HOTTINGER BALDWIN MESSTECHNIK CLUE cecal The Application and Installation of Load Cells ere)HBM © speetris orous The Application and Installation of Load Cells Gert Gommola The Ins and Outs of Welghing Technology A planning manual for the implementation of weighing technology systems and equipment. Publisher: Spectris Messtechnik GmbHCo-authors Rudolf Almendinges, Michael Brining, Ginter Fuchser, Klaus Gehirke, Steffen Gross, Helmut Homer, Ursula Host, Berd Knéll, Gerd Kohler, Bernd Osenberg, Herbert Rehleld, Matthias Roess, Dr. Horst Schrogl, Wemer Schachter, Gunter Strohmaier, Hans Unbehend, Rudolf Vefwancicky, Heinz Ronald Will With grateful thanks to all those who have contvibuted their expert advice and made this book possible in its present form. le Deutsche Bibliothek ~ CIP-Ennetsaunahme Gomme “The application and insalaton of oud ees: the ins and aus of welglng technology’: «planning manual the implemorsation of weighing technology systems an ‘equipment/Gert Commo. Spore Mosstocnik GmbH. ~ FankfurvMa : Zarbock, 2000, ISBN s-9605544.4.9 A ights reserved. CConytgtt: Spociis Messtochnik GmbH, Langen 2000 HotingerBaldvin Messlocik, Darenstact Pubisher: Druck und VerlagshatsZarbock Gmott& Co. KG Printed: Druck- und VrlagsiausZarbock Graal 8 Co. KG ‘No part f tis work may be copied, ransmitedo: stored in aretieval systom by any means whatsoever wihout the express wrtlon permission.v Installing load cells © ¢ 47 Weigh modules .. 584 5.2 5.3 5.4 55 Overload protection . Container stiffening ....... 474 Stops ... 47.2. Lilboli preventers « 4.7.3. Stay rods Opening remarks ... Selected features of various HBM ‘weigh modules Configuring weigh modules to the application Fixed bearings as a cost-effective substitute for modules . Effects caused by unsatisfactory Design and construction of container weighing systems 7A 72 73 74 75 76 Opening remarks . Load distribution . The positon of the centre of gravity on a container . : ‘Supply connections to containers Pressurised conteiners ‘Some typical load cell configurations . 7.6.1 Upright containers . 7.6.1.1 Rigidly installed load cell. 7.6.1.2 Upright tank on two solid bearings and load cell with a levelling piece 7.6.1.8 Upright circular silo ‘on three oF four load cells .. 4-39 4.39 4-40 441 5-45 5-45 5-46 5-49 5-49 551 6-53 7-57 757 7-58 759 7-61 7-64 7-65 7-65 7-66 787 7-68oo ¢ Introduction .. Table of content a Strain gauges in weighing technology . .. Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using stain gauge load cells .. 34 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 37 Mounting accessories for load cells . 4a 42 43 44 45 46 Spring etement configuration in load cells Load cell designs ......6..seecesees 3.2.1 Load cells for heavy loads ........ 3.2.2 Load cells for low loads . 3.2.3 Other designs .... Using structural components for measurement Loa‘ ‘The mounting surface for load cells ....... Properties of loac calls Measuring ranges of load cells. roduction to load cells... Opening remarks . Elastomer bearing platform Pendulum load cell ....+.seeeeeeeeeeeeee 4.3.1 Self-centring pendulum load cell ...... 4.3.2 Pendle bearings and pendle supports ‘Multiple ball bearings .. Ancillary structural components cee 4.5.1, Tapered points and sockets .........+ 4.5.2 Force feedback 4.5.3 Knuckle eyes Fixed and titing bearings . . co 2-3 3-10 313 3-18 3:24 3-23 3-24 3.277.6.1.4 Circular sio on three weigh ‘modules fatoe 7.6.1.5 Flanged container on weigh modules 7.6.1.6 Rectangular silo on fout load cells in bunkering station . 7.6.2 Suspended containers . 7.6.2.1 Suspension on two or three load cells. 7.6.2.2 Central suspension on a single load cell 7.6.3 Horizontal liquid containers. Design and construction of platform balances .. 84 82 83 Opening remarks . : . Platform balances using one load cell . Platform balances using more than one load cell . Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment u: ot 9.2 93 9.4 g str Opening remark ‘The Wheatstone bridge 9.2.1 The circuit diagram 9.2.2 Method of operatio 9.2.3 Internal wiring in sti Load cell sensitivity .. . 9.3.1. Opening remarks ... 9.3.2 Definition of sensitivity 9.3.3 The characteristic curve Weighing electronics ....... 9.4.1 Opening remarks ...... 9.4.2 DC-voltage amplifier ... 9.4.3 Caniertrequency amplifier . 9.4.4 Comparirg the two methods ain gauge load cells ‘gauge load cells Table of content v 7-70 TH 773 774 775 7-76 77 8-79 8-79 8-80 9-85 9-85 9-85 9-85 9-86 9-87 9-89 9-89 9-89 9-89 9-92 9-92 9-92 9-94 9-95Instaling load cells 95 96 9.45 Influences onthe accuracy of measuring amplifiers Electrical connection of load cells 9.5.1 Opening remarks . 9.5.2 Load cells and measuring amplifiors ung four-wire technology... 9.53 Load cols and measuring ampiti using six-wire technology . 9.5.4 Load cells with four-wire technology and measuringamplifiertorsix-wiretechnology 9.5.5 Load cell with six-wire technology and measuringamplifierforfour-wiretechnology 9.5.6 Connecting load cells in parallel ...... Replacing load cells, Electrical engineering protection measures . 104 10.2 10.3 oe Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) . 10.1.1 Opening remarks ..... 10.1.2 HBM shielding design . 10.1.3. Grounding and earth connections . 10.1.4 Summary . : Explosion protection 10.2.4 General notes on the construction regulations . 10.2.2 Division inlo areas . 10.2.8 Division of electrical equipment into groups and temperature classes 10.2.4 Intrinsic Safety "7 ....... 10.2.5 Pressure-Resistant Encapsulation "c 10.2.6 Enhanced Safety "e” ie 10.2.7 List of references on explosion protection ...... Lightning protection ........ 10.3.1 Opening remarks .......... 10.3.2 Protection measures ....... 9-95 9.97 9.97 9-98 9-99 9-404 9-402 9-402 9-103 0-105, 10-105 40-105 10-106 10-108 10-109 10-109 40-109 10-140 101i 10-113, 10-114 10-115, i115 10-146 10-116 10-116Table of content vi Calibrating weighing devices . 114.1 Some Important especis 11-119 a We 414.2 Balancing ..... ii2i 11.2.1, Balancing by direct loading. 14-123, 41.2.2 Balancing with the aid of a ealioration instrument . am 14-126 41.2.8 Balancing withthe aid of the calibration signal buit into the instrument ........ 11-127 41.3 Cable effects during balancing ....... 11-128 44.3.1 Cable resstance .......seeeee it-i28 11.82 Temperature dependent cable resistance 41-129 41.9.8 Intrinsic resistance when load cells are connected in parallel .......cece00 11-130 14.3.4 Cable varants ........ 11-133 11.4 Balancing digital amplifiers 11-134 44.5 Summary ..... coeor 14-135 11.6 Replacing load cells - recalibration . 14-436 Measurement accuracy and signal resolution : - 12-437 42.1 Opening remarks .......ee00e + 12437 122 Selected charactrsie quanitos 12-138 12. Influence of equipment configuration and surroundings on accuracy 12-140 12.4 Ways of determiring the accuracy of a weighing device .... . 12-142 42.5 Ways of improving the accuracy of a weighing device 12442 12.6 Measurement signal resolution ...+.++++ 12-142Installing load cells, & Interference effects on load cells .. 13.1 Opening remarks .. 13.2 Mechanical interference effects ... 13.2.1 Load introduction . 13.2.2 Defective bearing surtace 13.2.3 Vibrating lad .. 13.2.4 Falling mass . 13.2.5 Force bypasses 13.2.6 Auxiliary motors 13.8 Weather effects . 13.3.1 Temperature 13.3.2 Snow andice ........6.+5 13.3.3 Wind forces .. ‘Terms, expressions and characteristic quantities related to load cells .. 13-145 19-145 13-447 i347 13-148 13-149 13-150 19-151 13-152 19-153 13-153 19-154 13-155 14-164Installing load cells 4~1 Introduction Note Scarcely no other field of engineering has had its procedures and regulations so precisely refined and specified as measurement technology. ‘The European Union / EC law on measurement and verification methods (Law on Verification) (=) nowadays regulates legally contracted sales ‘of goods for which the price is defined by a unit of weight. For centuries, the accurate weighing of gooils and products has represented a challenge for measurement technology. Meanwhile the same units are now used internationally for measurement, ‘The basic unit is the kilogram, abbreviated to kg, The law also permits the use of the gram (g) and the tonne (0). Alongside solutions that require official verification, the number of weighing devices not requiring verification against official specifications (=) continvally ineeases. ‘The growing demand for eve: higher quality has combined with {increased product responsibilty to drive this development forward in recent years. This brochure is paricularly intended as a guide for users of weighing equipment that does not require verification against oficial spectfications,1-2 Installing load cel Certain nites have to be observed when setting up and operating weizhing devices, in order to avoid mechanical and electrical interference effects when meastsing. This brochore docs not elisa to be ‘complete; this is because in practic, individual problems usually require special modifications wich can neither be assessed at the outset nor be ‘adapted using just any method that seems appropriate, Figure 1-1 Components for weighing technology HBM (Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH) has been manufacturing strain gauges, load cells and amplifiers for over 40 years. The wealth of experience gained from providing optimum solutions for many and varied problem definitions is a vatuable knowledge base for resolving the ‘manufacture and application oF components used in the field of weighing technology,Installing load cells 2-3 Strain gauges in weighing technology Ever since the invention of the strain gauge (>) (S.G.) this application of a physical effect has also been applied to electromechanical balances. Strain ganges (a) are predominantly stuck or otherwise fastened to the areas of mechanical components (b) that are sensitive to strain, Figure 2-1. For weighing purposes, however, only the strains (=) that arise from changes in mass are required, Since the strain gauge isin ctose contact with the strface of the component it follows the surface strain faithfully; the geometry of the eixeuit paths in the metal foil varies accordingly and the ohmic resistance of the strain gauge changes in proportion, This change of resisiance in proportion to strain means that the mass of the object being weighed can be changed into a proportional electrical signal. This electrical signal is just as necessary fora simple digital indicator as itis for mosier, formula-driven balance processors ot for linking a weighing device toa PLC. As a rae, the strain gauge is electrically connected to a “Wheatstone bridge” (=) () The structural elements behave like mechanical spring elements and generate the required counter force. Spring elements are distorted in proportion to the applied load (weighing force). The displacement concerned amounts f0 no move than « few fractions of « millimetre, The2-4 SG. in weighing technique holds good for both positive and negative strain (elongation or compression). Within defined limits (Hooke’s Law (>) in the stress/stain diagram) the procedures desevibed are elose to linear and easily reproducible (c) u,, bridge output vtlage ‘exctaton vetage Figure 2-1 Physical method of applying the effect of a strain gauge (SG)Instaling load cells 3-5 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells 3.1. Spring element configuration in load cells ‘The shape and size of a load cell is determined by the type of spring clement used. The correct choice of spring element and mounting ‘components depends among other things on the following points: = The direction of the applied loading (tensile and/or compressive) = The value of the applied maximum capacity (2) as well as the service load (=) and breaking load (=) ® The required measurement accuracy © Configuration requirements (¢.2. compact overall height) = Spurious loading (lateral force (=), torsion (=), bending stress ey)3-6 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells ol) @ 1 | =i 2a (1.100) 26 (Sa100040) chr RIN (12.4709 ZINC @5..10 us 16 20..2000) 2A (0.05..209) 61703 (1.5000) Figure 3-1 Selected types of HBM load cells and thelr typical load capacity rangesInstalling load cells 3-1 3.2 Load cell designs During @ measurement process, the Weiahing foree sets upon the metal spring element ia the load cell and causes clastic deformation, Attached to the spring element is a strain gauge, which converts this positive or negative strain into an electrical signal. A load cell ofthe most basic kind ‘ight consis of a bending spring element fitted with & strain gauge. The essential basic components, ie. a spring element and strain gauge, are normally accompanied by ancillary items such as an enclosure, sealing zaskets, ete, designed to protect the strain gauge. 3.2.1 Load cells for heavy loads Figure 3.2 shows sectional drawings of load cells with column-shaped spring elements, The variant on the left is ideal for compressive loading, whilst the one on the right has a threaded connector which ean handle both tensile and compressive loading, The cross-section of the column is decreased at the point where ‘he S.G. is applied. By this means a strain that is sufficiently large to give meaningful results arises at the point of ‘meastement. The entite spring deflection under load is extremely small, At maximum capacity (=) the spring deflection in this variant (deflection at maximum load eapacity (=)) amounts to less than 0.5 man, Figure 3-2. Load cells with column-shaped spring elements,3-8 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells ‘The upper pat ofthe spring ekment is connected to the protective enclosure by two gas-tisht, welded diaphragms, ‘These are extremely ic! in the liovizontal direction and thus protect against damaze from lateral forees. At the same time the diaphragms are designed to be flexible ia the measurement dicection, in order not to falsify the measurement restlt with force bypasses (=). The electrical connections are Jed from the enclostire by means of a glass bashing which is also zas-tight, The result is a fully ermetically-sealed load cell in which the strain gauze fonction cannot be adversely affected by gases or liquids, nother form of spring clement, such as « hollow cylinder or tube, is ofien chosen for exttemely heavy loadings. A shor, stumpy cylinder is not suitable, since it does not produce the uniform strain field which is ‘most beneticial for straia gauge meastrements. Figure 3.3 shows a spring clement in the form of a hollow cylinder. It is relatively easy to produce and provides extremely high stability against lateral loads. Here again it isa simple matter to obtain a hermetic seal. However, positioning the strain gauge requires slightly greater effort. Figure 3-3 Spring element in the form of a hollow cylinder in the case of tubular spring elements there can be problems with the Toad introduction, and a relatively high hysteresis (=). For this reason the design shown in Figure 3.4 is often used. In this ease the tube is divided into segments with the aim of redveing the hysteresis. The load is introduced through fixed platform,Installing load cells 3-9 Figure 3-4 Segmented tubular spring element A common sequirement is for a reduction in overall inerease in precision. This task can be handled using spring elements in accordance with the ring torsion le (Figure 3.5). The load is to the load. Load cells constiucted on this principle can withstand quite high lateral loads Figure 3-5 Ring torsion principle3-10 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells 3.2.2 Load cells for low loads A spring element with direct mechanical loading is unsuitable for ‘measuring low loads (say below 5 0). suitable design is a spring ) accuracy levels of between 3% and 10% can be achieved 3.4 Load introduction to load cells Special attention must be pai to the load intvoduetion points on load cells, that is to say not only to the points of contact between « Toad cell and the load itis intended to weigh, but also those between a load cell and its bearing susface. Load components acting other than in the specified measurement direction falsify the result and can even shorten the service life of the load cell. Load cells should be used in the prescribed direction of loading only. The direction of loading is indieaied by an arrow on many HBM load cells. Lateral forces and bending 0: torsional moments must be avoided as far as possible. Figure 3.17 shows the correct loading fora load cell (3) and selected examples of incorrect loading, in the form of a diagram.3-22 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment usng strain gauge load calls @ ile oO \F 3} = | v [e] a0 [emmone za] © o F F —= x [e (2). Central oad introduction (6) Of contre ead introduction (6). Nen-ail lead introduction producing at (8) Torquetoading (orsona) load introduction ores Figure 3-17 Correct loading and examples of incorrect loading of load cellsInstalling load cells 3-23, 3.5 The mounting surface for load cells Load cells for compressive loading must stand with their bases on strong, solid surface which will not distort under loading. To ensure uniform transmission of the load from the base of the load cell to the substructure, the load cell must be attached to a rigid base plate. ILis also absolutely essential that if Toad cells are mounted on protile section supports, they should absorb their main supporting forces throuh brasing straps. The substructure beneath load cells must be able to provide supporting forces that are adequate for the loading. In certain circumstances the substructure can become grossly distorted ‘under the effects of a load, even though stability is totally unaffected, At the same time these distortions can eatse the supports to subside, If this, Ihappens, all supports should subside by the same amount in order to avoid tilting, which would lead to changes in the proportional load distribution and create lateral forees. This basically means that a sizid construction makes a better substructure than a yielding one, In the case of « non-igid constuction, uniform subsidence of all the supports is extremely difficult to obtain and in fact the entire construction can become deformed. ” F © | F ——— = xf [xe deformation of te oad (©) Uneven bearing suraes Figure 3-18 Incorrect substuctures for load cells,‘3-24 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells 3.6 Properties of load cells The accuracy of a load cell depends on the intesKled application. Cumulative errors are commonly between 2 % and 0,015 % in ation to the maximum capacity of the load cell. Ia special cases loud cells of even sreater accuracy can be designed. Reference transducers with a cumulative err of Tess than 20 ppm have alzeady been manufuctored The greater the required precision, she greater the manufacturing and error compensation effort required to produce the load c: ‘The spring element in « load cell i elastically deformed under loading, The displacement is very small in the case of $.G, load cells; the deflection at maxims load capacity (=>) is typically between 0.05 mm and 0.5 mm, depending on the maximum capacity (=). ‘A Toad cell is usually supplied together with an operating manual. This, Contains all the relevant technical data and ether important information ‘hat must be taken into consideration prior to putting the equipment into service. Figure 3.19 explains the specified load increments fos load cells, Maximum ‘capaclty Service toad Measuring range ‘The specid err lis are not oxcoaded. Break Sate toad tmit Toad Operating range “Toe specied error its may be exceeded. Maximum loading range ‘Destructive ange ‘Spectad eror mts aro excoeded without damaging | Tho load cel undergone the load oa manent changes. Figure 3-19 Load increments for toad cells ‘The maximum capacity (==) (sometimes ealled maximum load capacity (oF nominal load) refers to the rated loading capacity of « load cell. It {osuas the upper limit of the specified measuring range, All the other loadInstaling load cells 3-25 increments are expressed as a percentage of the maxisumn capacity. No damage occurs up to the safe toad limit (=; if this is exceeded, permanent changes oveut. The size of the safe load limit depends on the type of spring element; in many cases it ean amount to 150 % or even as rnuch as 2000 & of maximum capaciy. The most common types of damage involve plastic deformation of the spring element, Even @ single, short- duration overload ean b> enough to damage the load cell permanently. Plastic deformation of the spring element ereates a permanent change in the zera signal (=) from the load cell, and this affects its metrological properties. So that it will be easy to check whether a load cell is ‘operating correctly at any time in the future, it is advisable to measure and record the zero signal from every new load cel. Tin the ease of load cells designed for both tensile and compressive loading, two different minimum zero signals can occur as a consequence of the most recently applied direction of loading. | | | —,| Figure 3-20 Permissible maintained vibration loading ‘The permissible sustained vibration amplitude (=>) is also expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. Figure 3.20 shows an example of a Toad cell for tensile and compressive loading with « maximum maintained vibration bandwidth of 80 % of maximum capacity. It will be noted that the vibration amptimde can be at any point between positive“3-26 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells and negative maximum capacity, The whole span between positive and negative maximum eapacity amounts to 200 %. For certain load cells the maximum maintained vibration bandwidth can definitely be said 10 exceed 100 %. The natural frequency (=) of foad cells is generally over IkH2. However it pecomes lower as soon a mass is introduced. To avoid interference from effects such as resonant modes, the natural frequency of the whole system (i. the load cell and the intwoduced mass) hus to be taken into consideration, ‘The cumalative enor, Figure 3.21, considers the non-linearity and hysteresis of « toad cell. ‘The cumulative error thus expresses the width of the tolerance band within which every point onthe load eell characteristic eurve (=) lies. Tniedte SS tolece tard — Straight in of ves. Signal Characteristic curve fordecres oa Charcot cure forinorening eal 4G ty Lost — Figure 3-21 Cumulative error, Further notes on the subject of errors can be found in Chapter 13 - ‘interference effects on load cells’.installing foad cells 3-27 3.7. Measuring ranges of load cells Note ‘The upper limit of the measuring range om « load cell is its rated ‘maximum capacity (=) and the lower limit is the zero loading. Thus when choosing @ load cell, its maximum capacity will be infiuenced by the total gross load acting upon it. This gross load (=) is calculated fiom the maximum weight of the weigh goods (net weight (=) ) and the intrinsic weight of the container together with its ancillary equipment such as an agitator or other devices (tare weight (=). Dynamic overloading of equipment due to oscillations and impacts must also be taken into account. Dynamic loading typically ocours when containers are filled by allowing weigh goods to tumble into them, or ‘when an agitator causes uneven dynamic weight distribution, Loadings which take these matters into account should as far as possible be less than or equal to the maximum capacity of the load cell. They rust on no account exceed the safe toad limit (=) for the toad cell concerned. If it is likely that the safe load limit will be exceeded, suitable measures to protect the load eell from damage will need to be builtin (ee also Chapter 6 ~ “Overload protection”)."3-28 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cellsInstaliing load cells 4-29 Mounting accessories for load cells 4.1 Opening remarks ‘When weighing containers or monitoring their fil height, temperature sirains and associated horizontal movements in both the container and the substraciare have to be taken into account. A rigid installation impedes these movements and in the end eauses horizontal forces to falsify the measurement resul: when they are big enough, which is often the case, Load cells are sometimes mechanically damaged or even broken in such circumstances. The same can happen with load introduction points, due to superimposed torsional moments and lateral force components, These may occur because of eccentric load forces introduced at an angle. Its therefore advisable to choose configurations in which the horizontal forces arising from temperature strains or other sources are taken into account or better still exelted. ‘The items described for this purpose each provide a solution to a particular problem, depending on the form of container, ‘Mounting accessories encourage compliance with the configuration ttudetines for load cells. The focal points for excluding disturbance variables are extremely varied and call for measures that ate specific to4-30 Mounting accessories for load cells each application, However, in the end its the design engineer with detailed product knowledge wha decides about the weighting of individual disturbance variables. For different desigas of load cells this results fn not only a broad range of epifons for the load introduction, but also a very wide choice of momnting ecessories and variants 4.2. Elastomer bearing platform ‘Typical elastomer bearing platforms consist of several superimposed steel plates and layers of rubber vuleanised together. Even a slight force will make the upper and lower load-introduction surfaces move parallel to one another. This allows the upper bearing plate to move aside in the event of a lateral force without passing an additional weighing force effect on to the lower plate of the load cell. By this means, horizontal rogues in the working surtace must be lose —— Oo ‘San 0.6mm, the surface 2 more unaven than ti, T ust be lveleg by applying a sealant matetal, al uch as AFMO (avalible rom te Relne CI company) 0am Angle of nctination of the working surtaco oa “he sensitivity ofthe load col iminishes by the Ol ‘action t-cota, This deviation i adjusted by means FA ‘te electrons Into welghing apparatus ung ‘albraton, Evens, he angle finan shud ret exceed 3, ea Ss _ = Plane parallelism ——T bottom plate a tare so paral, tho botiom pate and head pat are not paral ‘le onparalersr imposes an adsona! ara Oo {bres on the fore inraducton pate, Ths ater Aotacted inthe wantyerse drecton unt the ‘ulbrum of forcos is estrea, Howevey, in ordor ot Bie teat ty be ta brine 4 ‘ongitudinal direction. The pendle bearing Is {Bk th efecto latoral ores to @ minimum, the {ng of Inelnaton must never exceed 3 Axia misalignment xl misalignment between the to pate and the . — Duin ferce riveducton gvas ca eau for concern since the pales ate sarewed together [O O Figure §-6 Notes on iting 2A weigh modules5-52 Mounting accessories for load cellsInstalling load cells 6-53 Overload protection Note Load cells ean often be protected from overload by oversizing them. If ‘overload protection is actually being achieved in this way, no farther action is necessary. The accuracy class (=) of a load cell always refers to its maximum capacity (2). Depending on the requited weighing accuracy and the smallest fractional quantities to be weighed, load cells cannot always be oversized at will, since the absolute measurement error is directly proportional to the maximum capacity. ‘Some types of HBM load cells are already fitted with a built-in ‘mechanical overload protection. Itis always worth making the effort to incorporate ovesload protection if the load cells have to be laden up to their maximum eapacity, since the risk of an overload is then only slight. Overload protection should typically be provided for load cells in the following situations: The maximum loadings to be imposed on the load cells ane unknown, There is likely io be heavy dynamic loading, for instance if goods ‘wmble into the weigh vessel (pulsed loading). [Experience shows that load cells witha rather low maximum capacity often become overloaded mose quickly than load cells inthe hisher loud"6-54 Overload protection capacity ranges. So for example a load cell with « maximum load capacity of 20kg can be quite badly damaged simply by a falling wrench, Design engineers can also setup and use their own prefesred overload protection for « range of load cell conficurations. Figure 6.1 shows a suggested design for an overload protection in the HBM type 26 loud cell Iu this arrangement, any distortion or spring deflection in the loud cell is limited by a mechanics: stop. F Spring deflection f° paises Fine-threaded stop sre — Deflection at maximumtoad capacity Figure 6-1 Suggested overicad protection for the HBM type Z6 load cell The data sheet heading Deflection at maximum load capacity (>) describes the extent by which the load cell is distorted at its maximum ‘capacity. Depending on the type and load capacity range ofthe load eel, ‘a mechanical stop will limit the possible spring deflection to between 120% and 150% of deflection st maxima capacity in order to prevent the load cell from overtoadi Feeler gauges are used to adjust the stop. Since the typical displacement by distortion is very sanall ~in practice only a ew 1/10min— fine-threaded adjustment screws have proved extremely roliable inthis connection, ‘The zap between the load celi and the stop should also beInstalling load cells 6-85 protected from dust and dist, since contamination of this kind is likely to ‘cause false measurements duc to ineosrect spring detection limitation, TF. Joad cell is installed on a yielding substructure, this can result in a dilicteat displcement from that specified in the data sheet. The overload protection can quite often be triggered prematurely by saz in the ‘mounting plate. Consequently the gap between the Toad cell and the stop has to be widened, It is therefore preferable to load the weighing device to its maximum capacity and then adjust the resulting zap to between (0,05mm and 0.1mm from the mechanical stop. An alternative form of overload protection can be provided by a pre-tensioned spring deviee installed axially to the direction of the weigh force, Figure 6.2. the maximum load capacity exceeds a given value, the spring is fully compressed and conducts the force through purpose-designed structure to a mechanical stop. With this form of overload protection the zap fs considerably wider. This means that setting up the permissible loading is simpler and more reliable. The properties ofthe spring device also decidedly reduce the risk of damage to the load cell from pulsed loading. Since such spring devices are much less sensitive to contamination, the additional effort expended on design and materials compared with other forms of overload protection can definitely be justified for a range of applications. Spring device Mecianical stop Load eat c2 Figure 6-2 Using a spring device as overioad protection for a iype C2 load cell6-56 Overload protectionInstalling load cells 7-87 Design and construction of container weighing systems 7.1 Opening remarks Note When fiting containers with load cells, there are some important ground rules to observe. For instance containers are quite ofien exposed to the elements or subject to production-specitie influences. ‘When erecting new containers in the open (e.g. silos, coal bunkers, etc.) these constitute structures for which the relevant building regulations have to be observed. However, even installing weighing equipment ata later date may be viewed as a “significant change” under the building regulations. Tn such cases it is advisable to seck the advice of a structural engineer. On safety grounds, building regulations usually specify the state-of the-art”. For example, in the case of wind losding this is DIN 1055 Part 4 “Design Toads for buildings”,ign and construction of container weighing systems Similarly, architects designing container configurations should familiarise themselves with aay special in-house requirements of the users concerned. For iustance even in locations that are roofed over, containers frequently have to be prevented fom lifting off if they contain dangerous substances and, say, forklift trucks will be operating in the In view of the significance of the subjects, Section 13.3.3 deals specifically with the effects of wind forces on overall system safety and weighing accuracy. 7.2. Load distribution ‘The optimum load cell configuration for determining the weight of containers is when the container rests on three points of support with load cell on each. This situation is known as statically determinate. In this ease the total loading should be distributed as evenly as possible over the three load cells. In the ease of upright or suspended eylindtical containers this requirement is best fulfilled if the three load cells are arranged at the same distance trom the vertical axis ofthe container, and at the same level but offset by 120° fzom one another. For horizontal containers the points of seppos should be arranged as shown in Figure 7A. 1 the confignration isnot sited with «Toad eel on every support, it is recommended that the load distribution should not be uniform across all, supports, Those supports with load cells should have higher loadings than those without, This measare will help to improve the overall accuracy of the weighing equipment. When designing plant and choosing Toad cells, every effort should be made to ensure that the loud cells concemed will be loaded as usiformly as possible.Installing load cells 7-69 Conte ef raity A s Figure 7-1 Arrangement of points of support A, B and C for horizontal containers. f container is supported on four or more points, this constitutes statically determinate support. For an application of this kind, all points (of support must be fitted with load cells. Uniform distribution of the loading must be attended to as the individual transducers are fitted. For this purpose the loading on each transducer must be individually measured and in the event of unacceptable differences the height of the load cells concerned must be adjusted (for instance by means of sheet metal levelling pieces). As a rule, load cells that are too lightly loaded are geometrically opposite. 7.3. The position of the centre of gravity on a container As far as possible the centre of gravity of a full container should not be higher than its points of support. In practice this requirement often cannot be met,Hoignt of ft Conte of gravy + Height of m2 Conte of orwiy 2 ee Load eats Figure 7-2 How the centre of gravity in a container with a sloping floor ‘changes position in relation to the height of fill For the sake of stability it is best if the centre of gravity is below the points of support. The position of the centre of gravity as a function of the height of fill has a decisive iafivence on the nuinber of loud cells to be used, If the contents are filled symmetrically to the load cell1 configuration, it may be possible to constvet the weigh just one loud eel, since the cent of sravity chunzes position alone « vertical line. I the centie of sravity shifts sideways when the height of {il chaages, all supports must be fitted with load cells. devies using Figure 7.2 is intended to show why load cells need to be used on all points of support wien the position of the centre of eravity ean change. 7.4 Supply connections to containers Containers frequently need cenneetions for services such as filling and removing contents, as well as for the electiical, hydraulic or compressed air supply to their auxiliary motors. ‘These supply connections can cause force bypasses that show up as inaceuracies in the readings produced by the weighing apparatus. ‘Supply conncetions must be elastic in the vertical diction. Figures 7.3, to 7.7 shiow some exanoples oF acceptable layouts for supply connections, For reasons of sound busines: sense itis essential to give these aspects due consideration atthe planring and design stages whatever the circumstances. IL using sigid pipes without any flexible interconnection, it is advisable to connect to the container through the maxinnum possible length of horizontal pipe, whieh should be fitted with a suain reliever in the Tongitudinal direction (Figuse 7.3). ‘The horizontal pipe is springy in the vertical direction and its effect diminishes with inereasing length, The tensile or compressive mechanical force whieh the pipe autificially exerts on the load cells inishes accordingly and ceases to threaten the accuracy of7-62 Design and construction of container wel systems: Figure 7-3 connection Figure 7-4 Elastic pipe coupling Figure 7-5Note Installing load cells 7-63 Figure 7-6 Mechanical compensator Several flexible couplings can also be used instead of one long pipe connection (Figure 7.4), Hose connections made of slightly deformable clastic material are effective in preventing force bypasses. It is essential to check thatthe elastic material is compatible with the material used to fill or clean the container (for instance if foodstuffs or pharmaceuticals are involved). Another possible way of keeping unwanted force bypasses to @ minimum by using connecting pipes is to fata pipe bend (Figure 7.5). IFitis essential for the pipe connection to be vertical, ie. in the same direction as the weighing force that has to be measured, or if flexible hose connections cannot be used, a reliable method is to connect through ‘a compensator (such as metal bellows ~ Figure 7.6). Strict tolerances have to be observed when insialling a compensator of this kind. Using two sets of metal bellows connected together by a length of pipe means the toterances to be compenssted for are wider. Metal bellows are not alloved in certain areas of the food industry where sorupulous cleanliness is required. The open connecting branch shown in Figure 7.7 is the best solution for keeping force bypasses to minimem, An open conageting branch prevents contact between the pipe and the container. This type ofNote connection cannot be used in closed systems such as pressurised containers, Figure 7-7 Open connecting branch Care must always be taken to ensure that the proportion of material in the connecting pipes is weighed as well. The amount of fin the inlet and outlt lines directly connected to the container should therefore be ‘reproducible at the time of weighing. This means that the lines should be either always full or always empty during data acquisition. 7.5 Pressurised containers The pressure in a closed system cam affect the weighing result. In some industries, particulariy the chemical industry, very high pressore is needed for parts of the process. In contrast, suction equipment for extracting powdered weigh gods can ereate negative pressure of between 100 and 300 mbsr. Ir the pipe conduits are couple to the container vertically as shown in Figures 7.5. and 7.6, this produces a force that is added dicectly to the ‘measoremnent result, The total eifect is the produet of the puessure times the sectional area of the pipe. I pressure ritios are constant dusing the ‘weighing procedure, this effect can be taken into secount by caleulation in the course of messtrementInstalling load cells 7-65 A horizontal line connection has advantages, but a vertical connection is preferable every time. In this ease any spurious forces are absorbed by the mouating sceessories. 7.6 Some typical load cell configurations ‘This section shows some examples of typical container designs in iagcam form, Essential consiruetion details and notes on problems relating to individual eases ccn be looked up in the chapters concerned, 7.6.1 Upright containers In the case of fiquids and loose materials with centrally filled contents, possible configurations include two fixed supports and one load cell This will work for containers that are constructed symmetrically, so that regardless ofthe height of the contents the cenize of gravity moves in a line whieh is close enough to vertical for the degree of aecuracy required, Inall other cases, particularly where even hisher accuracy is needed, at Teast three load cells showld ke fitted and in some circumstances even7-66 Design and construction of container weighing systems 7.6.1.1 Rigidly installed load cell WL _t Figure 7-8 Upright containerin a rigid installation with a load cell ‘This simple desiga on supporting elements and a rigidly installed load cell is not recommended, Problematical feedback affects the load cell merely by virtue of the design. This means itis generally impossible to protcet load cells from the effects of distoriion arising when the height of {ill changes, or when there is vibration or a change of temperature, Even 50, individual instances are tobe Found,Installing load cells 7-67 7.6.1.2 Upright tank on two solid bearings and a load cell with a levelling piece oad cat C168 Figure 7-9 Upright tank wit two solid bearings and one load cell with a levelling piece This design for measuring height of fil uses one load cell in a pendle configuration and two solid bearings that also restrain the container in the horizontal direction, This cost-effective design protects load cells from unacceptable influences.7-68 Design and construction of container weighing systems 7.6.1.3 Upright circular silo on three or four load cells ‘Lad cel vith elastomer bearing _——— plato alagram) Figure 7-40 Upright cireular sito Height of fill can ustally be accurately measued on three load cells; however, designs involving rectangular symmetry can also be found with {our loud cells, even though in principle this configuration is less {avonable duc tothe static determination and high cost. The same objectives ean be achieved using simpler designsInstalling load cells 7-69 Although self-centr bearings do not sequire stay sods, they are conmonly combined with fixed stops. In the ease of very high containers, however, additional stay rods are needed in the upper part of the stractute; the eximple shows tensile tubular stay sods which have ben lightly pre-tensioned and chocked. If fixed stops were used at this point, they would always be contacted atthe slizhtest unavoidable inisalignment and the contact fiction would produce force bypasses. Moe rately, roller stops or rope stays are sed."7-70 Design and construction of container weighing systems 7.6.1.4 Circular silo on three weigh modules 4 id ion Weigh module pf moda Weigh module 26 for Weigh module G2A for Weigh modulo C16 for Tghtloacs ‘mocium loads eawy fads Figure 7-14, Circular silo on weigh modules ‘Three weich modules with integral stay sods attached tangentially to the circumference of the structure make sure the container remains horizontally stable without the need fer further measures. Each weighInstalling foad cells 7-71 module also has a builtin lift-off preventer to stop the container overturning. Other structural details are therefore omitted for use in the open. Typical weigh modules for light, medium and heavy loads are also shown tere by way of example. Because these standardised elements simplify design and construction, they can lead to considerable savings in the costs normally associated with those activities; however, care must be taken during construction to censure that beating surfaces ste parallel, vertical alignment is correct and 7.6.1.5 Flanged container on weigh modules Weigh modules (agra) ao Figure 7-12 Arrangement of weigh modules for a flanged container"7-72 Design and construction of container weighing systems (On the flanged containers most commonly seen in practice, the outer casing reaches to the ground and ensures the stability of the whole configuration. Special arrangements are needed to enable such containers to stand on load eells. Figure 7.12 shows a structural variant for weighing these containers by ‘means of load cells. This suggestion is relatively easy to implement, even on existing plant, Bracing struts are fitted or welded to the inner wall of the container. The load is rigidly transmitted to the load cell through a foot . Load cell weigh modules should preferably be used in this ease as wel, since for ‘one thing they already include a lit-off preventer (not shown in Figure 7.12 for the sake of simplicity). Even a slight elevation of the structure is enough to transmit the whole of the weighing force to the load cells, ‘The system usually needs a seitant, and this is provided by a circular sing gasket which is flexible enough not to act as a force bypass.Installing load cells 7-73 7.6.1.6 Rectangular silo on four load cells In bunkering station Load ot C18. Figure 7-13 Rectangular sila on four load cells7-74 Design and construction of container weighing systems Conditions at bunkering stations are very harsh due to vibration érom transportation facilites, oscillations tron filling and discharging equipment and, ifthe weigh bunker is part of « mobile plaat, acceleration duc to vehicle movement. By no means least, when eouuse bulk materials are dropped into the container and strike against oblique side panels they can create powerful lateral stresses. In such circumstances, particularly stable resrafnt must be provided in the form of rigidly prestiessed stay rods. Occasionally also the weigh vessel is held firm whea not taking part in the weighing procedure and is only released for weighing. [ts rectangular symmetry is good for stability and is therefore eartied through into the Toad cell configuration. Load cells commonly used for this application are those with elastomer bearing platforms and, as inthis example, pendulum load cell. 7.6.2 Suspended containers Simple, flexible tensile tubular stay rods are ofien used on suspended containers to overcome or eas the problems of centring, height adjustment and so forth. As well as the ever-present need for protection against toppling, stay rods are needed to prevent swaying and twisting,Installing load cells 7-78 7.6.2.1 Suspension on two or three load cells ond coll U2A vith spacor and tong tua os (eisceem) “Tubular rod for protection agalnst {ating Stay roo Figure 7-14 Suspended container on two or three load cells ‘This altogether simple design requires several tangential stay rods; in ‘eases where the stresses are quite low, they ean take on the funeiion of lower, lateral outfall pipe.7-16 Design and construction of container weighing systems 7.6.2.2 Central suspension on a single load cell oad cot U2A wits knuckle eyes above fan belt Tuba ro tor protection agaat fates Figure 7-15 Suspended container on a single load cell In this configuration, spe essential, stiffening against swaying and twisting isNote “Instaling load cells 7-77 7.6.3 Horizontal liquid containers In horizontal containers for liquids, the condition that the ceate of eravity of the contents moves vertically as « fumetion of the height of fill, is to all intents and pusposes met. It therefore only needs 2 load cell ‘under one tank cradle and two solid bearings under the other tank cradle for a relatively simple way of measuring the height of fil. An ideatised tank supports helf its weight on a self-eentring pendulum Toad cell and the other half on two solid beatings. Farther bracing or stiffening is not required in normal circumstances. In the ease of very Tong tanks, however, additional protection against the load cell being overturned by a side impact with the tank ean be provided by attaching fixed stops to both ends of the tank cradle resting on the load cell, in order to restrict lateral displacement, Figure 7-16 Horizontal liquid container with one C16 load cell (diagram) In practice, however, the symmetrical distribution of the contents is often intentionally disturbed by a slight one-sided slope in the floorline towards the outlet. The optimal solution for greater weighing accuracy Is a self-centiing configuration of three load cells, in which case itis best to provide horizontal stifening with the aid of fixed stops.7-78 Design and construction of container weighing systemsTnstaling oad cols 8-79 Design and construction of platform balances 8.1 Opening remarks “The term platform balance nowadays covers a wide field of application, Iccovers the design and configuration of equipment such as high-precision laboratory balances, shop-counterseales and personal ‘weighing machines right thieaph to high-capscity applications for road vehicles. Platform balances are characterised by one or more load cells, wally arranged under a platform (scale pan) on which the goods intended for weighing are placed. A particularly notable advantage of platform balances is the fact that the position of the weight on the platform has no effect on the weighing result within the specified limits of accuracy. The accuriey of the balance cam be further improved by earrying out additional commer correction, Comer errors are determined by eorner ehecking (=) The physical dimensions of s seale pan or platform are defined by the size or beating surface of the goods intended to be weighed and their average weight,8-80 Design and construction of platform balances Using only one toad cell limits the eptions fer eartying out compensating ‘corrections on account of extoss caused by off-centre weight introduction. The configuration of « platorm balance is slso infiuenced by aspects of the design, including the requived stitiness of the scale pan or platform, especially when several load cells are used, 8.2 Platform balances using one load cell In this form of platform balance, just one load cell i installed beneath platform or scale pan on which the goods intended for weighing are placed. The name single-point load cell has become generally established for this kind of transducer. eally this load cell is Located centrally beneath the platform. However, the mechanical design of the load cell (in most cases dual-beam spring ‘elements, see also Section 3.2.2) also permits off-centre contigue:tions such as a cantilevered platform. ‘The load cell is de ‘measurement de’ Je for -d 10 compensate as far as pos ions caused by off-centre loa ‘The technology used at the manufacturing stage provides additional ‘measures for minimising corner loading errors, so that as a rule no further balancing measures are required whea the Weigh balance is being completed. This saves both time and expense, Balances using only one load cell clearly have a price advantage, Another financial advantage of these designs is that a balance in which additional mechanical components are few and uncomplicated is ready 10 use once assembled, Jn the simplest ease an accurate weighing device can be produced from a base plate, a load cell and « suitable load platform (Figure 8.1).Installing load cells 8-81 {Any lad ioduction onthe platform, BPocrrecedh Patio foad eet Spacer overload protection Figure 8-1 Structure of a platform balance using a single-point load cell (diagram) ‘Typical applications are shop-counter scales, posal scales, parcel scales and the whole range of medical and pharmaceutical balances, Ever more frequently these inexpensive designs are also being apy packaging machines and check balances as well as tasks for weighing technology applications in the industrial sector, Due to the ratio of maximum capacity to the physical dimensions of the Toad cell, there are limits to the use of platform balances with one Toad cell only. High maximum capacities commonly necessitate load cells with a high profile, Similarly the selected platform size must not exceed the stated ‘maximum configuration (data sheet specification), otherwise corner corrections will not work adequately and the load cell will run the risk of becoming mechanically overloaded. Itis alyays important to ensure thatthe platform has sufficient Inechanieal stiffness, Platform Weight has to be taken into aecount as & tare load in selation tothe toul loud aeting onthe load cell. In practice, an even more reliable way of protecting the loud cell than, placing uncomplicated overload trips dizeetly under the Toad ell 10 testrict spring deflection has been to place stops under each corner of the platiorm. These prevent harmful torsional loads from teaching ot damaging the toad eel{8-82 Design and construction of platform balances Figure 8-2 The HBM range of single-point load cellsInstalling load cells 8-83 8.3 Platform balances using more than one load cell With this type of platform balance, two to eight load cells may be arranged beneath the platform, Unlike using a single load cell under the platform, this design makes the whole structure considerably more ‘compact for the equivalent maximum capacity. This can be explained by the fact that the load is distributed over several load eells, with the result that each can be dimensioned for a lower rated load, Platform size may be selected virtually at will. 1 becomes a much, simpler matter to design and construct the platform. For instance, no costly stiffening ribs are necessary. As a rule the load cells in large weigh balances receive only part of the load (generally no more than 60%), so that overload trips or overload protection can be omitted. Since the platform rests on several load cells itis almost impossible for torsion loading to affect them. Any load inoducon on to plato, Serre er reef Set-centing pendulum load cals Figure 8-3. Structure of a platiorm balance using several load cells, (diagram) One disadvantage found in practice is that for many types of load cell, the weighing configuration requires comer correction. This is done by moving « calibration weight irom place to place on the platform and8-84 Design and construction of platform balances adjusting ty of one or more load cells in the weighing de accordingly. The aim of covner cossection isto obtain the same weight information regardless of whexe the object being weighed is placed on the platform. The Toad cells are connected in parallel. This increases the cost of installation, Also the actual namber of load cells iaeuss moze expense thm isthe ease for single-point solutions. ‘The applications for such balances are chiefly inthe area of dive through weighbridges (below around / above ground), high-capacity systems and balances for goods in bulk, Experience shows that in practice the crossover fiom single-point solutions to platforms using several load eels is generally at around a ‘maximum capacity of 500 kg to 600 kg and a platform size greater than tin?Installing load cells 9-85 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells 9.1 Opening remarks ‘A steain gauge load cell converts « mechanical quantity (mass) into an clectrical signal, On most strain gauge load cells this signal is present in the form of a voltage and is proportional to the mechanical quantity within known error limits, Load eells using strain gauges as their ‘measurement system generally contain a circuit called a Wheatstone bridge (=). 9.2 The Wheatstone bridge 9.2.1 The circuit dlagram A strain gauge converts strain into propostional changes in resistanee. ‘The relative changes in sesistonee in a straim gauge are in the oder of9-86 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using stain gauge load oells ‘magnitude from 10~ to 10-2. In order to convert these very small changes into measurable voliages, strat echaotogy makes use of a Wheatstone bridge (named alter the Enplish scientist Sir Charles Wheatstone). The rhombus shape, Figure 9.1 left, is the usual representation of a bridge eiscuit and commonly to be found in the literature, Figure 9.1 right shows the same electrical circuit, but is perhaps « little elearer, nO 4 Up Figure 9-1 Ways of representing a bridge circuit ‘The arms of the bridge, also known as branches, are formed from resistors RI t0 R4, The widest possible diversity of names for these will bbe found in the literature, However, the important thing is always to view them in conjunction with the essociated bridge equations, 9.2.2 Method of operation ‘The bridge supply is either DC or AC. Ifa volta excitation voltage Ug, is applied to bridge points ? and 3, a bridge outputInstalling load cells 9-87 voltage Ua is produced between points 1 and 4, the size of this voltage being related to the misalignment of the bridge, The brid; jgc resistances RU to R4 change by AR, bridge output voltae changes in line with the bridge misalignment. c is balanced when relative bridge output voltage Us = 0. If 2 Ux also, 9.2.3 Internal wiring in strain gauge load cells One advantage of the Wheatstone bridge cizcuit is its capacity to enlarge the measurement signal. This effect increases with the number of active strain gauges in the bridge circuit. In the ideal ease two strain gauges are stretched and two are compressed, producing maximum misslignment of the bridge and a correspondingly large output signe Also interference effects stich as superimposed flexing of the measuring element, or material strains arising from temperature effects, are suppressed within limits. ‘The balancing and compensation measures briefly described below make aan important contribation to cbtaining excellent technical data from load cells along with their type identity . Figure 9,2 shows the main wiring connections on a strain gauge together with those of the balancing elements withia the Wheatstone bridge cixcuit of a load eel8-88. Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge Toad cells balance _—— Tear. cor. ero ie ‘emp com. Sentivgy ~ Lineasty erection — Resistance balance Figure 9-2 Circuit diagram of a strain gauge load cell ‘This form of connection enables the following compensations or corrections: = Compensation for a temperature variation error in the Wheatstone bridge circuit, including compensation for temperature variation effecting the zero point (Tk) = Correction for misalignment in the Wheatstone bridge circuit, including bridge balancing or zero point balancing = Compensation for the temperature dependency of load cell Including thermal compensation of sensitivity (Tke) = Sensitivity balancingInstalling Toad cells 9-89 9.3 Load cell sensitivity 9.3.4 Opening remarks Most oad cells have a standardised output signal of some 2 mV/V at ‘maximum eapacity. This means that at maximum capacity they deliver a signal of 2 mV per volt of excitation voltage. A standardised ouput sigoal caubles load cals to be replaced without any problem and considerably simplifies calibration of the meastrement chain, If itis to connect several loud cells in parallel, as i customary for containers itis absclotely vital to have the same sensitivity and the same bridge resistance throughout. For particularly low-budget applications, load cells withovt a standardised output signal are also available, In this ease the output signal measured at maximum capacity is specified on the load cel. 9.3.2 Definition of sensit ‘The sensitivity is the output signal delivered by a load cell when acted upon by the nominal input quantity (ie, maximum capacity). The output signal results from the effect of the input quantity (in this ease the measured quantity is weight). It therefore excludes the zero signal. ‘The sensitivity and the Signal have the same unit, usually mV/V, withont any reference to the measured quantity, Consequently load cells can have the same sensitivity for different sizes of input quantities and/or loads, 9.3.3 The characteristic curve Sensitivity C of a load cell is defined according to Figure 9.3 as the product of nominal load Ly (12. maximum capacity) and the slope of the straight Fine through points Py and P2 of the statie characteristic, C=(Sq- Sp): y= Lp) * Ln where Lp is « dead load and Sp the corresponding outpat signal for that dead load. S, isthe output signal at maximem capacity. For HEM Toadcells the lovier meastring range limit is determined by the load cell9-90 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load calls Signals Sp tunder no load condition, and the equation ean therefore be L, C-Sa-Sp jplified for ‘The sensitivity of HBM load cells is therefore derived from the difference in the output signels from a load cell at maximum capacity «and at no load. Nomina! sensitivity (HBM data sheet specification) describes load cell seusitivity at maximum capacity. This expression defines the ratio of output voltage Ua to excitation voltage Up of the Wheatstone bridge circuit at nizximumm capacity. It aveordingly expressed in mV/V (typically 2mV/V). This value is entirely adequate for the calibration of simple weighing equipment, since it defines the slope ofthe characteristic curve fora lead cel, Virally every type of BM load cells characterised by this nominal sensitivity tp toast Figure 9-3 Characteristic curveMaximum capacity at Installing load calls 9-91 Example: A.C16/60¢ loud cell hias & nominal sensitivity of 2mVIY, that isto say, the Toad cell delivers ? mY of output signal per volt of excitation voltage at loading of 60t. Knowing the excitation voltage makes it possible to ‘calentate the loading acting upon the load eell. © Nominal sensitivity: 2 mV/V (at 601) © Bridge excitation: Us = SV (0mV at 601) © Measured output voltage: U4 = 4mV © 1OmV/V : 60t=4mV/V: Ly D> Calculated load: L, = 24¢ Ua—cuiput votage Ub- input vekage ate : ~ UsatsV excitation votage Figure 9-4 Example of nominal sensitiviy ~ C16/60t ~ 2mV/VElectrical engineering structure of weighing ecuipment using strain gauge load cells 9.4 Weighing electronics 9.4.1 Opening remarks ‘Load cells ate passive transducers that convert a mechanical quantity into aw electrical signal. To obtain usable signals requizes dowastieam electronics. Tie mncasuring amplifier, as the second Fink in the ‘measurement chain, has two main tasks. The fist is to generate « highly stable excitation voltage; the second is to araplify the millivolt-ange output voltage from load cells up to a stanclardised volt-range level with as few exrors as possible, The amplified measurement signal commonly Undergoes analogue / digital conversion. In the simplest case this is merely used for a digital dispy, but frequently it forms the basis for the ‘widest diversity of weighing processor configurations aad formulation controls. The digitised value can be forwarded over appropriate interfaces to a PC, a PLC or acontrol, Analogue electical unit signals (0... 10V, 0/4 .. 20m) are also standard ovtpet signals from such electronics. ‘The extent to which ainplification introduces additional ervors can be judged from the specification data for a measuring amplifier, The critical data includes transmission performance with dynamic signals, ‘temperature-dependent changes to zero point and amplification, and sensitivity to external interference, Tn the case of resistive load cells, the best-known example of which is the strain gauge transducer (strain gauge load cell), both a carrier-frequency amplifier and a DC-veltage amplifier can be used. The question is simply which is the preferred amplifier principle, Both ‘methods exhibit a range of characteristic properties which have their advantages or disadvantages, depending on the problem definition, 9.4.2 DC-voltage amplifier ‘the basie details of how a PC-voltage amplifier works in conjunction with an strain gauge load cell is shown in Figure 9.5.Instaling load cells 9-93. Mechanical ‘quantity _v i {see i I + t Reempensaion Figure 9-5 Working method of a C-voltage amplifier Since a load cell is a passive clement, it can only deliver a measurement signal if supplied with auailiary power known as the excitation voltage. ‘This voltage, which might for example be 5 volts, is produced by a highly stable DC voltage generator, The generator voltage is used as the excitation voltage for the full bridge eirevit in the load cell, In the no load condition, only a very lew voltage output signal is delivered, and this is electronicafly compensated in the measuring amplifier (zero signal ‘compensation). When the mechanical quantity itis intended to measure acts upon the load cell, the bridge circuit delivers an omput voltage that is not only proportional to the mechanical quantity, but also changes its polarity if the mechanical signal changes direction, Such a change of direction would occur, for instance, if a compressive force acting on an strain gauge load cell changed to a tensile force. The signal from the load cell is fed to the input stage of the measuring amplifier.94 Electrical engineering structure of weighing eculpment using strain gauge load calls 9.4.3 Carrier-frequency amplifier Compared to the relatively staightforwavd working method of the DC-voltaze amplifier, the carricr-frequency method with its multiple signal conversions appears very complicated at first lance On the other hhand these conversions have « number of advantages at the systeun level. Inpet stage Demedator TT Mechanieat ‘quantity | Saralveiogs = HD Hb Hp} | | 1 VEE PF cowass Aalst I i dt [io | cxctasonvone 11 11) Uf qe | Ue ts | f Figure 9-6 Working method of a carvier-requency amplifier Figure 9.6 shows a block diagram of a carrier-frequency amplifier connected to a load cell. An AC voltage generator produces an excitation voltage, which might for example be 5 V5 the amplitude and frequency of this voltage are highly stable. The AC voltage is fed to the bridge circuit on the load cell. As described in the case of the DC-voltage aimplities, when a mechanical quantity acts upon the load cell a signal voltaze in the order of magnitude of 10 millivolts and proportional to the mechanical quantity appears at the load cell output, but inthis ease it is an AC voltage. In the input stage of the amplifier connected on load side and in its following stages, this signals raised to volt-range level. Ths has «Installing load cells 9-95. mumber of technical in a relatively narrow frequency ra advantages, since it means that only an AC voltage has to be amplified, The raillivolt-zange load cell sigaals ate raised to volt range in a mivltisiage amplifier, The amplifier irequency range is designed to allow through only the measurement signal in that bandwidth, All signal noise ‘outside this range including intrinsie zero point dri is suppressed, Figwre 9.6, 9.4.4 Comparing the two methods Both DC-voltage amplifiers and cartier-frequeney amplifiers are used in weighing technology. To some extent the less favourable properties of cither system can be improved with the aid of appropriate circuitry, so that both DC and cartier-frequeney amplifiers can be used for the tasks associated with weighing tecknology. Taformation on the advantages of the two methods can be found in the HBM pamphlet “Carrier-frequency and DC-voliage amplifiers, a system-level comparison of application techniques”. This brochure can be ordered direct from HBM. 9.4.5 Influences on the accuracy of measuring amplifiers Effect of temperature on zero point and sensitivity ‘Temperature changes cause parallel shifts in the characteristic curve of the amplifier, in tur giving tise to zero point shift. Figures 9.7. and 9.8. below are diagrammatically enlarged so that the error fractions normally occu:ting only as parts per thousand of the ‘output quantity can be clearly seen.9-96 Electrical engineering structure of weighing ecuipment using stain gauge load cells ‘Constant misazrmont ‘ofrmoasuremoct da ore poet enor Input quantity pe Figure 9-7 Effect of a zero point shift on the amplifier characteristic ‘Temperature affects the sensitivity. It causes the slope of the characteristic curve to change, Figure 9.8. Change slope ange in ampiiaton Output quantity ae Input quantiy Figure 9-8 Etfect of a sensitvity change on the amplifier characteristicInstaling load cells 9-97 Linearity error Given the curzeat state of the ait in measurement amplifiers, linearity error can be virwally ignored. Typical linearity error is considerably better than 0.1% in relation to the output quantity, 9.5 Electrical connection of load cells 9.5.1 Opening remarks Ohmic resistance in the supply leads causes a voltage drop between the ‘measuring amplifier and the load cell. The load cell therefore receives a ower voltage than that supplied by the amplifier’s internal voltage ‘generator. On the other hand the voltage drop in the measuring leads is so small as to be negligible, since the amplifier input is high-impedance. Consequently itis not always possible to make use of the convincing advantages of a six-wire cirenit (=). The possible ways of combining the connection between load cells and amplifiers are described below.9-98 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge foad cells ‘ Rent oe Pa os oa 02 ase 350 —~] ° 35 2 2 0 50 Figure 9-9 The influence of oad cell leads. 9.5.2 Load cells and measuring amplifier using four-wire technology Load cells using four-wite technology are calibrated in the factory so that when excitation voltage is applied and th are loaded at maxismum capacity, the nominal output signal (nominal sensitivity) is available at the cable termination. ‘The cable is therefore included in the load cell calibration, Figure 9.10,Note Installing load cells 9-99 i i — < Exelon votage ‘Ampiior Figure 9-10 Load cell and measuring amplifier using four-wire technology ength must not be changed since it causes ehanges in ity. Temperature effects in the cable are not corrected, Erxor-free ‘measurement with « four-wite technology type of measuring amplifier is ‘only guaranteed ifthe cable connected toi is the original length, 9.5.3 Load cells and measuring amplifier using six-wire technology In order to avoid the possible errors outlined In the previous section and to simplify load cell operation, measuring amplifiers and load cells have for many years been produced almost exclusively in sic wire circuit form. A six-wire circuit ensures great Figure 9.11, -curacy. The principle is shown in{9-100 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells ‘Generator : RO ‘Comparator Ferenc Re volage | Figure 9-11 Load cell and measuring amplifier using six-wire technology In contrast to the basic mininmum wiring of a Wheatstone bridge (four-wire technology), in a sis-wite cirenit two sense leads take off the actual value of the excitation voltage atthe load cell. Any voltage dvop is fed back via the sense Teads to the meastrement electronics igh-impedance inputs) and as a resuit the excitation voltage at the amplifier output is adjusted until the desired excitation voliage is again present on the strain gauge load cell ‘This has several advantages: = All changes in cable resistance, for example due to temperature fluctuations or cable fengthening/shortening, are continuously and automatically corrected even during measurementInstalling load cells 9-101 ® Excitation voltage losses due to line resistance are corrected © When calibrating with the aid of » calibration instrument the eable no longer needs to be included in the procedure, This means the calibration instrument can be connected directly (0 the measuring amplifier 9.5.4 Load cells with four-wire technology and measuring amplifier for six-wire technology A load cell calibrated in a four-wire circuit can also be connected t0 a six-wite technology type of amplifier. The transducer cable should then be kept as close as possible te the load cell, for instance wound round in ring, On no account must itbe shortened, since this would falsify the calibration, Cable resistance must be included in the load cell calibration. a A {sa age pia i 1 4. I Excitation votage Ampliior Figure 9-12 Connecting four-wire load cells to a sixwire measuring amplifier ‘The feedback leads for the six-wire amplifier must be connected without {ail This can be done directly on the amplifier in the form of a bridge, as shown in Figure 9.12, or if cables have to be lengthened using six-wire9-102 Electrical engineer erm ing structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells ‘able, then it would be more sensible to do this at the twansition from six-wire ciccuit vo four-wire circuit on the termination point 9.5.5 Load cell with six-wire technology and measuring amplifier for four-wire technology A load cell that has been calibrated in a six-wire cireuit cannot be connected to a measuring amplifier using four wire technology without incurring an additional error traction. In this situation itis advisable 10 ‘work with the shortest possible cable When connecting to the amplifier, the transducer wires for the excitation voltage and the associated sense lead (in HBM devices typically ‘blue-green and black-grey) should be joined together. The load cell then takes on four-wire characteristics. In the main, the aspects covered under Point 9.5.2 are also applicable here. 9.5.6 Connecting load cells in parallel Jn the explanations concerning the mechanieal structure of weighing equipment it has already become clear that several load cells are often required. As a rule they are connected and operated in parallel Based on the high standard of manufacture and the very narrow tolerances of the metrological parameters in HBM load cells, the basic prerequisites for correctly functioning parallel connection are given below. Several load cells of the same kind connected in parallel then have a Standardised sensitivity of 2mV/V at total cumulative load. In the event of uneven load distribution, an individual load cell must not bbe loaded above maximum capacity. Overloading of individual load cells ‘cannot be detected in the output signal. Load cells ate electrically connected in parallel by joining the wires of the same colour in the connection cable. For connection purposes HBM thas not only a standard connection box (VKK 2) but also a connectionInstalling toad cells 9-103 box for the explosion-proof Ex-range (VER) ia its produet progsamme. ‘The cables between the loud cells and the connection box should be the same Tength, Note Further information can be found in the Operating Manual for the VKK 2 and VKE. 9.6 Replacing load cells Depending on the in-house requirements for measurement accuracy and tolerances, HBM load cells of the same type can be replaced without any problem, In certain cases recalibration of the weighing equipment is ‘unavoidable. For further information see Sections 11.3.3 and 11.6.9-104 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge toad cellsInstalling toad cells 10-105 Electrical engineering protection measures 10.1 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) 10.1.4 Opening remarks With background electromagnetic loading inereasing year by year itis more vital than ever to ensure that Weighing equipment is immune from interference. Possible sources of interference inelude radio sets, mobile telephones, magnetic valves, contactors, relays, welding equipment, soldering equipment, power lines, ete. All these sources of interference cause electromagnetic fields that inductively or capacitively set up interference voltages in a measusing cireuit via the connector cable and instrument enclosore, possibly interfering withthe functioning ofthe instrument concered, On the other hand the instruments themselves may transmit interierence Flectromagnetic compatibility (EMC (=), which refers both to the sequirement for immunity from electromagnetic interference (=) and to permissible electromagnetic interference (HME (=), will continue to grow in importance as time goes on,10-106 Electrical engineering protection measures Protection from such interference carties even more weight in view of continual demands for greater measurement signal resolution, EMC problems reveal themselves in practice through such errors as Aucwating data values, unexplained tiggering of limit switehes, incorrect measurements ~ even on occasions resulting in the destruction of the measuring instrument. Implementing effective EMC measores means considcxing the ‘measurement chain, consisting of load cal, eable, connection box, measuring anmplifier and/or analysis device, as « complete entity. 10.1.2 HBM shielding design ‘The cable shielding is formedin such a way that the measuring system itself is completely enclosed in a Faraday cage, The cable shield is fitted smoothly onto the load cell enclosure and extends over the connector housing to the amplifier enclosure, These measures reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference to an absolute minimum, Loadcot Gaara commectr rer «no| 7 L 7 aang Jono ‘Transducer connection cable Extension cable, 6e GAD = Ground pin Figure 10-1 Load cell, transducer connection cable, extension cable, ‘measuring amplifier ‘The CE mark (+) is used to libel new electrical components as EMC-compliant. Measoring instruments carrying the CE mask are continually checked in accordance with the applicable puidelines in HBN?’s testing laboratory for EMC and safety engineering accreted by‘Installing load cols 10-107 the German institute DAE (Deutsche Akkreditierungsanstalt Elektrotechnik), Since load cells and connecting elements are passive components which are not in themselves covered by the FMC guidelines, all standard products intereonnecied with analysis devices are subject to EMC testing in accordance with European standard EN 45501 for weigh balances, These passive components therefore carry « note about this EN. inthis way HBM load cells interconnected with connecting elements and measuring amplitiers or analysis devices are protected against electromagnetic interference in accosdance with Guideline IEC 801 Part 1-6, Environmental Class 2 (Immunity {rom Electromagnetic Interference), and in accordance with Guideline VDE 871, Limit Value Class B, ‘wansmit no elecuomagnetic interference (EMD) in their own sight. For effective EMC protection, Figure 9.15, the following points are therefore important: ® Allparis of the measurement chain must be surrounded by a closed, EMC. compliant shielding All shield transitions must have an extended, closed connection = The shield must not at any point go inside a deviee or instrument © Signal ground, earth and shield must be completely separate = When there are differences of potential in the measurement system, a potential equalisation line must be fitted. Standard value: highly flexible stranded wire, line cross-section 10mm? = Make sure the neutral conductor for the operating voltage is not earthed in downstream devices Strong network interference must be reduced with the aid of filters connected oa line side; erewits for measuring instruments and encavised equipment such as contactors, thyristor controls, ete should be as widely separated as possible Never lay measoxement cables slongside power cables. Minimum separation should be 50 cm. Even with this gap itis still advisable to easuce that meastuemrent eables are shiekded against magnetic fields, for instance by laying them in steel conduits10-108 Electrical engineering protection measures Note By using HBM load cells that comply with the HBM shielding design, together with distribution boxes VKK2-6 or VKK1-4, EMC-compliant applications can be produced that exiend all the way to the measuring amplifier. Amoiior Load eet Grocnne connector & | I CaS rel ge L GAD =] Pe GAD = Ground pin PE = Potential equasatontine Figure 10-2 EMC protectior on a measurement chain using an ancillary potential equalisation line 10.1.3 Grounding and earth connections ‘There are certain exceptional cases of grounding and carth connections that are not covered by EN 45501. Since in the ease of EMC-compliant Wiring the signal ground and shield are separate, the shield ean be connected to earth at more then one point, for instance through the Load cell (metat enctovtre) and the amplifier (its enclosure is connected to the protection circuit) To prevent adverse effects, the signal ground and earth or shield in HEM devices are kept separate. I there is still a 50-Hz hum despite this, itis advisable to ensure that devices oF load cells are isolated as far as possible and that die meastuwement chain is earthed at one point only.10.2 Explosion Instaling load cells 10-108 If necessary its also possible to create a galvanic connection between the shield and the measurement ground with the aid of a suitable switeh at the rear of the device. A coanection of this kind may alleviate interference from hum in these rare cases. Tis also essential, contrary to what is ofiem observed, never to make an cearth connection to a heating cadiatos, water pipe or similar. Quite apart from the fuct that nowadays many plumbing systems are made of plastic rather than metal, if a metallic conductor is connected in this way it usually acis as an “antenna” for picking up additional interference. It is bolter to use the network protection cizcuit or a separate earth potential lead of the kind also used in buildings for potential equalisation, 10.1.4 Summary Unfortunately there is no general solution for EMC problems. Fach case ust be treated according to the individnal circumstances. However, an EMC- compliant system of connection considerably reduces the likelihood of problems. protection 10.2.1 General notes on the construction regulations Additional protection measures need to be taken in order to avoid an explosion when operating electrical devices in areas where explosion is actually a risk. These are subject to the legal and administrative requirements of each country. Table 10.1 gives a summary overview of the construction regulations carrently applicable in certain counties.10-110 Electrical engineering protection measures intty | Construction regulations OVE 165) "ARAB, AREITAETeS 10570 119) A Sid, C22.4 and 225 —]sevi01s DINVDE 0165 NEC 123001820" 3S 5945; Part 4: 1997 [SEN 2108. 0.69) TANSUISA-tp 12.6-1987 NEC 50: (NEC 604-50 Table 1 Overview of the construction regulations currently applicable in certain counties. 10.2.2 Division into areas ‘The measures for avoiding an explosion must be graded in accordance with the Tikelinood of an explosive atmosphere occurting. For this purpose DIN VDE 0165 sets out a number of different areas: 1. In the event of flammable gases, vapours or mists: ‘Area 0 covers locations in which a dangerous, explosive atmosphere is present on a permuaneat or long-term basis. Area 1 covers locations in which itis likey that a dangerous, explosive atmosphere will occur eceasionally, ‘Area 2 covers locations ia which itis likely that a dangerous, explosive atmosphere will ceur only rarely and then only briefly.