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Convolution
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For other uses, see Convolution (disambiguation).
Contents In mathematics (in particular, functional
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analysis), convolution is a mathematical
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operation on two functions (f and g) that
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Donate expresses how the shape of one is modified
by the other. The term convolution refers to
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both the result function and to the process of
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the product of the two functions after one is
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reflected about the y-axis and shifted. The
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choice of which function is reflected and
shifted before the integral does not change
Tools the integral result (see commutativity ). The
What links here integral is evaluated for all values of shift,
Related changes producing the convolution function. Visual comparison of convolution, cross-correlation, and
Special pages
autocorrelation. For the operations involving function f, and assuming the
Permanent link Some features of convolution are similar to
height of f is 1.0, the value of the result no at 5 different points is indicated
Page information cross-correlation : for real-valued functions, by the shaded area below each point. The symmetry of f is the reason
Cite this page of a continuous or discrete variable, f*g and are identical in this example.
Wikidata item convolution (f*g ) differs from cross-
correlation ( ) only in that either f(x) or
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g(x) is reflected about the y-axis in convolution; thus it is a cross-correlation of g(−x) and f(x), or f(−x) and g(x).[A] For
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complex-valued functions, the cross-correlation operator is the adjoint of the convolution operator.
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Convolution has applications that include probability , statistics , acoustics , spectroscopy , signal processing and image
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processing, geophysics , engineering , physics , computer vision and differential equations.[1]
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Wikiversity The convolution can be defined for functions on Euclidean space and other groups (as algebraic
structures).[citation needed] For example, periodic functions , such as the discrete-time Fourier transform, can be defined on
Languages a circle and convolved by periodic convolution. (See row 18 at DTFT § Properties .) A discrete convolution can be
‫العربية‬ defined for functions on the set of integers .
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Generalizations of convolution have applications in the field of numerical analysis and numerical linear algebra , and in
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Español the design and implementation of finite impulse response filters in signal processing.[citation needed]
Français Computing the inverse of the convolution operation is known as deconvolution .
हिनद
Nederlands Contents []
Русский
1 Definition
中文
1.1 Notation
29 more 1.2 Relations with other transforms
2 Visual explanation
Edit links
3 Historical developments
4 Circular convolution
5 Discrete convolution

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5.1 Circular discrete convolution

5.2 Fast convolution algorithms
6 Domain of definition
6.1 Compactly supported functions
6.2 Integrable functions
6.3 Functions of rapid decay
6.4 Distributions
6.5 Measures
7 Properties
7.1 Algebraic properties
7.2 Integration
7.3 Differentiation
7.4 Convolution theorem
7.5 Translational equivariance
8 Convolutions on groups
9 Convolution of measures
10 Infimal convolution
11 Bialgebras
12 Applications
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References
16 Further reading
17 External links

Definition ​[ edit ]

The convolution of f and g is written f∗g, denoting the operator with the symbol ∗.[B] It is defined as the integral of the
product of the two functions after one is reflected about the y-axis and shifted. As such, it is a particular kind of integral
transform:

An equivalent definition is (see commutativity ):

While the symbol t is used above, it need not represent the time domain. At each t, the convolution formula can be
described as the area under the function f(τ) weighted by the function g(−τ) shifted by the amount t. As t changes, the
weighting function g(t − τ) emphasizes different parts of the input function f(τ); If t is a positive value, then g(t − τ) is
equal to g(−τ) that slides or is shifted along the -axis toward the right (toward +∞) by the amount of t, while if t is a
negative value, then g(t − τ) is equal to g(−τ) that slides or is shifted toward the left (toward -∞) by the amount of |t|.

For functions f, g supported on only [0, ∞] (i.e., zero for negative arguments), the integration limits can be truncated,
resulting in:

For the multi-dimensional formulation of convolution, see domain of definition (below).

Notation ​[ edit ]

A common engineering notational convention is: [2]

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which has to be interpreted carefully to avoid confusion. For instance, f(t)∗g(t − t0) is equivalent to (f∗g)(t − t0), but
f(t − t0)∗g(t − t0) is in fact equivalent to (f∗g)(t − 2t0).[3]

Relations with other transforms ​[ edit ]

Given two functions and with bilateral Laplace transforms (two-sided Laplace transform)

and

respectively, the convolution operation can be defined as the inverse Laplace transform of the product of
and .[4][5] More precisely,

Let such that

Note that is the bilateral Laplace transform of . A similar derivation can be done using the
unilateral Laplace transform (one-sided Laplace transform).

The convolution operation also describes the output (in terms of the input) of an important class of operations known as
linear time-invariant (LTI). See LTI system theory for a derivation of convolution as the result of LTI constraints. In
terms of the Fourier transforms of the input and output of an LTI operation, no new frequency components are created.
The existing ones are only modified (amplitude and/or phase). In other words, the output transform is the pointwise
product of the input transform with a third transform (known as a transfer function ). See Convolution theorem for a
derivation of that property of convolution. Conversely, convolution can be derived as the inverse Fourier transform of the
pointwise product of two Fourier transforms.

Visual explanation ​[ edit ]

1. Express each function in terms

of a dummy variable
2. Reflect one of the functions:
→
3. Add a time-offset t, which
allows to slide along
the -axis. If t is a positive
value, then is equal

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to that slides or is
shifted along the -axis toward
the right (toward +∞) by the
amount of t. If t is a negative
value, then is equal
to that slides or is
shifted toward the left (toward
-∞) by the amount of | t|.
4. Start t at −∞ and slide it all the
way to +∞. Wherever the two
functions intersect, find the
integral of their product. In
other words, at time t, compute
the area under the function
weighted by the
weighting function

The resulting waveform (not

shown here) is the convolution of
functions f and g.
If f(t) is a unit impulse , the result
of this process is simply g(t).
Formally:

In this example, the red-colored

"pulse", is an even function
so convolution
is equivalent to correlation. A
snapshot of this "movie" shows
functions and (in
blue) for some value of parameter
t, which is arbitrarily defined as
the distance along the axis from
the point to the center of the
red pulse. The amount of yellow is
the area of the product
computed by the
convolution/correlation integral.
The movie is created by
continuously changing and
recomputing the integral. The
result (shown in black) is a
function of t, but is plotted on the
same axis as for convenience
and comparison.
In this depiction, could
represent the response of an RC

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circuit to a narrow pulse that

occurs at In other words, if
the result of
convolution is just But when
is the wider pulse (in red), the
response is a "smeared" version of
It begins at
because we defined as the
distance from the axis to the
center of the wide pulse (instead
of the leading edge).

Historical developments ​[ edit ]

One of the earliest uses of the convolution integral appeared in D'Alembert 's derivation of Taylor's theorem in
Recherches sur différents points importants du système du monde, published in 1754.[6]

Also, an expression of the type:

is used by Sylvestre François Lacroix on page 505 of his book entitled Treatise on differences and series, which is
the last of 3 volumes of the encyclopedic series: Traité du calcul différentiel et du calcul intégral, Chez Courcier,
Paris, 1797–1800.[7] Soon thereafter, convolution operations appear in the works of Pierre Simon Laplace, Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Fourier, Siméon Denis Poisson, and others. The term itself did not come into wide use until the 1950s or 60s.
Prior to that it was sometimes known as Faltung (which means folding in German ), composition product,
superposition integral, and Carson's integral.[8] Yet it appears as early as 1903, though the definition is rather
unfamiliar in older uses.[9][10]

The operation:

is a particular case of composition products considered by the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra in 1913. [11]

Circular convolution ​[ edit ]

Main article: Circular convolution

When a function gT is periodic, with period T, then for functions, f, such that f ∗ gT exists, the convolution is also
periodic and identical to:

where t0 is an arbitrary choice. The summation is called a periodic summation of the function f.
When gT is a periodic summation of another function, g, then f ∗ gT is known as a circular or cyclic convolution of f
and g.

And if the periodic summation above is replaced by fT, the operation is called a periodic convolution of fT and gT.

Discrete convolution ​[ edit ]

For complex-valued functions f, g defined on the set Z of integers, the

discrete convolution of f and g is given by: [12]

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or equivalently (see commutativity ) by:

The convolution of two finite sequences is defined by extending the

sequences to finitely supported functions on the set of integers. When the Discrete 2D Convolution Animation
sequences are the coefficients of two polynomials , then the coefficients of
the ordinary product of the two polynomials are the convolution of the
original two sequences. This is known as the Cauchy product of the coefficients of the sequences.

Thus when g has finite support in the set (representing, for instance, a finite
impulse response), a finite summation may be used: [13]

Circular discrete convolution ​[ edit ]

When a function gN is periodic, with period N, then for functions, f, such that f∗gN exists, the convolution is also
periodic and identical to:

The summation on k is called a periodic summation of the function f.

If g is a periodic summation of another function, g, then f∗gN is known as a circular convolution of f and g.
N

When the non-zero durations of both f and g are limited to the interval [0, N − 1],  f∗gN reduces to these common
forms:

 
 

    (Eq.1)

The notation ( f ∗N g) for cyclic convolution denotes convolution over the cyclic group of integers modulo N.
Circular convolution arises most often in the context of fast convolution with a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm.

Fast convolution algorithms ​[ edit ]

In many situations, discrete convolutions can be converted to circular convolutions so that fast transforms with a
convolution property can be used to implement the computation. For example, convolution of digit sequences is the
kernel operation in multiplication of multi-digit numbers, which can therefore be efficiently implemented with transform
techniques (Knuth 1997 , §4.3.3.C; von zur Gathen & Gerhard 2003 , §8.2).

Eq.1 requires N arithmetic operations per output value and N2 operations for N outputs. That can be significantly
reduced with any of several fast algorithms. Digital signal processing and other applications typically use fast
convolution algorithms to reduce the cost of the convolution to O( log ) complexity.

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N N
The most common fast convolution algorithms use fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms via the circular convolution
theorem. Specifically, the circular convolution of two finite-length sequences is found by taking an FFT of each
sequence, multiplying pointwise, and then performing an inverse FFT. Convolutions of the type defined above are then
efficiently implemented using that technique in conjunction with zero-extension and/or discarding portions of the output.
Other fast convolution algorithms, such as the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm or the Mersenne transform, [14] use fast
Fourier transforms in other rings .

If one sequence is much longer than the other, zero-extension of the shorter sequence and fast circular convolution is not
the most computationally efficient method available.[15] Instead, decomposing the longer sequence into blocks and
convolving each block allows for faster algorithms such as the overlap–save method and overlap–add method .[16] A
hybrid convolution method that combines block and FIR algorithms allows for a zero input-output latency that is useful
for real-time convolution computations.[17]

Domain of definition ​[ edit ]

The convolution of two complex-valued functions on Rd is itself a complex-valued function on Rd, defined by:

and is well-defined only if f and g decay sufficiently rapidly at infinity in order for the integral to exist. Conditions for
the existence of the convolution may be tricky, since a blow-up in g at infinity can be easily offset by sufficiently rapid
decay in f. The question of existence thus may involve different conditions on f and g:

Compactly supported functions ​[ edit ]

If f and g are compactly supported continuous functions , then their convolution exists, and is also compactly supported
and continuous (Hörmander 1983 , Chapter 1). More generally, if either function (say f) is compactly supported and the
other is locally integrable , then the convolution f∗g is well-defined and continuous.

Convolution of f and g is also well defined when both functions are locally square integrable on R and supported on an
interval of the form [a, +∞) (or both supported on [−∞, a]).

Integrable functions ​[ edit ]

The convolution of f and g exists if f and g are both Lebesgue integrable functions in L1(Rd), and in this case f∗g is also
integrable (Stein & Weiss 1971 , Theorem 1.3). This is a consequence of Tonelli's theorem . This is also true for functions
in L1, under the discrete convolution, or more generally for the convolution on any group .

Likewise, if f ∈ L1(Rd)  and   g ∈ Lp(Rd)  where 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞,  then  f∗g ∈ Lp(Rd),  and

In the particular case p = 1, this shows that L1 is a Banach algebra under the convolution (and equality of the two sides
holds if f and g are non-negative almost everywhere).
More generally, Young's inequality implies that the convolution is a continuous bilinear map between suitable Lp spaces.
Specifically, if 1 ≤ p, q, r ≤ ∞ satisfy:

then

so that the convolution is a continuous bilinear mapping from Lp×Lq to Lr.

The Young inequality for convolution is also
true in other contexts (circle group, convolution on Z). The preceding inequality is not sharp on the real line: when
1 < p, q, r < ∞, there exists a constant Bp,q < 1 such that:

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The optimal value of Bp,q was discovered in 1975 [18] and independently in 1976,[19] see Brascamp–Lieb inequality .

A stronger estimate is true provided 1 < p, q, r < ∞ :

where is the weak Lq norm. Convolution also defines a bilinear continuous map for
1<p,q,r<\infty , owing to the weak Young inequality:[20]

Functions of rapid decay ​[ edit ]

In addition to compactly supported functions and integrable functions, functions that have sufficiently rapid decay at
infinity can also be convolved. An important feature of the convolution is that if f and g both decay rapidly, then f∗g also
decays rapidly. In particular, if f and g are rapidly decreasing functions , then so is the convolution f∗g. Combined with
the fact that convolution commutes with differentiation (see #Properties ), it follows that the class of Schwartz functions
is closed under convolution (Stein & Weiss 1971, Theorem 3.3).

Distributions ​[ edit ]
Main article: Distribution (mathematics)

Under some circumstances, it is possible to define the convolution of a function with a distribution, or of two
distributions. If f is a compactly supported function and g is a distribution, then f∗g is a smooth function defined by a
distributional formula analogous to

More generally, it is possible to extend the definition of the convolution in a unique way so that the associative law

remains valid in the case where f is a distribution, and g a compactly supported distribution (Hörmander 1983 , §4.2).

Measures ​[ edit ]

The convolution of any two Borel measures μ and ν of bounded variation is the measure defined by ( Rudin 1962 )

In particular,

where is a measurable set and is the indicator function of .

This agrees with the convolution defined above when μ and ν are regarded as distributions, as well as the convolution of
L1 functions when μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure.

The convolution of measures also satisfies the following version of Young's inequality

where the norm is the total variation of a measure. Because the space of measures of bounded variation is a Banach
space, convolution of measures can be treated with standard methods of functional analysis that may not apply for the
convolution of distributions.

Properties ​[ edit ]

Algebraic properties ​[ edit ]

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See also: Convolution algebra

The convolution defines a product on the linear space of integrable functions. This product satisfies the following
algebraic properties, which formally mean that the space of integrable functions with the product given by convolution is
a commutative associative algebra without identity (Strichartz 1994 , §3.3). Other linear spaces of functions, such as the
space of continuous functions of compact support, are closed under the convolution, and so also form commutative
associative algebras.

Commutativity

Proof: By definition:

Changing the variable of integration to the result follows.

Associativity

Proof: This follows from using Fubini's theorem (i.e., double integrals can be evaluated as iterated integrals in either
order).
Distributivity

Proof: This follows from linearity of the integral.

Associativity with scalar multiplication

for any real (or complex) number .

Multiplicative identity
No algebra of functions possesses an identity for the convolution. The lack of identity is typically not a major
inconvenience, since most collections of functions on which the convolution is performed can be convolved with a
delta distribution (a unitary impulse, centered at zero) or, at the very least (as is the case of L1 ) admit approximations
to the identity. The linear space of compactly supported distributions does, however, admit an identity under the
convolution. Specifically,

where δ is the delta distribution.

Inverse element
Some distributions S have an inverse element S−1 for the convolution which then must satisfy

from which an explicit formula for S−1 may be obtained.

The set of invertible distributions forms an abelian group under the convolution.
Complex conjugation

Relationship with differentiation

Proof:

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Relationship with integration

If and then

Integration ​[ edit ]

If f and g are integrable functions, then the integral of their convolution on the whole space is simply obtained as the
product of their integrals:[21]

This follows from Fubini's theorem . The same result holds if f and g are only assumed to be nonnegative measurable
functions, by Tonelli's theorem .

Differentiation ​[ edit ]

In the one-variable case,

where d/dx is the derivative . More generally, in the case of functions of several variables, an analogous formula holds
with the partial derivative :

A particular consequence of this is that the convolution can be viewed as a "smoothing" operation: the convolution of f
and g is differentiable as many times as f and g are in total.

These identities hold under the precise condition that f and g are absolutely integrable and at least one of them has an
absolutely integrable (L1) weak derivative, as a consequence of Young's convolution inequality. For instance, when f is
continuously differentiable with compact support, and g is an arbitrary locally integrable function,

These identities also hold much more broadly in the sense of tempered distributions if one of f or g is a rapidly
decreasing tempered distribution, a compactly supported tempered distribution or a Schwartz function and the other is a
tempered distribution. On the other hand, two positive integrable and infinitely differentiable functions may have a
nowhere continuous convolution.

In the discrete case, the difference operator D f(n) = f(n + 1) − f(n) satisfies an analogous relationship:

Convolution theorem ​[ edit ]

The convolution theorem states that

where denotes the Fourier transform of f , and is a constant that depends on the specific normalization of the

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Fourier transform. Versions of this theorem also hold for the Laplace transform, two-sided Laplace transform , Z-
transform and Mellin transform.

See also: the less trivial Titchmarsh convolution theorem

On the other hand, if is the Fourier transform matrix , then

where is face-splitting product ,[22][23][24][25][26] denotes Kronecker product , denotes Hadamard product (this result
is an evolving of count sketch properties [27]).

Translational equivariance ​[ edit ]

The convolution commutes with translations, meaning that

where τxf is the translation of the function f by x defined by

If f is a Schwartz function , then τxf is the convolution with a translated Dirac delta function τxf = f ∗ τx δ. So translation
invariance of the convolution of Schwartz functions is a consequence of the associativity of convolution.

Furthermore, under certain conditions, convolution is the most general translation invariant operation. Informally
speaking, the following holds

Suppose that S is a bounded linear operator acting on functions which commutes with translations: S(τxf) = τx(Sf)
for all x. Then S is given as convolution with a function (or distribution) gS; that is Sf = gS ∗ f.

Thus some translation invariant operations can be represented as convolution. Convolutions play an important role in the
study of time-invariant systems , and especially LTI system theory . The representing function gS is the impulse response
of the transformation S.

A more precise version of the theorem quoted above requires specifying the class of functions on which the convolution
is defined, and also requires assuming in addition that S must be a continuous linear operator with respect to the
appropriate topology . It is known, for instance, that every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on
L1 is the convolution with a finite Borel measure . More generally, every continuous translation invariant continuous
linear operator on Lp for 1 ≤ p < ∞ is the convolution with a tempered distribution whose Fourier transform is bounded.
To wit, they are all given by bounded Fourier multipliers .

Convolutions on groups ​[ edit ]

If G is a suitable group endowed with a measure λ, and if f and g are real or complex valued integrable functions on
G, then we can define their convolution by

It is not commutative in general. In typical cases of interest G is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and λ is
a (left-) Haar measure. In that case, unless G is unimodular , the convolution defined in this way is not the same as
. The preference of one over the other is made so that convolution with a fixed function g
commutes with left translation in the group:

Furthermore, the convention is also required for consistency with the definition of the convolution of measures given
below. However, with a right instead of a left Haar measure, the latter integral is preferred over the former.

On locally compact abelian groups , a version of the convolution theorem holds: the Fourier transform of a convolution is
the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms. The circle group T with the Lebesgue measure is an immediate example.
For a fixed g in L1(T), we have the following familiar operator acting on the Hilbert space L2(T):

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The operator T is compact . A direct calculation shows that its adjoint T* is convolution with

By the commutativity property cited above, T is normal : T* T = TT* . Also, T commutes with the translation operators.
Consider the family S of operators consisting of all such convolutions and the translation operators. Then S is a
commuting family of normal operators. According to spectral theory , there exists an orthonormal basis {hk} that
simultaneously diagonalizes S. This characterizes convolutions on the circle. Specifically, we have

which are precisely the characters of T. Each convolution is a compact multiplication operator in this basis. This can be
viewed as a version of the convolution theorem discussed above.

A discrete example is a finite cyclic group of order n. Convolution operators are here represented by circulant matrices ,
and can be diagonalized by the discrete Fourier transform .

A similar result holds for compact groups (not necessarily abelian): the matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional unitary
representations form an orthonormal basis in L2 by the Peter–Weyl theorem , and an analog of the convolution theorem
continues to hold, along with many other aspects of harmonic analysis that depend on the Fourier transform.

Convolution of measures ​[ edit ]

Let G be a (multiplicatively written) topological group.

If μ and ν are finite Borel measures on G, then their convolution
μ∗ν is defined as the pushforward measure of the group action and can be written as

for each measurable subset E of G. The convolution is also a finite measure, whose total variation satisfies

In the case when G is locally compact with (left-)Haar measure λ, and μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to a
λ, so that each has a density function, then the convolution μ∗ν is also absolutely continuous, and its density function is
just the convolution of the two separate density functions.

If μ and ν are probability measures on the topological group (R,+), then the convolution μ∗ν is the probability
distribution of the sum X + Y of two independent random variables X and Y whose respective distributions are μ and ν.

Infimal convolution ​[ edit ]

In convex analysis , the infimal convolution of proper (not identically ) convex functions on is
defined by:[28]

It can be shown that the infimal convolution of convex functions is convex. Furthermore, it satisfies an identity
analogous to that of the Fourier transform of a traditional convolution, with the role of the Fourier transform is played
instead by the Legendre transform :

We have:

Bialgebras ​[ edit ]

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Let (X, Δ, ∇, ε, η) be a bialgebra with comultiplication Δ, multiplication ∇, unit η, and counit ε. The convolution is a
product defined on the endomorphism algebra End( X) as follows. Let φ, ψ ∈ End(X), that is, φ, ψ: X → X are functions
that respect all algebraic structure of X, then the convolution φ∗ψ is defined as the composition

The convolution appears notably in the definition of Hopf algebras (Kassel 1995 , §III.3). A bialgebra is a Hopf algebra if
and only if it has an antipode: an endomorphism S such that

Applications ​[ edit ]

Convolution and related operations are found in many applications in

science, engineering and mathematics.

In image processing
In digital image processing convolutional filtering plays an
important role in many important algorithms in edge detection and
related processes (see Kernel (image processing))
In optics , an out-of-focus photograph is a convolution of the sharp
image with a lens function. The photographic term for this is bokeh .
In image processing applications such as adding blurring.
In digital data processing
In analytical chemistry , Savitzky–Golay smoothing filters are used
for the analysis of spectroscopic data. They can improve signal-to-
noise ratio with minimal distortion of the spectra
In statistics , a weighted moving average is a convolution.
In acoustics , reverberation is the convolution of the original sound
with echoes from objects surrounding the sound source. Gaussian blur can be used to obtain
a smooth grayscale digital image of a
In digital signal processing, convolution is used to map the impulse halftone print.
response of a real room on a digital audio signal.
In electronic music convolution is the imposition of a spectral or
rhythmic structure on a sound. Often this envelope or structure is taken from another sound. The convolution of
two signals is the filtering of one through the other.[29]
In electrical engineering , the convolution of one function (the input signal ) with a second function (the impulse
response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an
accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most
influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor). The impulse response function provides that factor as a function of
the elapsed time since each input value occurred.
In physics , wherever there is a linear system with a "superposition principle ", a convolution operation makes an
appearance. For instance, in spectroscopy line broadening due to the Doppler effect on its own gives a Gaussian
spectral line shape and collision broadening alone gives a Lorentzian line shape. When both effects are operative,
the line shape is a convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian, a Voigt function .
In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy , the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the
measured fluorescence is a sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse.
In computational fluid dynamics , the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model uses the convolution
operation to lower the range of length scales necessary in computation thereby reducing computational cost.
In probability theory , the probability distribution of the sum of two independent random variables is the
convolution of their individual distributions.
In kernel density estimation , a distribution is estimated from sample points by convolution with a kernel, such as
an isotropic Gaussian.[30]

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In radiotherapy treatment planning systems, most part of all modern codes of calculation applies a convolution-
superposition algorithm. [clarification needed]
In structural reliability, the reliability index can be defined based on the convolution theorem.
The definition of reliability index for limit state functions with nonnormal distributions can be established
corresponding to the joint distribution function . In fact, the joint distribution function can be obtained using the
convolution theory.[31]
Convolutional neural networks apply multiple cascaded convolution kernels with applications in machine vision and
artificial intelligence .[32][33] Though these are actually cross-correlations rather than convolutions in most
cases.[34]
In Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics , simulations of fluid dynamics are calculated using particles, each with
surrounding kernels. For any given particle , some physical quantity is calculated as a convolution of with a
weighting function, where j denotes the neighbors of particle : those that are located within its kernel. The
convolution is approximated as a summation over each neighbor.[35]

See also ​[ edit ]

Analog signal processing

Circulant matrix
Convolution for optical broad-beam responses in scattering media
Convolution power
Deconvolution
Dirichlet convolution
Generalized signal averaging
Jan Mikusinski
List of convolutions of probability distributions
LTI system theory#Impulse response and convolution
Multidimensional discrete convolution
Scaled correlation
Titchmarsh convolution theorem
Toeplitz matrix (convolutions can be considered a Toeplitz matrix operation where each row is a shifted copy of the
convolution kernel)

Notes ​[ edit ]

A. ^ Reasons for the reflection include:

It is necessary to implement the equivalent of the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms of f and g.
When the convolution is viewed as a moving weighted average, the weighting function, g(−x), is often
specified in terms of another function, g(x), called the impulse response of a linear time-invariant system.
B. ^ The symbol U+2217 ∗ ASTERISK OPERATOR is different than U+002A * ASTERISK, which is often used to
denote complex conjugation. See Asterisk § Mathematical typography.

References ​[ edit ]

1. ^ Bahri, Mawardi; Ashino, Ryuichi; Vaillancourt, Rémi (2013). "Convolution Theorems for Quaternion Fourier
Transform: Properties and Applications" (PDF). Abstract and Applied Analysis. 2013: 1–10.
doi:10.1155/2013/162769 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-21. Retrieved 2022-11-11.
2. ^ Smith, Stephen W (1997). "13.Convolution" . The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal
Processing (1 ed.). California Technical Publishing. ISBN 0-9660176-3-3. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
3. ^ Irwin, J. David (1997). "4.3". The Industrial Electronics Handbook (1 ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 75.
ISBN 0-8493-8343-9.
4. ^ Differential Equations (Spring 2010), MIT 18.03. "Lecture 21: Convolution Formula" . MIT Open
Courseware. MIT. Retrieved 22 December 2021.

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5. ^ "18.03SC Differential Equations Fall 2011" (PDF). Green’s Formula, Laplace Transform of Convolution.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-06.
6. ^ Dominguez-Torres, p 2
7. ^ Dominguez-Torres, p 4
8. ^ R. N. Bracewell (2005), "Early work on imaging theory in radio astronomy" , in W. T. Sullivan (ed.), The
Early Years of Radio Astronomy: Reflections Fifty Years After Jansky's Discovery, Cambridge University Press,
p. 172, ISBN 978-0-521-61602-7
9. ^ John Hilton Grace and Alfred Young (1903), The algebra of invariants , Cambridge University Press, p. 40
10. ^ Leonard Eugene Dickson (1914), Algebraic invariants , J. Wiley, p. 85
11. ^ According to
[Lothar von Wolfersdorf (2000), "Einige Klassen quadratischer Integralgleichungen",
Sitzungsberichte der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig,
Mathematisch-
naturwissenschaftliche Klasse, volume 128, number 2, 6–7], the source is Volterra, Vito (1913),
"Leçons sur les
fonctions de linges". Gauthier-Villars, Paris 1913.
12. ^ Damelin & Miller 2011, p. 219
13. ^ Press, William H.; Flannery, Brian P.; Teukolsky, Saul A.; Vetterling, William T. (1989). Numerical Recipes in
Pascal . Cambridge University Press. p. 450 . ISBN 0-521-37516-9.
14. ^ Rader, C.M. (December 1972). "Discrete Convolutions via Mersenne Transforms". IEEE Transactions on
Computers. 21 (12): 1269–1273. doi:10.1109/T-C.1972.223497 . S2CID 1939809 .
15. ^ Selesnick, Ivan W.; Burrus, C. Sidney (1999). "Fast Convolution and Filtering". In Madisetti, Vijay K. (ed.).
Digital Signal Processing Handbook. CRC Press. p. Section 8. ISBN 978-1-4200-4563-5.
16. ^ Juang, B.H. "Lecture 21: Block Convolution" (PDF). EECS at the Georgia Institute of Technology.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 2004-07-29. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
17. ^ Gardner, William G. (November 1994). "Efficient Convolution without Input/Output Delay" (PDF). Audio
Engineering Society Convention 97. Paper 3897. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-08. Retrieved
17 May 2013.
18. ^ Beckner, William (1975). "Inequalities in Fourier analysis". Annals of Mathematics (2). 102 (1): 159–182.
doi:10.2307/1970980 . JSTOR 1970980 .
19. ^ Brascamp, Herm Jan; Lieb, Elliott H. (1976). "Best constants in Young's inequality, its converse, and its
generalization to more than three functions" . Advances in Mathematics. 20 (2): 151–173. doi:10.1016/0001-
8708(76)90184-5 .
20. ^ Reed & Simon 1975, IX.4
21. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Convolution" . mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2021-09-22.
22. ^ Slyusar, V. I. (December 27, 1996). "End products in matrices in radar applications" (PDF).
Radioelectronics and Communications Systems. 41 (3): 50–53. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-
08-11.
23. ^ Slyusar, V. I. (1997-05-20). "Analytical model of the digital antenna array on a basis of face-splitting matrix
products" (PDF). Proc. ICATT-97, Kyiv: 108–109. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-11.
24. ^ Slyusar, V. I. (1997-09-15). "New operations of matrices product for applications of radars" (PDF). Proc.
Direct and Inverse Problems of Electromagnetic and Acoustic Wave Theory (DIPED-97), Lviv.: 73–74.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-11.
25. ^ Slyusar, V. I. (March 13, 1998). "A Family of Face Products of Matrices and its Properties" (PDF).
Cybernetics and Systems Analysis C/C of Kibernetika I Sistemnyi Analiz.- 1999. 35 (3): 379–384.
doi:10.1007/BF02733426 . S2CID 119661450 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-11.
26. ^ Slyusar, V. I. (2003). "Generalized face-products of matrices in models of digital antenna arrays with
nonidentical channels" (PDF). Radioelectronics and Communications Systems. 46 (10): 9–17. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 2013-08-11.
27. ^ Ninh, Pham; Pagh, Rasmus (2013). Fast and scalable polynomial kernels via explicit feature maps. SIGKDD
international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining. Association for Computing Machinery.
doi:10.1145/2487575.2487591 .
28. ^ R. Tyrrell Rockafellar (1970), Convex analysis, Princeton University Press
29. ^ Zölzer, Udo, ed. (2002). DAFX:Digital Audio Effects, p.48–49. ISBN 0471490784.
30. ^ Diggle 1985.
31. ^ Ghasemi & Nowak 2017.
32. ^ Zhang, Yingjie; Soon, Hong Geok; Ye, Dongsen; Fuh, Jerry Ying Hsi; Zhu, Kunpeng (September 2020).

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Convolution - Wikipedia

"Powder-Bed Fusion Process Monitoring by Machine Vision With Hybrid Convolutional Neural Networks" .
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics. 16 (9): 5769–5779. doi:10.1109/TII.2019.2956078 . ISSN 1941-
0050 . S2CID 213010088 .
33. ^ Chervyakov, N.I.; Lyakhov, P.A.; Deryabin, M.A.; Nagornov, N.N.; Valueva, M.V.; Valuev, G.V. (September
2020). "Residue Number System-Based Solution for Reducing the Hardware Cost of a Convolutional Neural
Network" . Neurocomputing. 407: 439–453. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2020.04.018 . S2CID 219470398 .
"Convolutional neural networks represent deep learning architectures that are currently used in a wide range of
applications, including computer vision, speech recognition, time series analysis in finance, and many others."
34. ^ Atlas, Homma, and Marks. "An Artificial Neural Network for Spatio-Temporal Bipolar Patterns: Application to
Phoneme Classification" (PDF). Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 1987). 1. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 2021-04-14.
35. ^ Monaghan, J. J. (1992). "Smoothed particle hydrodynamics" . Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 30: 543–547. Bibcode:1992ARA&A..30..543M . doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.30.090192.002551 .
Retrieved 16 February 2021.

Further reading ​[ edit ]

Bracewell, R. (1986), The Fourier Transform and Its Applications (2nd ed.), McGraw–Hill, ISBN 0-07-
116043-4.
Damelin, S.; Miller, W. (2011), The Mathematics of Signal Processing, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-1107601048
Diggle, P. J. (1985), "A kernel method for smoothing point process data", Journal of the Royal Statistical
Society, Series C, 34 (2): 138–147, doi:10.2307/2347366 , JSTOR 2347366 , S2CID 116746157
Dominguez-Torres, Alejandro (Nov 2, 2010). "Origin and history of convolution". 41 pgs.
http://www.slideshare.net/Alexdfar/origin-adn-history-of-convolution . Cranfield, Bedford MK43 OAL, UK.
Retrieved Mar 13, 2013.
Ghasemi, S. Hooman; Nowak, Andrzej S. (2017), "Reliability Index for Non-normal Distributions of Limit
State Functions", Structural Engineering and Mechanics, 62 (3): 365–372,
doi:10.12989/sem.2017.62.3.365
Grinshpan, A. Z. (2017), "An inequality for multiple convolutions with respect to Dirichlet probability
measure", Advances in Applied Mathematics, 82 (1): 102–119, doi:10.1016/j.aam.2016.08.001
Hewitt, Edwin; Ross, Kenneth A. (1979), Abstract harmonic analysis. Vol. I, Grundlehren der
Mathematischen Wissenschaften [Fundamental Principles of Mathematical Sciences], vol. 115 (2nd ed.),
Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-540-09434-0, MR 0551496 .
Hewitt, Edwin; Ross, Kenneth A. (1970), Abstract harmonic analysis. Vol. II: Structure and analysis for
compact groups. Analysis on locally compact Abelian groups, Die Grundlehren der mathematischen
Wissenschaften, Band 152, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, MR 0262773 .
Hörmander, L. (1983), The analysis of linear partial differential operators I, Grundl. Math. Wissenschaft.,
vol. 256, Springer, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-96750-4 , ISBN 3-540-12104-8, MR 0717035 .
Kassel, Christian (1995), Quantum groups , Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 155, Berlin, New York:
Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-0783-2 , ISBN 978-0-387-94370-1, MR 1321145 .
Knuth, Donald (1997), Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd. ed.), Reading, Massachusetts: Addison–Wesley,
ISBN 0-201-89684-2.
Narici, Lawrence; Beckenstein, Edward (2011). Topological Vector Spaces. Pure and applied
mathematics (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1584888666. OCLC 144216834 .
Reed, Michael; Simon, Barry (1975), Methods of modern mathematical physics. II. Fourier analysis, self-
adjointness, New York-London: Academic Press Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, pp. xv+361,
ISBN 0-12-585002-6, MR 0493420
Rudin, Walter (1962), Fourier analysis on groups, Interscience Tracts in Pure and Applied Mathematics,
vol. 12, New York–London: Interscience Publishers, ISBN 0-471-52364-X, MR 0152834 .
Schaefer, Helmut H.; Wolff, Manfred P. (1999). Topological Vector Spaces. GTM. Vol. 8 (Second ed.).

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Convolution - Wikipedia

New York, NY: Springer New York Imprint Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-7155-0. OCLC 840278135 .
Stein, Elias; Weiss, Guido (1971), Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces , Princeton
University Press, ISBN 0-691-08078-X.
Sobolev, V.I. (2001) [1994], "Convolution of functions" , Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press.
Strichartz, R. (1994), A Guide to Distribution Theory and Fourier Transforms, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-
8273-4.
Titchmarsh, E (1948), Introduction to the theory of Fourier integrals (2nd ed.), New York, N.Y.: Chelsea
Pub. Co. (published 1986), ISBN 978-0-8284-0324-5.
Trèves, François (2006) [1967]. Topological Vector Spaces, Distributions and Kernels. Mineola, N.Y.:
Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-45352-1. OCLC 853623322 .
Uludag, A. M. (1998), "On possible deterioration of smoothness under the operation of convolution", J.
Math. Anal. Appl., 227 (2): 335–358, doi:10.1006/jmaa.1998.6091
von zur Gathen, J.; Gerhard, J . (2003), Modern Computer Algebra, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-
521-82646-2.

External links ​[ edit ]

Earliest Uses: The entry on Convolution has some historical

information.
Convolution , on The Data Analysis BriefBook Look up convolution in Wiktionary, the
http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/convolve/index.html Visual free dictionary.

convolution Java Applet

http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/discreteconv2/index.html Visual
convolution Java Applet for discrete-time functions Wikimedia Commons has media related
https://get-the-solution.net/projects/discret-convolution discret- to Convolution.

convolution online calculator

https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Convolution/CI.html Convolution demo and visualization in javascript
https://phiresky.github.io/convolution-demo/ Another convolution demo in javascript
Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University. Lecture 7 is on
2-D convolution. , by Alan Peters
* https://archive.org/details/Lectures_on_Image_Processing
Convolution Kernel Mask Operation Interactive tutorial
Convolution at MathWorld
Freeverb3 Impulse Response Processor : Opensource zero latency impulse response processor with VST plugins
Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo showing how spatial convolution works.
A video lecture on the subject of convolution given by Salman Khan
Example of FFT convolution for pattern-recognition (image processing)
Intuitive Guide to Convolution A blogpost about an intuitive interpretation of convolution.

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