , where β and r∞

are constants and T is temperature.
1 Write the voltage output Vout of the system as a function of temperature T .
Pay attention to the polarity of Vout .
Vout+ = R4 /(R3 (T ) + R4 ), Vout− = R2 /(R1 + R2 ), Vout (T ) = R4 /(r∞ e βT + R4 ) − R2 /(R1 + R2 )

2 What is the sensitivity of the thermistor’s resistance with respect to

temperature? In other words, calculate dR3 /dT .
dR3
dT
= r∞ βe βT

3 What is the sensitivity of the voltage output Vout with respect to T ?

Vout (T )
dT
= −r∞ βe βT R4 /(r∞ e βT + R4 )2 ,

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 3-Op-Amp Differential Amplifier (Instrumentation Amplifier )

v1 + R2

v3
R1
v4
i

− R2

v2 +

v3 − v4 = i(R2 + R1 + R2 ), v1 − v2 = iR1
Gd = vv41 −v
−v2 =
3 2R2 +R1
R1 Gc = 1
Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering
AMPLIFIERS
 Comparators
R1
vi
− vo R3 > 0
vref vo
+
10 Hysteresis
R1
R R3 = 0
No Hysteresis
−10 10 vi
R3

Assume that vref = −5V and vi = +10V −→ vo = −13V . Let’s

say the + input is −1V , the comparator does not flip until vi is
lowered to +3V which makes the − input equal to the +. At this
point, v0 flips to +13V causing the + input to change to +1V .
The − input must be raised to +1V to cause the next flip vi to be
raised to +7V , to have vo flip back to −13V .
Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering
AMPLIFIERS
 Schmitt Trigger
vo
v
6H
−   
vo 6
vin +
R1 - vin
vLT vUT
R2
-?
- -
vL
 
vin −v+ v
R1
= +−v
R2
o
−→ v+ 1
R1
+ 1
R2
= vRin + Rvo v+ = vin R R+R
2
+ vo R R+R
1
1 2 1 2 1 2
If v+ < 0 −→ vo = vL If v+ > 0 −→ vo = vH
Assume vo = vL −→ v+ = vin R R+R
2
+ vL R R+R
1
1 2 1 2
When v+ becomes > 0 then vo goes from vL −→ vH which indicates
R2 R1 R1
vin R +R > −vL R +R or vin > vUT = −vL R
1 2 1 2 2

Now assume vo = vH −→ v+ = vin R R+R

2
+ vH R R+R
1
1 2 1 2
When v+ becomes < 0 then vo goes from vH −→ vL which indicates
R2 R1 R1
vin R +R < −vH R +R or vin < vLT = −vH R
1 2 1 2 2

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Integrator
Ric Ric
vic

S2
C
1
Rt1
i vo = − RC vi dt + vic
0
Vo (jω)
vi − = ZZfi = − jωτ
Vi (jω)
1
i S1
vo
R where τ = RC .
+

A three-mode integrator
With S1 open and S2 closed, the DC circuit behaves as an inverting amplifier. Thus
vo = vic and vo can be set to any desired inital condition. With S1 closed and S2
open, the circuit integrates. With both switches open, the circuit holds vo constant,
making possible a leisurely readout.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Differentiators

R i = C dv
dt
i Vo (jω) Zf
vo = −RC dv
dt Vi (jω) = − Zi
vi −
i R
vo = − 1/jωC = −jωτ
C +

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Active Filters
Cf
Rf /jωCf
Vo (jω)
− ZZfi
1/jωCf +Rf
Vi (jω) = =− Ri
Rf Rf 1
Rf
= (1+jωRf Cf )Ri =− Ri 1+jωτ
vi −
Ri vo
+

Vo (jω)
Rf Vi (jω) = − ZZfi = − 1/jωC
Rf
i +Ri
vi −
vo
jωRf Ci jωτ
= − RRfi
Ri
Ci + = − 1+jωC i Ri 1+jωτ

Cf Rf /jωCf
Vo (jω)
= − ZZfi = − 1/jωCfi +Rf i
1/jωC +R
Vi (jω)
Rf
Rf
vi −

= − (1+jωRfjωR f Ci
1+jωRf Cf
Ci
Ri
+
vo
=− 1+jωRi Ci Cf )(1+jωRi Ci )
jωCi

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Self Study Question
Consider the following band–pass filter below;

1 Find the transfer function H(jω) = Vout/Vin. Assume the op-amp is ideal.
jωR C
2 1
H(jω) = − (1+jωR C )(1+jωR
2 2 1 C1 )

2 Propose values for the circuit components such that the filter has a gain of 30
dB and a pass-band of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
High pass and lower cut-off H(jω) ≈ jωR1 C1 → 2π · 20 = 1/R1 C1 . Choose
C1 = 80µF then R1 = 1/(40π · 80 · 10− 6) = 99.47Ω.
30
Pass band H(jω) ≈ − jωR 2 C1
ωR1 C1
= 10 20 → R2 /R1 = 31.6 or
R2 = 31.6 · 99.47 = 3.143kΩ.
Low pass and higher cut-off H(jω) ≈ −jωR2 C2 → 2π · 20k = 1/(R2 C2 ) or
C2 = 1/(3143 · 2π · 2 · 104 ) = 2.5319nF
3 Draw a Bode plot of the filter response.
Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering
AMPLIFIERS
 Self Study Question
A photoplethysmograph device can be used to determine heart rate. However, it
produces voltage signals that are superimposed on top of a large DC component. You
need to design a filter to remove the DC component from the voltage signal.
1 Draw a generic first order filter circuit suitable for this purpose. Use variables to
represent the component values. Label the voltage input and voltage output
nodes clearly. What kind of filter is this?
C

Vin Vout

Vout jωRC
R High Pass Filter : Vin
= 1+jωRC

2 The heart rate of athletes can be as low as 40 beats per minute. Given this
information, propose a set of numerical component values that are appropriate
for this filter.
40 beats/min = 2/3 Hz,fc = 1/(2πRC ) < 2/3. If fc = 0.1 Hz, C = 1µF , R = 1/(2πfc C ) ≈ 1.6MΩ

3 Draw Bode (magnitude and phase) plots of this filter. Be sure to label the
plots, including any significant features and all axes.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Design Problem
Consider an ADC that operates at a sampling rate of 100 kHz to digitize a voltage
signal up to 1 V. Assume this ADC has infinite input impedance. Design a first order
filter, using only resistors and capacitors to reduce any aliasing effects. Your circuit
should not draw more than 10 µA of current from the input.
By using the sampling theorem, the cutoff frequency must be 100/2 < 50kHz.

2πfc = 1/RC or RC = 1/(2π · 50 · 103 )

In the worst case ω = ∞ and 1/jωC = 0
which makes R = IVin = 10µA1V
= 100kΩ.
max
C = 1/(2π · 50 · 10 · 100 · 103 ) = 31.83pF
3

Manufacturers typically do not produce components of arbitrary values. Instead they

produce them using preferred numbers from an E series as component values. C could
be 33 pF (33 from the E12 series) instead of 31.83 pF. 33 pF capacitors are
commercially available and inexpensive.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 The output of the piezoelectric sensor shown below, may be fed directly into the
negative input of the integrator. Analyze tyhe circuit of this charge amplifier and
discuss its advantages

Ric Ric
is
vic

C C
S2
i
−
vo
vi −
i S1
+ R vo
+
isC
isR

Piezo Electric Sensor

dqs
is = = K dx
dt dt
Rt1
vo = −v − C1 Kdxdt
dt = − KX
C
0
The charge amplifier slowly drifts with time because of bias. A large feedback
resistance R must therefore be added to prevent saturation. This causes the circuit to
behave as a high pass filter, with time constant τ = RC . It then responds only to
1
frequencies above fc = 2πRC .

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Amplifier is ia
vo vo
i
Vo jωτ K /C
X
(jω) = jωτ +1

Charge
Generator
Rs Cs Cc Ca Ra = C R

iC
is iR

Cs : Sensor Capacitance, Cc : Cable Capacitance, Ca : Amplifier Capacitance

is = iC + iR
Z
1
vo = vC = iC dt
C
 
dvo dx vo
is − iR = C =K −
dt dt R
Vo (jω) jωτ K /C
=
X (jω) jωτ + 1
τ = RC

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 For a piezoelectric sensor plus cable that has 1nF capacitance, design a voltage amplifier by using only one
non-inverting amplifier that has a gain of 10. It should handle a charge of 1µC generated by the carotid pulse
without saturation. It should not drift into saturation because of bias currents. It should have a frequency response
from 0.05 to 100 Hz. Add the minimal number of extra components to achieve the design specifications.
Amplifier is ia
vo vo
i
Vo jωτ K /C
X
(jω) = jωτ +1

Charge
Generator
Rs Cs Cc Ca Ra = C R

iC
is iR

Cs : Sensor Capacitance, Cc : Cable Capacitance, Ca : Amplifier Capacitance

R = Rs Ra Ri Rf
Rs +Ra
is = K dx
dt
V = QC
= 1µC
1nF
= 1kV too high!
Add a shunt capacitor to bypass C
Cs = 1µF to achieve 1V .
−
vo Rf +Ri
Rs = 2πf1 C = 2π·0.05·1µF
1
= 3.2MΩ. vi
= Ri
vo
c
Rf = 10kΩ, Ri = 1.1kΩ vi +
Cf = 2πf1 R = 2π·100·10kΩ
1
= 160nF .
c f

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Full Wave Precision Rectifier

D1 D2
− When vi is (+),
D2 and D3 conduct.
Upper opamp operates
but lower opamp has no
vi + contribution to output.
v
vo = xi

z}|{ z }| {
R When vi is (-)
Rx R(1 − x) D1 and D4 conduct.
Lower opamp operates
but upper opamp has no
vo contribution to output.
−vi
vo = x

D3 D4
− Output of the system
|vi |
is vo = x
.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 One Opamp Full Wave Rectifier

Rf = 1 kΩ
vi vo

Ri = 2 kΩ D
− RL = 3 kΩ

For (-) vi , the circuit behaves as an inverting amplifier rectifier

with a gain of −0.5. For (+) vi , the opamp disconnects and the
passive resistor chain yields a gain of 0.5.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Bode Plots
K (s+z1 )(s+z2 )...(s+zk )
G (s) = s m (s+p1 )(s+p2 )...(s+pn )

20 log |G (jω)|
= 20 log(K ) + 20 log |s + z1 | + 20 log |s + z2 | + · · · + 20 log |s + zk |
−20 log s m − 20 log |s + p1 | −
· · · − 20 log |s + pn |
G (jω) = (jω + a) = a j ωa + 1
(
a  for ω ≪ a
G (jω) ≈ jω j π2
a a = ωe for a ≪ ω

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Bode plot of G (jω) = jω + a.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 1
Bode Plots for G (jω) = jω+a
1 1
G (jω) = =
jω+a a( jω
a
+1)
1/a
G (jω) =
( jωa +1)

 1a for ω ≪ a
G (jω) ≈ 1
1 −j π2
a
jω = ωe for a ≪ ω
( )

a

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 1
Bode Plots for G (jω) = jω and G (jω) = jω .

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Bode Plots for Ratio of First Order Factors
jω+3 ( jω3 +1)
G (jω) = K (jω)(jω+1)(jω+2) = G (jω) = 32 K
jω(jω+1)( jω 2
+1)

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Phase
( jω3 +1)
G (jω) = 32 K
jω(jω+1)( jω2
+1)

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Closed Loop Gain of a Non-inverting Amplifier

AvCL = VVoi = 1+A

Av
v β
 
= 1 + ZZfi 1+1 1
Av β

Block Diagram

Vo
Loop Gain : AVL = V1 = −Av β

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Feedback Factor, β
V2 Zi
β= V1 = Zi +Zf

Zf
α=1−β = Zi +Zf

Closed Loop Gain AvCL of an Non-Inverting Amplifier

−Vi +Va Vo −Vi +Va
Zi  + Zf
=0
 
−Vi Z1i + Z1f + Vo Av1Zi + Z1f + Av1Zf =0
AvCL = VVoi = Av

Zi
 = Av
1+Av β
1+Av Z +Z
i f

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Closed Loop Gain of an Inverting Amplifier

Av α
AvCL = VVoi = − 1+A vβ
  
= − ZZfi 1+1 1
Av β

Block Diagram

Vo
Loop Gain : AVL = Va

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Closed Loop Gain AvCL for Inverting Amplifier
Vi +Va Vo +Va
Zi + Zf =0

Vi Vo Vo Vo
Zi + Av Zi + Zf + Av Zf =0
Vo 1 1
AvCL = Vi = − Zi 1 + 1 + 1
Av Zi Zf Av Zf
 
Zf
Av Z +Z Zf Zi
AvCL = − i f  = − Av α where α = and β =
1+Av Z +Z
Zi 1+Av β Zf +Zi Zf +Zi
i f

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Calculate the difference between the open and closed loop gains of
a noninverting amplifier for a feedback factor i) β = 1 and ii)
β = 0.1. Assume that amplifier gain Av = 100.
i) The loop gain is Av β = 100 · 1 = 100,
100
AvCL = 1+100·1 = 0.99
Difference between 1/β and AvCL = |1−0.99|
|1| = %1
ii) The loop gain is Av β = 100 · 1 = 0.1 = 10,
100
AvCL = 1+100·0.1 = 9.09
|10−9.09|
Difference between 1/β and AvCL = |10| = %9

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Compensation by a feedback capacitor
If Av β = −1 then AvCL = ∞
This implies |Av β| = 1 and ∠Av β = ±180o
Apply a feedback capacitor Cf in parallel with Rf so that
Rf
Zf = 1/sCf //Rf = 1+sC f Rf
.
Rf /Ri
1/β = Ri R+Z
i
f
= 1 + jωR f Cf
This is a lowpass filter with phase changing from 0 to −90o which
makes the amplifier stabilized.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Frequency Response of Non-Ideal Amplifiers
106

105
When feedback is added to
the opamp to build an amplifier,
104 Uncompensated
the loop gain is the difference
Loop Gain
Gain

103 Co between opamp gain and amplifier

Sl sat
m

op ed
pe
circuit gain.
e
n

=
102

Slope =
−
If the gain is greater than 1
101 1
Amplifier Circuit Gain when the phase shift is -180o ,

−3
Frequency, Hz
there is undesirable oscillation.
101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Compensation
Adding an external capacitor, to the feedback compensates the opamp
resulting in a slope of -1 and a maximal phase shift of -90o . This opamp
does not oscillate for any amplifier. It has a very high DC gain, which
reduces towards higher frequencies reaching to 1 at 1 MHz.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Closed Loop Gain
It might appear that opamp has a poor frequency response since
its gain is reduced for frequencies above 40Hz. However, an
amplifier is always built using the opamp closed loop gain instead
of the open loop. For an amplifier with a gain of 10, the frequency
response is flat up to 400kHz and follows the opamp gain
thereafter. Closed loop via negative feedback greatly extends the
frequency response of the opamp.

Loop Gain
The loop gain of the amplifier circuit is obtained by breaking the
feedback loop, injecting a signal, and measuring the gain around
the loop which is equal to the opamp gain.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Determine the loop gain of the inverting amplifier whose gain is equal to -1.
R
i
vi
R
The amplifier circuit input
vi − is grounded. The injected
i
Av vo signal vi divided by 2 and
+ amplified by the opamp
gain Av . Thus, the loop
gain is equal to A2v .

At low frequencies, the loop gain is high and the closed loop
amplifier circuit behavior is determined by the feedback resistors.
At high frequencies, the loop gain is low and amplifier circuit
behavior follows the opamp characteristics. High loop gain is good
for accuracy and stability.
Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering
AMPLIFIERS
 Gain Bandwidth Product
It is equal to the product of gain and bandwidth at a particular
frequency. Unity gain bandwidth product is 2MHz.

106

105

104 Uncompensated
Loop Gain
Gain

Co
103

Sl nsa
m

op te
pe

e d
=

Slope =
102

−
1
101
Amplifier Circuit Gain

−3
Frequency, Hz
101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Gain Margin : change in open loop gain in dB, required at 1800 of
phase shift to make the closed loop system unstable.

Phase Margin : the change in open loop shift, required at unity

gain to make the closed loop system unstable.

40
Range of Gain for Stability via Bode Plots. G (jω) = (jω+2)(jω+4)(jω+5)
. Gain Margin
to be 20 dB.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Noise in Electrical Circuits
Potential sources of noise in electronic circuits :
Johnson thermal, flicker andpshot noise.
Resistor Voltage VR,noise = 4kTR(BW )
SNRi
Noise Factor F = SNR o
Noise Factor (dB) = 10 log F
A system which has a noisy single stage amplifier has
F = 1 + GN·Na i

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Friis Formula

No = Ni G1 G2 G3 + Na1 G2 G3 + Na2 G3 + Na3

SNRo = Si G1 G2 G3 /No
Si
SNRi Ni
FTotal = SNRo = Si G1 G2 G3
Ni G1 G2 G3 +Na1 G2 G3 +Na2 G3 +Na3

Na1 Na2 Na3

=1+ Ni G1 + Ni G1 G2 + Ni G1 G2 G3

The equivalent noise factor of the entire chain

F2 −1 F3 −1 Fn −1
Feq = F1 + G1 + G1 G2 + ··· + G1 G2 ...Gn−1

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 555 Timer Oscillator
Timers are used to generate pulse trains width arbitrary duty cycles.

When a negative (0V) pulse is applied to pin 2, comparator No1 detects this input and sets the state of the
flip-flop, changing the output from a LOW to HIGH. This action in turn turns OFF the discharge transistor
connected to pin 7, thereby removing the short circuit across the capacitor, C1 .
This action allows C1 to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until the voltage across the capacitor reaches the
threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc. At this point the comparator’s output goes “HIGH” and “resets” the flip-flop
back to its original state which in turn turns “ON” the transistor and discharges the capacitor to ground through
pin 7. This causes the output to change its state back to the original stable LOW value awaiting another trigger
pulse to start the timing process over again.
The Monostable 555 Timer circuit triggers on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and this trigger pulse must
be much shorter than the output pulse width allowing time for the timing capacitor to charge and then discharge
fully. Once triggered, the 555 Monostable will remain in this HIGH unstable output state until the time period set
up by the R1 C1 network has elapsed. The amount of time that the output voltage remains HIGH level, is given by
the time constant equation τ = ln(3)R1 C1 .

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Self Study Question
Consider the following circuit with Vs = 5 V, R1 = 1kΩ,R2 = 25kΩ, and C = 9.1µF
Two biosensors on a body generate voltage signals V1 and V2 . V1 = 2.5t for
0 ≤ t < 2s and remains at 5 V for t ≥ 2s. V2 is a square wave with amplitude 2.6 V,
period 500 ms and duty cycle 30%.
1 Sketch V1 , V2 and Vout for 0 ≤ t < 0 s.
2 What tolerance is required of the resistance value R1 in order for this circuit to
operate correctly for the given input signals.

τ = ln(3)R2 C = 25k · 9.1µ = 250ms Vout pulse duration 250ms

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS
 Design Problem: Cytotoxicity Measurement
Cytotoxic assays offer an effective means to measure the toxicity of a variety of
compounds. These assays are performed by growing cells on a substrate, then
exposing them to the compound. If the compound is toxic, the cells will begin to die
and undergo lysis.
Principle of Measurement: Healthy cell membranes are essentially non conductive,
with impedance limited by capacitance. When cells die, their membranes degrade,
causing them to leak current and leading to a decrease in impedance, mostly a
decrease in resistance.
Using two samples of cells grown on two electrically conducting substrates in a Petri
dish: a test sample to be exposed to the unknown compounds, and a control sample
shielded from any compounds, design two identical sensors, one for each sample, that
couple electrically to the substrate in order to record impedance through the layer of
cells to detect if the cells exposed to the compound are dying compared to the control
group.
Design specifications:
For each sensor, inject a current signal to probe the impedance by measuring voltage. Do this separately
for the control group of cells, and the test group of cells.
Don’t expose cells to more than 10 µA of current for more than 10 µs at a time for not to kill them.
This device needs to be portable (powered by batteries), as it will be used in remote locations.
To save power, the device should only probe/sense cells once every 100 ms.
The sensor output must be indicated by two LEDS (green and red).
As long as the resistance of the test group is greater than one half the resistance of the control group, the
green LED should remain lit. Otherwise, the red LED should be lit.
Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering
AMPLIFIERS
 T = 100ms
Thigh = 10µs
RL >> Zsensor
Vs /RL = 10µA

Zsensor for test will decrease as the cells die and the output of the
lower opamp will also decrease.

Ahmet Ademoglu, PhD Bogazici University Institute of Biomedical Engineering

AMPLIFIERS