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CRITHNK
Deductive Logic

STUDENT’S NAME: SECTION:

I. PHILOSOPHY
A. Definition of Philosophy
1. Etymological Definition:
Philosophy is an English word derived from two Greek words Philein meaning “to love”
and Sophia meaning “wisdom.: The word philosophy, therefore, literally means “to lover
wisdom,” or “the love of wisdom.”
2. Real Definition:
Philosophy is the science of all things (of things) in their ultimate principles and causes
as known by the light of natural reason.
II. LOGIC
A. Definition of Logic
Etymological:
Logic is an English word derived from the Greek word Logike which literally means “a
treatise on matters pertaining to words.”
Real Definition:
Logic is the science and art of valid inferential reasoning.

B. Logic as a Science: Logic is considered as a science in as much as it follows certain

methodological patterns, laws and principles in arriving at valid inferential reasoning.

Logic as an Art: Logic is an art in as much as the mastery of its technique enables the mind
to pursue truth or reason out in an easy, orderly, and safe manner.

D. Presuppositions in Logic:
In Logic, we presuppose the existence of the Intellect in man and the existence of what
we call the Essence in the object.

1. Intellect- is the immaterial knowing faculty of man.

2. Essence- is the principle of a thing making a thing what is. It is the distinguishing factor
that separates one reality (or being) from another reality.

F. Three Acts (or Operations) of the Intellect:

1. Simple (or Intellectual/ Mental) Apprehension- it is the first act of the intellect wherein
we grasp a thing without affirming or denying anything about it.
2. Judgment- is the second act of the intellect wherein we join the two understood terms
obtained in simple apprehension by affirming or negation of the two terms.
3. Reasoning- is the third act of the intellect wherein we draw a conclusion from a given set
of validly joint premises.

III. SIMPLE APPREHENSION

A. Definition (refer to the definition above)

B. Object of Simple Apprehension:

The object of simple apprehension is what we grasp in our first contact with reality.
This object is always something distinct from the faculty of thinking and from the

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intellectual operation itself. The object either belongs to the real order of actual existence.
The final object of mental apprehension is the formation of an Idea or concept.

C. Formation of Idea or Concept:

1. Perception- is the process by which we make use of our material sense organs (Sense of
sight, hearing, taste and touch) to form a sense of perception in our brain center. This is the
actual physical contact between the sense organs and the stimulus. For example, sugar is
presented to the senses as object of sense perception: I see it-it is white (or brown); I feel
it-it is hard and granular in texture; I taste it- it is sweet. Thus, through sense perception we
have come up with something that is “white,” “hard,” “granular,” and “sweet.” The
combination of something “white,” “hard,” “granular,” and “sweet” forms an image that is
retained even after the actual sugar itself is removed. Because I can recall this image of
sugar by means of memory and imagination, when I hear the word “sugar,” this image or
Phantasm of the Imagination is the first step in the formation of ideas.

Phantasm is the sensible image or representative of a particular or individual thing in

reality. It is the immediate product of sense perception. It is the formed object of the
memory and imagination.

2. Abstraction- is the mental process by which we draw or grasp the universal and essential
characteristics of things belonging to the same class or genus and leaving out the individual,
non-essential, or differentiating characteristics.

Abstraction begins only after we have formed the phantasm or sense image by way of
sense perception. After forming the phantasm, the intellect now gives its attention to this
sense image in order to form its own representation of the object. By the process of
abstraction, the intellect filters all the individuating, accidental characteristics leaving only
the essential characteristics of things belonging to things of the same kind. The remaining
outcome or content formed by this mental process is what we call the “idea” or “concept.”

Idea or concept- is the intellectual representation of things of the same kind. It is the
immediate product of abstraction but the end product of the whole process of Simple
Apprehension, which consist of perception and abstraction.

D. Difference between Idea from Phantasm

Idea (or Concept) Phantasm (or Image)
1. It is formed in the intellect or the mind 1. It is formed in the formed in the brain.
2. It is Universal and applicable to all. 2. It is particular or individual.
3. It is Immaterial and thus not perceivable 3. It is material and thus perceivable by
the by the senses. the senses.
4. It is Extended to complex things. 4. It is not extended to complex things.

E. Properties of Ideas
1. Comprehension- it is the sum total of all the thought elements or conceptual features
contained in an idea. Comprehension is also referred to as implication or connotation.
2. Extension- is the sum total of all individual or group of classes of which an idea can be
applied. It is also referred to as denotation.

The comprehension of an idea always remains, while the extension of an idea may
change continually.

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LAW of Comprehension and Extension: As Comprehension increases, the Extension

decreases; while Extension increases, the Comprehension decreases.

V. Terms
A. Definition
When an idea or concept is externalized either spoken or written, a term is produced. A
term is considered to be the outward representation of an idea or concept. But not all
words can be considered as term because some words do not contain meanings.

B. Characteristics of Terms
1. Sensible - could be perceived by the senses through hearing and sight.
2. Conventional - because it is named or coined by men.
3. Sign- it a language that means or represents something distinct from itself.

VI. JUDGMENT

A. Definition
Judgement is the second act of the intellect wherein we join two understood terms
obtained in simple or mental apprehension by affirmation or decomposes them by
negation.

B. Three necessary things/ characteristics of making a logical judgment:

1. The mind must have an understanding of the two ideas about which it intends to make
a judgment.
2. The mind must compare the two ideas in question, study the comprehension of each,
and recognize its identity and non-identity.
3. The mind must express in a mental act the agreement or disagreement between the
two ideas compared together.

C. Truth and Falsity of Judgment

1. A judgment is true if it affirms of its subject an attribute that really belongs to it (for ex.
Paris is a City) or if it denies of its subjects an attribute that the subject does not really
possess (for ex. CSB is not a cabaret.)
2. A judgment is false if it affirms of its subject an attribute that does not belong to the
subject (for ex. Prisoners are free) or if it denies of its subject an attribute that the subject
really possesses (for ex. San Beda is not a college.)

D. Enunciation
The immediate product of Judgment is called enunciation. Enunciation is only found in the
mind therefore is immaterial or not perceivable by the senses. It is then necessary for
enunciation to be expressed materially. This material expression of mental enunciation is
called a Proposition.

VII. PROPOSITION
A. Definition
A proposition is a material expression of what resides as a mental judgment in the mind. It
is expressed either orally or in writing. If the term is the expression of an idea, a
proposition is the expression of an enunciation.
B. Characteristics of a logical proposition

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1. It should be expressed in the indicative or declarative mood.

2. It should be expressed in the present tense.
3. Follows the S (Subject) C (Copula) P (Predicate)

C. Categorical Proposition- is one that affirms or denies the identity of two terms in an
absolute manner, that is, without any condition or alternative.
Ex: Every state is an autonomous nation.
Some sports are not advisable to be played by women.

D. Symbols of Categorical Propositions

Since Aristotle’s time, there have been attempts to make logic a science of symbols to
achieve shortcuts to correct reasoning. Among these are symbols representing the kinds of
categorical syllogism according to quantity and quality.
1. According to Quantity
a. Universal Proposition- is a proposition signified by universal quantifiers such as “All,
Every, An, The.”
b. Particular Proposition- is a proposition signified by a particular quantifier such as “some,
several, few, many, etc.”
2. According to Quality
a. Affirmative Proposition- is a proposition having an affirmative copula.
b. Negative Proposition- is a proposition having a negative copula.
The Four Standard Symbols of Categorical Proposition according to Quality and Quantity:
A- Universal Affirmative I- Particular Affirmative
E- Universal Negative O- Particular Negative

VIII. REASONING

A. Definition:
Reasoning is a process by which the mind, unable to pronounce upon the agreement or
disagreement of two ideas, resolves the difficulty and reaches the pronouncement by
bringing in a third idea which it knows in relation to the first two.
B. Methods of Reasoning:
1. Inductive- involves proceeding from particular data to a universal conclusion.
2. Deductive- entails proceeding from universal data to a particular conclusion.
IX. ARGUMENT

A. Definition:
An argument is a group of truth-claims of which one (called a conclusion) is supported by
premises, which are intended to provide evidence for that one truth-claim. Logicians use
the terms proposition, statement and assertion when referring to truth-claims.
B. Elements of an Argument
1. Premises- a statement that is accepted as being true and that is used as the basis of an
argument.
2. Conclusion- the necessary consequence of two or more propositions.
C. Properties of Argument:
To assess the worth of an argument, only two aspects need to be considered, i.e., the truth
of the premises and the correctness (or validity and soundness) of the reasoning of each
truth-claim.

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Only deductive arguments may be assessed as valid or invalid. Inductive arguments are
assessed only as strong or weak and correct or incorrect, but not as valid or invalid.

1. Truth- a property of arguments whether it expresses coherence with existential reality.

Labelled either as true or false.
2. Validity- a property of arguments which is determined by good structure. Labelled
either as correct or incorrect.
3. Soundness- an argument is sound when the truth claims are both truthful and valid.
X. SYLLOGISM

A. Definition:
Etymology- derived from the Greek word Syn-legein which means “thinking in a connected
manner” or “connected thought.”
Real- Is a deductive, mediate inference consisting of three categorical propositions of which
the first two are the premises and the third is conclusion.

B. Material Elements of a Categorical Syllogism:

Proximate material elements are the three propositions:
1. Major premise is the premise containing the major term (MjP)
2. Minor premise is the premise containing the minor term (MnP)
3. Conclusion is the proposition containing both the major and the minor terms. (C )
Remote material elements are the three univocal terms.
1. Major term is the predicate of the conclusion and is found in the major premise. (P)
2. Minor term is the subject of the conclusion and is found in the minor premise. (S)
3. Middle term is the term found in the two premises but not in the conclusion. (M)

C. Rules of Categorical Syllogism

1. A valid standard form of categorical syllogism must contain three and only three terms,
each of which used in the same sense throughout the argument.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of equivocation
Fallacy of more than 3 terms or less than 3 terms
2. The major and minor terms may only be universal/ particular in the conclusion if they
are universal/ particular respectively in the premises.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of Illicit Major
Fallacy of Illicit Minor
3. The middle term must not appear in the conclusion.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of misplaced middle term
4. The middle term must be universal or (distributed) at least once in the premises.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of Undistributed Middle term
5. Only an affirmative conclusion can be drawn from two affirmative premises.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of negative conclusion (from affirmative premises)
6. No conclusion can be drawn from two negative premises.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of two negative premises

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7. No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises.

VIOLATION:
Fallacy of double particular premises
8. The conclusion always follows the weaker side
If one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. If one premise is particular, the
conclusion must be particular.
VIOLATION:
Fallacy of affirming what is denied in the premises
Fallacy of Wider Conclusion

D. Syllogistic Moods and Figures

These refer to how the logical form of a syllogism according to the terms (major, minor and
middle terms) and how the propositions (major and minor premises) according to quantity
(universal and particular) and quality (affirmative and negative) are arranged.

1. F. 1 Mood 1 MjP MnP C

MP bArbArA A A A
SM cElArEnt E A E
SP dArII A I I
fErIO E I O

2. F.2 Mood 2 MjP MnP C

PM cEsArE E A E
SM cAmEstrEs A E E
SP fEstInO E I O
bArOcO A O O

3. F. 3 Mood 3 MjP MnP C

MP dArAptI A A I
MS dIsAmIs I A I
SP
dAtIsI A I I
fElAptOn E A O
bOcArdO O A O
fErIsOn E I O

4. F. 4 Mood 4 MjP MnP C

PM brAmAntIp A A I
MS cAmEnEs A E E
SP
dImArIs I A I
fEsApO E A O
frEsIsOn E I O

Critical and Creative Thinking (CRITHNK) Prepared by: Ms. Jenina G. Redrino