TURBULENT STRUCTURE IN OPEN-CHANNEL FLOWS

( Translation of Doctoral Dissertation in Japanese)

by Iehisa NEZU

July 1977

Department of C i v i l Engineering
Kyoto University
Kyoto 606, Japan

_ i

n
 CONTENTS
Page

ABSTRACT

PART 1 TURBULENT STRUCTURE OVER SOLID BED

K
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION ON T U R B U L E N T

STRUCTURE
2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
2 2 B a s i c e q u a t i o n s o f t u r b u l e n t f l o w o v e r smooth bed
2.2.1 Budget o f mean-flow energy
2.2.2 Budget o f t u r b u l e n t energy
2.3 Spectral density function o f turbulent energy
2.3.1 R e l a t i o n between one- and t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l spectra 10
2.3.2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f one-dimensional spectrum 10
2*. 3.3 M o d e l l i n g o f t r a n s p o r t o f t u r b u l e n t energy 12
2.4 S u b d i v i s i o n o f flow f i e l d and i t s turbulence
characteristics
2.U.1 S u b d i v i s i o n o f open-channel f l o w f i e l d i j j
2.U.2 Wall r e g i o n ( y < 100)+
j-
L
2.U.3 Free-surface r e g i o n (0.6 <_ Z<_1.0) ^
2.k.k E q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n (100I& <_ t <_0.6) 16
2.U.5 O v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f mean v e l o c i t y 1
'
2.5 Turbulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s over rough bed 18
2.6 Mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r e o f
f l u c t u a t i n g Reynolds s t r e s s
2.6.1 Q u a l i t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon 18
2'.6.2 Probability density function o f f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t y 19
2.6.3 Conditional p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of f l u c t u a t i n g
Reynolds s t r e s s 20
2.6.1+ Behaviour o f v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h a t r i g g e r 22
level H

CHAPTER 3 METHOD OF T U R B U L E N C E MEASUREMENT AND

ITS ANALYSIS
2 5
3.1 Introduction
3.2 P r o p e r t i e s o f d u a l - s e n s o r h o t - f i l m anemometers
2
3.2.1 P r i n c i p l e o f h o t - f i l m anemometer 5
3.2.2 D i r e c t i o n a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f h o t - f i l m sensor 26
3.2.3 C a l i b r a t i o n o f dual-sensor h o t - f i l m anemometer 27
 3.3 E f f e c t o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s on t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f h o t - f i l m
anemometer
3.3.1 E f f e c t o f t h e noise 27
3.3.2 E f f e c t o f t h e water temperature changes 28
3.3.3 E f f e c t o f t h e nonhomogeneity o f v e l o c i t y along
t h e sensor 29
3.3.4 Other e f f e c t s 29
3.4 Hydrogen-bubble technique
3.4.1 P r i n c i p l e o f hydrogen-bubble t r a c e r and i t s a n a l y s i s 30
3.4.2 E f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s upon t h e hydrogen-bubble
method 30

CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATION ON T U R B U L E N T

STRUCTURE A N D ENERGY BUDGET
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Experimental equipment and data a n a l y s i s 31
4.3 Universal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s 32
4.3.1 Mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y 33
4.3.2 E f f e c t o f t h e Reynolds number on t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s 34
4.3.3 E f f e c t o f t h e Froude number on t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s 35
4.3.4 E f f e c t o f t h e w a l l roughness on t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s 36
4.4 Relative turbulence i n t e n s i t y and Reynolds s t r e s s
4.4.1 R e l a t i v e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y u'/TJ 38
4.4.2 Reynolds s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n 38
4.4.3 C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f Reynolds s t r e s s 39
4.5 E f f e c t o f t h e s u r f a c e wave o n t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e
4.5-1 A n a l y s i s o f surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n s 40
4.5.2 Analysis o f wall-pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s 42
4.6 Spectral d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c eddy-scale
4.6.1 Wave-number spectrum o f each v e l o c i t y component 44
4.6.2 S p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n normalized by Lx 45
4.6.3 L o c a l i s o t r o p y and d i s s i p a t i o n spectrum 47
4.6.4 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c eddy-scale and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s 48
4.7 T u r b u l e n t energy budget i n open-channel flow
4.7.1 Turbulent energy d i s s i p a t i o n 50
4.7.2 Production and d i f f u s i o n o f t u r b u l e n t energy 52
4.7.3 Turbulent energy budget 54

-ii-
CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENTAL C O N S I D E R A T I O N ON
MECHANISM OF T U R B U L E N C E PRODUCTION

5.1 Introduction
5 2 Probability distributions of the velocity fluctuations
and t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s R e y n o l d s s t r e s s
5.2.1 P r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f v e l o c i t y and
i t s h i g h e r moments
5.2.2 P r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f instantaneous
Reynolds s t r e s s
5.2.3 Conditional p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
instantaneous Reynolds s t r e s s
5 3 I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f R e y n o l d s s t r e s s and
mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n
5 3.1 I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f Reynolds s t r e s s
5 3.2 R e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t events
5.3.3 Mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e w a l l
r e g i o n and i t s p r e d i c t i o n
5.3.1* E f f e c t o f w a l l roughness upon b u r s t i n g events
5'.3.5 Behaviour o f v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s
when t u r b u l e n c e occurs
5.4 Periodic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the bursting phenomenon
5.4.1 B r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of the bursting period
obtained p r e v i o u s l y
5.U.2 D i s c r i m i n a t i o n c r i t e r i o n and d e f i n i t i o n o f
bursting period .
5.4.3 B u r s t i n g p e r i o d and i t s p r o b a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
5.5 Internal structure of bursting phenomenon
5.5.1 Dependence o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon upon t h e i n n e r
and outer parameters
5.5.2 F u r t h e r suggestions on b u r s t i n g phenomenon
5.6 Visual observation of bursting phenomenon
56 l Instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n v e r t i c a l plane
5'.6.2 Instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n h o r i z o n t a l plane
 CHAPTER 6 PHYSICAL MODEL OF WALL TURBULENCE

6.1 Introduction
6.2 IT-eddy model
6.2.1 C o n s t i t u t i o n o f a II-eddy model and i t s f o r m u l a t i o n
6.2.2 Turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s and Reynolds stresses
evaluated by a II-eddy
6.2.3 S p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n s o f energy
6.2.4 Comparison o f t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s w i t h
the experimental data
6.3 Renewal model
6.3.1 Formulation o f a renewal model
6.3-2 Further c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f renewal model by t a k i n g
account o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
bursting period
6.3.3 Turbulent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s evaluated by t h e present
renewal model
6.3.4 Explanation o f t h e b u r s t i n g process by t h e renewal
model
6.4 Combined model

-iv-
PART 2 TURBULENT STRUCTURE OVER PERMEABLE BED

1 0 9
CHAPTER 7 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 8 INTERACTION BETWEEN M A I N A N D S E E P A G E FLOWS

1 1 0
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theoretical consideration
8.2.1 Basic equations o f seepage f l o w HI
8.2.2 Analysis o f t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s o f seepage f l o w 113
8.2.3 A d d i t i o n a l shear s t r e s s induced by seepage
116
disturbances
8.3 Experimental consideration
8.3.1 Experimental set-up and procedure 120
8.3.2 Mean f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f seepage f l o w 120
8.3.3 Mean f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f main f l o w 121
1 2 2
8.3.4 Examination o f induced s t r e s s

CHAPTER 9 TURBULENT STRUCTURE WITH TRANSPIRATION

124
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Theoretical consideration
9.2.1 Basic equations over permeable smooth bed 125
9 .2,2 The law o f t h e w a l l w i t h t r a n s p i r a t i o n 128
9.2.3 The v e l o c i t y defect law w i t h t r a n s p i r a t i o n 130
9.2.4 Flow behaviours when t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e i s
very large J^l
9.2.5 Evaluation method o f t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y i - ^
1 3 4
9.2.6 Some turbulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
9.3 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
9.3.1 Experimental set-up and procedure 137
9.3.2 Wall shear s t r e s s o r f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y 138
1 3 9
9.3.3 Mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
9.3.4 Examination o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f f l o w depth i n t h e
streamwise d i r e c t i o n (backwater curve) 142
9.3.5 Relaminarization by t h e strong s u c t i o n 143
9.4 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
4 5
9.4.1 Reynolds s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n I
1 4 5
9.4.2 Turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s
9.4.3 Spectral d i s t r i b u t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c eddy-scale 148
1 4 9
9.4.4 Turbulent energy budget

1 5 1
CONCLUDING REMARKS

-V -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IS6

ACADEMIC CAREER ise

FIGURES AND T A B L E S ( a s e p a r a t e volume )

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
C h a p t e r 2 T h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e 2
C h a p t e r 3 Method o f t u r b u l e n c e m e a s u r e m e n t and
its analysis 8
C h a p t e r 4 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e and e n e r g y budget 13
C h a p t e r 5 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on
mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n 30
C h a p t e r 6 P h y s i c a l model o f w a l l t u r b u l e n c e 43
Chapter 7 Introduction
C h a p t e r 8 I n t e r a c t i o n between main and s e e p a g e f l o w s so
Chapter 9 Turbulent s t r u c t u r e with t r a n s p i r a t i o n 54

— over

-vi-
 TuR BULENT STRUCTURE I N OPEN-CHANNEL EIOWS

Abstract

Turbulent transport of momentum, heat and mass dominates many

of the fluid flows found in physics, engineering and the environ-

mental sciences. Intensive research on the dynamics of the wall

turbulence in boundary layer, pipe or channel, especially in an air

flow, has been performed by many investigators in the last twenty

years. On the other hand, in hydraulics or river mechanics,

h
we are rather concerned about the dynamics of turbulent open-channel

water flow since it dominates the turbulent friction law, turbulent

diffusion problem, sediment transport in the river field, the flow

characteristics near the hydraulic structures and so on.

Turbulence measurements in water flow were, however, begun only

eight years ago with the development of hot-film anemometers.

The detailed investigations on turbulent structure in open-channel

flows are still very insufficient, compared with those of air flows

in boundary layer or pipe.

So, in order to make clear the turbulent structure in open-

channel flows theoretically and experimentally , this thesis deals

systematically with the following seven problems:

(1) Measurements of basic quantities of turbulence

(2) Turbulent energy budget

(3) Structure of fluctuating ReynOlds-stress

(4) Mechanism of turbulence -production

- 1-
 (5) Modelling of turbulent shear flow

(6) Interacti on between main and seepage flows

(7) Turbulent structure with transpiration

Since it may be very difficult to completely solve these prob-

lems , we consider phenomenologically the fundamental and uni~ersal

characteristics in fully developed, two - dimensional turbulent open

channel flows, by making use of both the spectral and probability

density functions as statistically analytic tools.

r.
As shown i n Fig. A, this thesis consists of two par ts, that is :

Part 1 deals with the turbulent structure over smooth and rough

solid beds, and Part 2 deals with that over permeable porous bed .

Firstl y , Part 1 consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 is an

introduction of solid-wall turbulence. Chapter 2 deals with

theoretical consideration of turbulent structure , which can offer

some theoretical predictions or analytical techniques for the turbu-

lent mechanism . Chapter 3 describes the methods of turbulence

measurements in water flows, i.e . hot - film anemometer and hydrogen

bubble techniques . Chapter 4 deals with the problems of (1)

and (2) mentioned above. In this chapter we experimentally

investigate in detail the turbulent structure in terms of long- time

average . Chapter 5 deals with (3) and (4). That is, the i
turbulent structure in terms of short- time average or the bursting

phenomenon is investigated by making use of the conditional

sampling technique and flow visualization . In Chapter 6,

- 2-
 we propose some new physical models of wall turbulence ·on a basis

of the knowledge systematically obtained from the above investiga-

tions , and we try to explain the bursting phenomenon or turbulence

characteristics even quantitatively.

Next, Part 2 consi sts of three chapters. Chapter 7 is an

introduction of permeable-wall turbulence. Chapter 8 deals with

(6), where an interaction between main and seepage flows which

occurs near the loose porous bed is considered phenomenologically.
I~
Lastly, in Chapter 9 we make clear the turbulent structure with

s uction or injection through the bed , and intend to grope our way

towards establishment of a reasonable control of turbulent flow

by such a transpiration.

Many results obtained theoretically and experimentally in

Part 1 and 2 are summarized at the end of this thes i s as universal

conclusions of turbulent structure in open- channel flows.

The present paper is an abridged translation of the dissertation

(in Japanese) for the degree of Dr. Eng. in Kyoto University.

Some main parts of this dissertation have been already published

in English in Jour. of Fluid Mech.~ FToc. of Japan Soc . Civil Engrs

and others, where the more detailed descriptions of these results

were given.

- 3-
PART 1 T u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e o v e r s o l i d bed
Chapter 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 shows a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f researches o f t u r b u l e n c e .

The enormous m a t e r i a l s r e s u l t i n g from t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on s o l i d - w a l l t u r b u l e n c e i n a i r f l o w ( boundary l a y e r

or pipe f l o w ) have become a v a i l a b l e a t present. For example,

the summary o f these m a t e r i a l s i s found i n t h e well-known books

w r i t t e n by Monin & Yaglom(l971, 1975), Tennekes & L u m l e y ( l 9 7 l ) ,

R o t t a ( l 9 7 2 ) , Hinze(l975) and o t h e r s .

On the other hand, the s u f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l s of turbulence

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n open-channel water f l o w s have not been obtained

s t i l l now. I t i s very i n t e r e s t i n g even i n p r a c t i c e t o i n v e s t i -

gate how the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e or the t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n

mechanism(bursting phenomenon) i n open-channel f l o w s would be influ-

enced by the h y d r a u l i c parameters such as Reynolds number and Froude

number and the w a l l roughness.

Thus, i n t h i s p a r t , some s y s t e m a t i c a l measurements of t u r b u l e n t

open-channel f l o w s over smooth and rough beds have been done by

making use o f s i n g l e - and dual-sensor h o t - f i l m anemometers and hydro-

gen bubble t r a c e r s i n order t o make c l e a r the dynamics of t u r b u l e n c e

, from both v i e w p o i n t s o f energy budget (Chapter 4) and turbulence

p r o d u c t i o n mechanism (Chapter 5). And subsequently, a few pheno-

menological t u r b u l e n t models ( a renewal model, a II-eddy model and

a combined model) have been proposed (Chapter 6).

-k-
 References (Chapter 1)
l ) Rouse, H. & Ince, S. : H i s t o r y o f h y d r a u l i c s , State Univ. o f Iowa
1957¬
2) Monin, A.S. & Yaglom, A.M. : Statistical fluid mechanics,
MIT Press, v o l . 1 , 1971.
3) Monin, A.S. & Yaglom, A.M. : Statistical fluid mechanics,
MIT Press, v o l . 2 , 1975-

1+) Tennekes, H. & Lumley, J.L. : A f i r s t course i n t u r b u l e n c e ,

MIT Press, 1972.

5) R o t t a , J.C. : Turbulente Strömungen, Teubner, 1972.

6) Hinze, J.O. : Turbulence (2-nd e d i . ) , McGraw-Hill, 1975.

-5-
 C h a p t e r 2 T h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e
2.1 Introduction

2.2 B a s i c e q u a t i o n s o f t u r b u l e n t f l o w o v e r smooth bed

2.2.1 Budget o f mean-flow energy

As shown i n F i g . 2.1, U, V, and W denote t h e components o f

mean v e l o c i t y , and u, v , and w t h e v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n , and u', v'

and w' t h e r.m.s. values i n x - ( f l o w d i r e c t i o n a l ) , y - ( v e r t i c a l t o t h e

bed) and z-(spanwise) d i r e c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The equations o f

motion are given by

x
dx dy p dx dx dy dy

U ^ + y J r = F -LE+ÊtB. +!tÏ2 (2-2)

dx dy y p dy dx dy

Since \uI>Iv\> W\ = o i n t h e normal, two-dimensional f l o w , E q s . ( 2 . l )

and (2.2) become

d
± { - l s + v JL)=- l (2.) 3

Oy dy
'
l
P= P j r U - y J c o s f l -fiC7 -7J) (2«4)

where, h i s t h e f l o w depth and y = me- cose-ÖA/dx i s t h e energy g r a d i e n t .

<

2
Since t h e w a l l shear s t r e s s x 0 i s d e f i n e d as r //>={-CITH- i> dul d )
0 y | _ C = ut

(U, i s t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y ) , t h e Reynolds s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n
i s g i v e n by
-üv 1 dll*

where, ( = y/ , u\=u/u,
A and R,= wju>\.

From ( 2 . 3 ) , t h e energy equation o f mean-flow i s o b t a i n e d as f o l l o w s :

f / -r» \ du\ i r i / du*\* u

-6-
where, i s t h e h u l k mean v e l o c i t y .
Defining E= *( au/dy) 1
( d i r e c t - d i s s i p a t i p n o f t h e mean f l o w ) , ps-S au/d y

( t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n ) and t h e Darcy-Weisbach's f r i c t i o n factor ƒ

i.e. /,s (//a) •(£/„*/Zy) (2-7) 5

(2.6) y i e l d s

or
(2 9>
r>+«.7**-£ -
+
where, y = U,y/y , and t h e ( + ) - s u f f i x denotes t h e dimensionless quan
t i t y by U # and v i n t h e f o l l o w i n g .
Now, by assuming t h e P r a n d t l ' s m i x i n g - l e n g t h model, t h a t i s :
-ms l
t (du/d y
y (2«io) i

(2.5) gives tf_ m 2(i- Vfl.)

y
+
dy* 1+ V M + 4 / « (l-y /fl.) '

, and i f R w i s very l a r g e ,

The m i x i n g - l e n g t h t*mtoj* may be reasonably given by

van D r i e s t ( 1 9 5 6 ) , as f o l l o w s :
+ + ( 2 - 1 3 )
^ . = r I y . r=i-exp(-, /^)

where K i s a Karman's constant and A i s a damping f a c t o r .

When y +
i s very l a r g e , o r , (2.12) y i e l d s a well-known l o g a r i -
thmic law, i . e . {/+= g - ' in y* + B +
U >l) (2-14)

When y +
i s very s m a l l , o r , (2.12) y i e l d s a v e l o c i t y distri-
+ +
b u t i o n i n t h e viscous sublayer, i . e . t/ = y +
U <D (2-15)

A d i s t r i b u t i o n combining (2.14) and (2.15) smoothly i s n u m e r i c a l l y

obtained from ( 2 . 1 l ) and (2.13) w i t h K=0.4 and A=27.

Consequently, F i g . 2.2 shows some c a l c u l a t e d curves o f Reynolds

s t r e s s -"sr/tV , t h e d i r e c t - d i s s i p a t i o n Ev/u* =E+ and t h e t u r b u l e n c e -
+ + +
production P»/u,' s /> . I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t P < E when
+ + +
y 4
< a
/ and P > E when +> »,+ •> where i, = y n.6 i s a thickness o f
viscous sublayer.

-7-
 F i g . 2.3 shows t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s , t h a t i s :

(2-16)

where, 4>mUjil . K,stfji/r= m .

+
(S £ approaches t o 9.24 a t y >30, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e Reynolds
number R . e Since (2.9) becomes
JUf = 4 (R,) + t (R.)
e P (2-17)
>

f can be e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d , and i s shown i n F i g . 2.4, t o g a t h e r w i t h

the Prandtl-Karman's f o r m u l a , i . e .
/ 2 / 7 = 5.75 log Re/772 + 3.0 - (2-18)
*

A good agreement between (2.17) and (2.18) should be n o t i c e d .

From t h e above r e s u l t s , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s can be obtained.

ƒ* Edy=9.24U\ , \\ P dy = ( fWf-9.24 ) U\ (2-19)

2.2.2 Budget o f t u r b u l e n t e n e r g y
The basic equations o f t u r b u l e n t components can be w r i t t e n :
9i dU dU
„ vv . — UkU
> , +
j T7oV i aT~\ / au,\ / a . \
u
* 3 j r
) T~ Ö
a _
T + — 1
J +2u( — : 1 f — i )
. *t " So:,/ % j J U j
p
= 0 (2-20)
djc.

I n t h e f l o w f i e l d o f F i g . 2 . 1 , (2.20) can be s i m p l i f i e d as f o l l o w s
dU_ p du _ 1 d l d#\
dy +
pl^~ t
^ U y V - " - V
T y ) (2-21)

^ a
y 2 dy \ p Q ) (2-22)
!
P dm _ l a/— g \ B

fi dz 2 dy\ y
dy
d •(2-23)

2
du.s
+( (2-24)
Oy I \ Q z

I n t h e same manner, t h e equation i n respect t o Reynolds stress

can be w r i t t e n :

+ —
~pü düv "I
d (2-25)
" yJ

-8-
Denoting 9** " 2+
+ •* • • - « . + «. + ». ( 2
" 2 6 )

and adding ( 2 . 2 l ) - ( 2 . 2 3 ) , t h e equation o f t u r h u l e n t energy can he

obtained as f o l l o w s :

5, ±iH
5,1 2
-rZ* + - *a f \(2ïy)Il ( 2 - 2 7 )
y

With Tr=q*v/2 ( d i f f u s i o n o f t u r b u l e n t energy) and REpT/p (diffusion

of pressure energy), (2.27) can be a l s o w r i t t e n :

When R* i s v e r y l a r g e , (2.28) can be approximated

ƒ>= e + d{T +R)/dy
r (2-30)

From (2.19) and (2.30), t h e t o t a l energy l o s s i s expressed by

rk

J 0 U + t)dy=U *U t M = (T /fi)'U
0 m (2*31)
Now, denoting
r
' n '
=
2 '
T -**'*
2 '
T s
y
- "* '
2 J
W.=-4^>
fi ox fi dy
^=-~-"
fi dz
(2-32)
J
( 2 . 2 l ) - ( 2 . 2 5 ) become n e a r l y t o
P + PV, = (, + dT T1 I dy

PV = e, + 9 ( 7 ,
+R)/dy (2-33)
Ï rI

py> = «s + ar^/a.

+ + lu+J
' Tx j[Ty Tx) =Ty{" j) ^ .

W e l l , since 3u/3x>0 c o r r e l a t e s more s t r o n g l y w i t h p<0 t h a n p>0

according t o t h e B e r n o u l l i ' s equation, i t may be suggested t h a t
py +py,=-
t PV > o X (2-35)

From ( 2 . 3 3 ) - ( 2 . 3 5 ) , an i n t e r n a l mechanism model o f t u r b u l e n t

energy f l u x may be considered, as shown i n F i g . 2.5« This model
suggests s t r o n g l y t h a t
(1) u'>v' and u'>w' (from (2.33))
(2) t h e r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t u r b u l e n t energy among u', v' and
w' may occur i n t h e s m a l l e r - s c a l e t u r b u l e n c e .
(3) t h u s , an i s o t r o p i c approximation may be v a l i d i n t h e

-9-
 s m a l l e r - s c a l e t u r b u l e n c e , and so t h e t u r b u l e n t dissi-
p a t i o n i s n e a r l y given by

e,= e = 2 4 ,= —=5v(— (2-38)

3 V dx J

2.3 S p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t u r b u l e n t e n e r g y
2.3.1 R e l a t i o n between one- a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s p e c t r a
Define t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l spectrum E(k) and one-dimensional
spectrum S(k) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g : f f- f-

J u ' - S . < * , ) d * =nf* . J » ' « S ( * ) « t t = « ' ,

o
1
I o
t
B I l
i 4

j" ?-EU)<*=£
0 (2-39) ^ (2M0)

Then, i n t h e i s o t r o p i c t u r b u l e n c e we can o b t a i n

S,(*i)*S.(*i) = y ( - * » " * « ^STT)

S ( )
-(2-42)

2.3.2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f one-dimensional spectrum * )

The s p e c t r a l space can be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e subranges, as
described i n the f o l l o w i n g .
(a) Productive subrange ( l a r g e - s c a l e eddy)
As shown i n F i g . 2.5, t h e r e e x i s t s a s t r o n g i n t e r a c t i o n b e t -
ween t h e large-eddy and mean f l o w , r e s u l t i n g i n p r o d u c t i o n
of t u r b u l e n t energy. I t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e n g t h i s given
by a mean-eddy scale L ( i n t e g r a l s c a l e ) .
x I n t h i s sub-
range, Tchen(l953) gave a - 1 power law t h a t S U ) ~ * - ' t t .
(b) Viscous subrange ( s m a l l - s c a l e eddy)
This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e n g t h i s given by t h e Taylor m i c r o s c a l e
X or t h e Kolmogoroff m i c r o s c a l e r\, as f o l l o w s :
4
Xm V l W V T * i , B ( ƒ " * * • SJLk)dk)-V* (2-43) ^ , = (,V<)'/ (2-44)

This subrange may be d i v i d e d i n t o two stages: one i s t h e i n i -

t i a l stage where X i s dominant (-3 power l a w ) and another i s

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Proo. of JSCE, No.241, pp.155¬

168, 1975.

-10-
 the f i n a l stage where n i s dominant (-7 power l a w ) ,
(c) Inertial subrange ( i n t e r m e d i a t e - s c a l e eddy)
When t h e Reynolds number R = *'Lj » i s very l a r g e , t h e r e i s
L

an i n t e r m e d i a t e subrange between ( a ) and ( b ) ranges (see (

2 . 5 2 ) ) , where t h e energy cascade process occurs and t h e -5/3
power law i s v a l i d :
1
S (i) = Cu'- -
u tV'k-'/ 3
(2-47)

where, C i s a Kolmogoroff's u n i v e r s a l constant.

The above r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n Table 2.1.

W e l l , we c o n s i d e r t h e o v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f spectrum.
F i r s t l y , as an i n t e r p o l a t e d r e l a t i o n between ( a ) and ( c ) ranges,
the f o l l o w i n g Karman's f o r m u l a can be here adopted.

S.U) = ( 2 / » H x {1 + ( k/k y) -v*

0
( 2
' 4 8 )

Denote ijsai,'' , (a~l) (2-49) ,

and, since (2.48) must c o i n c i d e w i t h (2.47) when k> t 0 >

e = A-u'Vl, (2-50) where, K = (2/*0* a** (2-51)

From ( 2 . 4 3 ) , (2.44) and ( 2 . 5 0 ) , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s are o b t a i n e d .

LJ ,=
1 aV(2/KC)**R * L . LjX= a V * / / Ï 5 • ( 2 / *C)** « ^ L (2-52)

When R L i s i n f i n i t e l y large, L > X> T,

X and t h e n

1= {l + (k/k )*)-Vdk 0 =B(l/2, 1/3)1,*./»

.-. a = * / B ( l / 2 . 1 / 3 ) = 0.746 •••(2-53)

where, B(m,n) i s t h e Beta f u n c t i o n .

Next, as an i n t e r p o l a t e d r e l a t i o n between ( b ) and ( c ) ranges,
the f o l l o w i n g Heisenberg's f o r m u l a can be a l s o adopted.

Since an i s o t r o p i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n may be v a l i d i n b o t h (b) and ( c )

ranges ( s m a l l - s c a l e t u r b u l e n c e ) as mentioned p r e v i o u s l y , t h e
f o l l o w i n g asymptotic r e l a t i o n s are o b t a i n e d by ( 2 . 4 l ) .

«hen ,«,- , s^)=g. t-»... . n a) _

When .»•- , <, , _

56

-11-
By comparison w i t h (2.47) and (2.55),
K„= ( 8 / 9 )( 5 5 C / 1 8 ) -V* (2'57)

Moreover, t h e spectrum o f must s a t i s f y a second-order

r e l a t i o n ( d i s s i p a t i o n spectrum), t h a t i s :

lyS^.L^UUUJX)^^ {^R L (2-61)

Well, the o v e r a l l spectral d i s t r i b u t i o n can be numerically

obtained by b l e n d i n g w i t h (2.48) and (2.54), by u s i n g (2.41) and
(2.42), as described i n t h e f o l l o w i n g flow-chart.
(1) Calculate tentatively with a=0.746 (Eq.(2.53))

f = yt I + ( k/a)' ) - = / * ; (0£k< 0.8 L l->)

x

where, B' = ( 5 6 7 / 5 5 ) - y a . 4
t . s 10(1,/?) .

f2J Denoting m
J' ' j ) rj k= S k d fi

if I$-11>0.01, then renew a and re-caloulate (1).

(3) If 13-7 \ <0.01, calculate the errors of e,s|^-i | and
k m
«,sKxn y\ x o D a)dk
u -u <

Calculate S (k) by using (2.42).v

F i g . 2.6 shows these r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h C=0.5, which

s a t i s f y accurately (2.40) and ( 2 . 6 l ) since e ~10" and Ed ~ 1 0 s
3 2

a t most. F i g . 2.7 shows t h e energy spectrum k S ( k ) . When

50
i x i s d e f i n e d as j^ s (k)dk = o.b u , i t should be n o t i c e d t h a t k = l , x

where t h e energy i s dominantly contained ( p r o d u c t i v e subrange).

2
The d i s s i p a t i o n spectrum D ( k ) = k S ( k ) i s also shown i n F i g . 2.8.
The l a r g e r R L i s , t h e stronger t h e t u r b u l e n t d i s s i p a t i o n becomes
at t h e higher wave number.

2.3.3 Modelling o f transport o f turbulent energy

Many i n v e s t i g a t o r s since Richardson have recognized t h a t t h e
t u r b u l e n t energy produced i n t h e p r o d u c t i v e subrange was t r a n s p o r t

-12-
i n t o t h e s m a l l e r - s c a l e eddies via a cascade process, and e v e n t u a l l y
dissipated i n t o heat energy. This phenomenological change
process of energy may he analogous t o t h a t o f 'water s e r v i c e ' , as
shown i n F i g . 2.9. According t o t h i s model, t h e r a t e e o f
t u r h u l e n t d i s s i p a t i o n can be evaluated from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t methods:
(A) 'Reservior'-method (corresponds to productive subrange)
Use e=K-u"/L x (Eq.(2.50)).
(B) 'Conduit '-method (corresponds to inertial subrange)
Use « = sjk)/c)** (Eq. (2.47)).
(C) 'Terminal tube'-method (corresponds to viscous subrange)
l
Use e=isvu' j~k'sj.k)dk (Eq. (2.43)).

(C)-method corresponds, so t o say, t o a summation o f 'the t e r m i n a l

1
branch t u b e s .
(B)-method corresponds, so t o say, t o 'a f l o w meter' s e t a t any
section ( k ) . F i g . 2.10 shows an u n i v e r s a l constant C summari-
zed by Bradshaw(l967). From t h i s f i g u r e , C=0.5 was here adopt-
ed. Consequently, when an existence o f i n e r t i a l subrange i s
recognized, e can be e a s i l y evaluated from (B)-method.
(A)-method corresponds, so t o say, t o a measurement o f ' o u t f l o w
from t h e r e s e r v i o r ' . K can be determined from (2.51), and i t s
r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g . 2 . 1 1 . K decreases monotonously with
increase o f R , and approaches n e a r l y t o a constant a t R ~1000.
L L

F i g . 2.12 a l s o shows t h e s p e c t r a a t t h e lower Reynolds number,

which give t h e values o f a and K. On t h e o t h e r hand, Rotta(l972>
obtained t h e values o f K i n t h e r e g i o n o f R = 0 - 8 5 , L i n the
d i f f e r e n t method w i t h t h e above. His r e s u l t s agree w e l l w i t h
our ones, as seen i n F i g . 2 . 1 1 . And, he gave t h e f o l l o w i n g
asymptotic r e l a t i o n s , t h a t i s :
* o E M i m x = l ^ (2-62)

3 !
K
~ = ™.K= D
U
2 ( 3 r / 2 ) / ( 5 5 C / 1 8 ) "V* , ( r = 0.5) (2-63)

(2.63) also c o i n c i d e s v e r y w e l l w i t h our r e s u l t s .

-13-
 2.4 S u b d i v i s i o n o f f l o w f i e l d a n d i t s t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s '
2.4.1 S u b d i v i s i o n o f o p e n - c h a n n e l f l o w f i e l d
Since t h e r e may e x i s t an analogy between s p e c t r a l and w a l l -
t u r b u l e n c e spaces, as described i n F i g . 2.13, an open-channel f l o w
f i e l d can be a l s o d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e subregions (see F i g . 2.14),
i n t h e same manner as s p e c t r a l space.
(1) mil region (y+ <^ 100)
This region corresponds to an inner layer in boundary layer,
and is dominated by and v (inner parameters). As men-
tioned later, the bursting phenomenon occurs most remarkably
in this region.
(2) Free-surface region (0.6 < £ <, 1.0)
This region corresponds to an outer layer, where the turbul-
ent characteristics are dominated by U m a x and h (outer
parameters).
(3) Equilibrium region (lOOPff <, E, <, 0.6)
This is an intermediate region between (1) and (2) subregions,
where a dynamically equilibrium state for turbulent energy
budget, i.e. P - e, is nearly realized.

W e l l , because i t may be most reasonable t o choose t h e r a t e o f

d i s s i p a t i o n e as an e s s e n t i a l basic q u a n t i t y (see F i g . 2.9 o r 2.13),
we consider t h e t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n each r e g i o n on a b a s i s
of t h e above.

+
2.4.2 Wall r e g i o n (, «s 100)
We have confirmed e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t
tv/O* =A { •( y V . (Ai i s c o n s t a n t ) (2-64)
L s
l L u*/<< = * x
+
• (y )'/ 2
. ( A i s constant)
2 (2-65)
From (2.50),
2 66
»'/(/, = /(, •(/)"'/, A, = UtAjKVA (- >
u'/U has a -1/6 power law since A
# 3 becomes n e a r l y constant when R L

i s very l a r g e (see F i g . 2.11).

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Proo. of JSCE, No.241,

pp.155-168, 1975.

-14-
 Next, assuming phenomenologically that
JL _ , + <wf_ ( A14 i s a p r o p o r t i o n a l c o n s t a n t )
A (2-67)
u
* <Ly
we can also o b t a i n from (2.66)
+ +
U = A lA -{y ) •/*) ,
t e ( y > 30)+
(2-68) .

By comparison between (2.14) and ( 2 . 6 8 ) ,

A* = 6A /A 3 = 6 « - ' ( v ) ^ =11.4.-1
+
(2-69)

Thus, when K=0.4, As becomes about 28.5• F i g - 2.15 shows t h e

curves o f (2.14) and ( 2 . 6 8 ) , t o g a t h e r w i t h t h e van D r i e s t ' s curve
+
by using (2.12) and (2.13). When y > 3 0 , these curves c o i n c i d e
f a i r l y w e l l w i t h each o t h e r and t h e experimental values.

2.4.3 F r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n (0.6£{£-i-0)
We have confirmed e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t

( 2 7 l )
'

where, £'El-£;, Bi , B 2 and B 3 are constant.

Thus, from (2.50),
<£ _ (h£l\^ (j* + B,)^ (2-72)
U, \ K I

By t h e way, (2.13) becomes no longer v a l i d i n t h i s r e g i o n , and

s
so by assuming t h a t when t h e mean-eddy scale ^-o^- c o n s t a n t , t h e
m i x i n g - l e n g t h Z^also becomes constant, we can o b t a i n from (2.1l)

Since t h e energy budget i n t h i s r e g i o n can be expressed as

r = dT /dy = - e
T from ( 2 . 3 0 ) , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n can be also
obtained by assuming i
T = lj 7/2~ ujei/dy
r (Zagustin e t a l . ( l 9 6 9 ) ' s hypo-
thesis):
— — =- (('+
Bs B ),
t ( B si s constant) (2-74)

With t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s t h a t £'=0 : d{l/h)/d£,'=0, E,'=l • l/h=0

and d(l/h)/Z'=-K,

'A=(«/3){(l-f'») + £ (l-f')*(i+2f)) 4 "(2-75)

where, fl, = 2*/( l + 2 B ) , B, =fl,/(l + 2B,) .

2

-15-
 From (2.11) and (2.75), we can approximately o b t a i n

L
2 ' f'+l J (2-76)

Fig. 2.16 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f (2.75) w i t h K=0.h and B = . 0 , 2 0 0.1

and 0.2, t o g a t h e r w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g experimental formula o b t a i n e d
by Nikuradse:
2
l/h = 0.14 - 0 . 0 8 f - 0.06f '* (2-77)

(2.75) agrees f a i r l y w e l l w i t h (2.77), and t h e i r m i x i n g - l e n g t h becomes

n e a r l y constant i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n , as d e s c r i b e d i n ( 2 . 7 3 ) .
Fig. 2.17 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f v e l o c i t y d e f e c t law o b t a i n e d
from (2.73) and ( 2 . 7 6 ) , t o g a t h e r w i t h t h e numerical s o l u t i o n o f
(2.11) and (2.77). A v e r y good agreement among them i s n o t i c e a b l e
in t h i s free-surface region.
1
2.4.4 E q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n ( IOO^ £ £ < 0.6)
Although an e x i s t e n c e o f e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n i n a p r e c i s e term
(i.e. P=e) may not be expected when R L i s comparably s m a l l , t h i s
r e g i o n becomes £ < 0.6 by assuming t h a t t h e t u r b u l e n c e may be n e a r l y
in equilibrium state i f \P- \/<<20%
c . Consequently, t h i s r e g i o n
is expected t o have a s i m i l a r i t y law o r s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y i n t h e
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e , i n a same manner as i n e r t i a l subrange.
Since i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c scales are y and 777J , t h e dimensional
a n a l y s i s gives
3
£ A/i/ t = C , ( l - f ) ^ f - ' (2-78)

0 r
' ^ ^ s i n g v^T^t/, as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e l o c i t y scale
nearly - '
3
th/U t = C {->
t ( 2 . 7 9 )

Because t h e exponent o f £ i n L / h changes from 1/2 t o 0 i n t h i s x

r e g i o n , we can o b t a i n from (2.50) and (2.78) :

J ~ (1 - f (-** when LJh~(V*
u w h e n
* 1_ (1 _f ijh~ const. -(2-80)

or from (2.50) and (2.79) :

_ £ f ~ i -0 when Ljh ~ f V*
u
* J-f-** when 1 / A - const. -(2-81)

-16-
 Next, since t h e energy "budget i n t h i s r e g i o n i s

u e >
u{- dt u,'
by s u b s t i t u t i n g (2.78) we can o b t a i n
+ 7
,/={/+ - t/ = - C . C 2 ( ln( 1 - / P ? ) + V ' l -f) - In f 3 (2-82)

On t h e other hand, Karman obtained t h e f o l l o w i n g equation by choosing

i and f^f as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c scales and a p p l y i n g a s i m i l a r i t y law:
p

+
Ur=U+
-tf =- * - ' {ln(l-vT=7) + V l - f ) * r (2-83)
A war
And a l s o , (2.14) o f P r a n d t l can be extended i n t o t h i s r e g i o n ,
which r e s u l t s i n Vp^u*^-u +
=- inf (2-84)
Consequently, {/ = « c . .—£ £_ (2-85)
" (2-1)

Since Ci i s about 3 (see Chapter 4 ) and thus KC\ -1, (2.82) can be
deduced by averaging (2.83) o f Karman and ( 2 . 8 4 ) o f P r a n d t l weighted
with a r a t i o of 2 t o - 1 . This f a c t suggests t h a t t h i s r e g i o n
overlaps t o some extent w i t h t h e w a l l r e g i o n . F i g . 2.18 shows
U, U
N K and Up obtained from t h e above. And, t h e i r agreement
i s also good.

2.4.5 O v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f mean v e l o c i t y
Since we w i l l deal i n d e t a i l w i t h t h e o v e r a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f
turbulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n Chapter 4, we here consider only
those o f mean v e l o c i t y . Because a f u l l y developed open-channel
f l o w may be dominated by an a c t i v e motion o r l o c a l s i m i l a r i t y , as
w i l l be shown i n Chapter 4, t h e previous c o n s i d e r a t i o n on a basis
of t h e m i x i n g - l e n g t h t h e o r y i s s t i l l v a l i d . So, i t i s an essen-
t i a l work t o determine a c c u r a t e l y t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m i x i n g - l e n g t h .
Fig. 2.19 shows t h e numerical s o l u t i o n s o f ( 2 . 1 l ) obtained by using
(2.77) m u l t i p l i e d by t h e damping f a c t o r o f ( 2 . 1 3 ) , t o g a t h e r w i t h
the experimental values (see Chapter 4 ) . A good agreement b e t -
ween t h e both i s noticeable. And, i t i s concluded t h a t even
(2.l4) o f Prandtl i s applicable f a i r l y accurately i n y +
> 30.
2.5 T u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o v e r rough bed
I n t h i s s e c t i o n we have e s t i m a t e d t h e e f f e c t o f wall-roughness
upon t h e t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , by comparison w i t h those over
the smooth bed o b t a i n e d i n previous s e c t i o n s . However, some
estimations o b t a i n e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e o m i t t e d here since t h e
e f f e c t o f wall-roughness w i l l be i n d e t a i l i n v e s t i g a t e d i n Chapter k.

2.6 Mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n and s t r u c t u r e o f

f l u c t u a t i n g Reynolds s t r e s s * )
2.6.1 Q u a l i t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon
I n t e n s i v e experimental researches on t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon
have been performed by making use o f v i s u a l methods o r c o n d i t i o n a l
point-measurements since i t was confirmed t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g process
played an e s s e n t i a l r o l e f o r t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n mechanism near
the w a l l i n a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r ( K l i n e e t a l . 1967, 1971),
a p i p e ( C o r i n o e t a l . 1969) o r an open-channel flows(Grass 1971).
They found by f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n t h a t a sequence o f t h e b u r s t i n g
events had a q u a s i - c y c l i c process; t h a t i s , i t shows a p e r i o d i c
motion on t h e average i n space and t i m e , b u t n o t p e r f e c t l y p e r i o d i c
a t one place i n time nor a t one time i n space. For example,
Corino & Brodkey(1969) presented v i s u a l sketches o f a sequence o f
the b u r s t i n g events near t h e w a l l as shown i n F i g . 2.20.
On t h e b a s i s o f these q u a l i t a t i v e r e s u l t s , some researchers
have attempted t o o b t a i n more q u a n t i t a t i v e knowledge about t h e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Reynolds s t r e s s , i . e . t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n , by
using p o i n t measurements. They d i v i d e d t h e plane o f u and v
i n t o f o u r quadrants, as shown i n F i g . 2 . 2 1 , i n order t o evaluate
the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e e j e c t i o n s and sweeps t o t h e Reynolds s t r e s s .
This s e c t i o n w i l l show t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Reynolds s t r e s s may be i n t r o d u c e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y
by making use o f t h e cumulant expansion method f o r t h e two v a r i a b l e s

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Jour, of Fluid Mech. 3

vol. 80, pp. 99-128, 1977.

-IB-
ü and v, i n order t o p r e d i c t t h e magnitude o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e Reynolds s t r e s s from each event.

2.6.2 Probability density function offluctuating velocity

Denoting the joint probability function of Ü = u/u' and v = v/v' by p{u, ?)>
its characteristic function by Q(f, i)), the moment of ¥¥hyM jk and the corresponding
cumulant by Q , the following definitions can be given :
jk

®{LV) = ƒ ƒ " exp{i(u£ + fy)}i>Md^> (2.90)

9 1 1 <2 91)
^-hwït ^ " -" '
Expanding <D(£, 7j) in a Taylor series about £ = rj = 0 yields

, 7 ) = + n ( I , ( ê , 7 ) l £ 0 ( 2 9 3 )
^ n l o ^ ( ^ ^') ' ' ''''" ' *
Thus i f and Q correspond to the coefficients in Taylor expansions of 0 ( £ , 17)
Jfc jk

and In C>(£, 17) respectively. The relations between the moments and the cumu-
lants are successively obtained by making use of (2.91)-(2^93) •
Now, since M = ¥ = 0, M = I = 0, M = & = 1, M = S = 1 and J l f =
10 01 20 02
2
u

ttv/u'v' = -R < 0 (correlation coefficient), the following can be obtained:

Goo=l. «io = 0, Q 20 = l , Q =-R> u «30 = ^30. Q2i = M ) 2V [ 2 h )

Ql0 = M -2,
lQ Q =M +3R,
3l 31 Q 22 = M -2R*-l 2l ƒ
Q Jk for j < k can be obtained by merely exchanging j and k in the terms of Q jk for

In turbulent phenomena the cumulants of extremely high order can usually

be neglected, and even in the theory of isotropic turbulence the fourth-order
cumulant terms are sometimes discarded, e.g. by Rotta (1972). This suggests
that approximation by the lower-order cumulants may be valid for phenomena
mainly depending upon lower-order moments, because a cumulant is considered
to be a measure of the deviation from a Gaussian distribution.
Taking into account the cumulants of less than fourth order, the following
Taylor series can be obtained from (2.92) - (2.9 4 ) :

\n®(£, ) V = - m 2
- M Z v + y 2
) + . Z J i + k
£ f P v[
k
- (2.95)
Through an inverse transformation of (2.90) in which the terms of <!>(£;, 17) of less
than fourth order are taken into account, p{ü, Ö) can be written as

-kZiwfafiSSP (3.96)

-19-
 -*<M)[i+J^2feM)]. (.
2 97)

where 6) is the Gaussian distribution for two variables, defined as

G M
= 2n(l-R>)i V\- eX
2(1-JP) )' (2.98)
and i7 . (Ö, 0) is a Herraite polynomial in two variables.
u

(2.97) represents a special form of joint probability density distribu-

tion of the Gram-Charlier type. According to Frenkiel & Klebanoff (1973), the
generalized Gram-Charlier distribution in the following form extended by
Kampé de Fériet (1966) should be used when higher-order terms are needed:

p(ü,v) = 2 J7fcA(*»*) JkM>

0
H
(2.99)

where R (ü, v) is an adjoint Hermite polynomial in two variables (see Frenkiel &
jk

Klebanoff 1973).
The probability distribution of one variable is much simpler and is derived in
the same manner as (2.96):
4
0 „ 3' 1 / H\ 2

m-m+zi-wfljBm, °W"(SF)i«p(-2)' (2.100)

or pffi) = G(ü){l+$Q (ü*-3ü) + j Q (ü*-Ga* + 3)}. 30 r iO (2.101)
When all cumulants Q in (2.97) or (2.101) with j + k ^ 3 are equal to zero,
ik

the Gram-Charlier distribution becomes the same as the Gaussian one, and thus it
may be said that Q gives a measure of the skewness or intermittency of the
jk

distribution.
Now consider the probability distribution p {w) of the normalized Reynolds w

stress xv = uvjuv. By a change of variables (2.97) may be reduced to

Pw(u>) = ƒ ra *>(<*, -Rw/ü)dü

R R 2 w
c : : r i ( ) r- / v + w m
e X P C X P
7r(l-^)i \l-^jJ 0 \ 2(1-*») )
dü ,
1+ S ^\{H {%-Rwiü)+B {-%RwlÜ)}
jk ik
-£•(2.102)
Since H jk is an odd function for when j + k is odd and vice versa, the third-order
Cumulants in the correction term of p (w), i.e. the second term in (2.102), vanish. w

2.6.3 Conditional probability distribution of fluctuating

Reynolds s t r e s s

The third-order cumulants, which are closely connected with turbulent diffusion,
as will be mentioned later, are much more important quantities than the fourth-
order cumulants. Because they disregarded this third-order cumulant, some
previous studies such as those by Lu & Willmarth (1973) and Antonia & Atkinson
(1973) could find little obvious relation between the bursting process and the
probability distribution of the Reynolds stress.

-20-
 From the above description, a conditional probability distribution should be
introduced in order to evaluate the effect of the third-order cumulants, while, for
simplicity, the fourth-order cumulants, which are less important, may be omitted.
We shall denote the probability distributions of each event shown in F i g . 2.21
by p ) (outward interaction), p (u>) (ejection), p (w) (inward interaction)
l { w t 3

and p {v>) (sweep), respectively. Therefore

t

pju>) = 3>i(«0 +P2M +PM w

+Pi( )- (2.10k)
From (2.96), Pi(w)(i = U 4) can be derived by using conditional calcula-
tion. For example, p (w) becomes 2

2 2

, . .Rexp (gO x + (tjx)

W)
P^ 2n(l-R*)* =

1— { A ^ - AHljx)*-A x*(ljx) 2 + At x(tjxf -A x

a
2
'(l-R )i
dx
+ A* (t/x)}
T>
3
(2.105)
x
2
vfhoTet = Rwl(l-R ),
3
A, = IQ 30 + \RQ*x +l&Qn + t* Gos>
A = \RQ + (R* + i ) Q
2 m n + (* + 3
) «12 + W 0 3 . (2.106)
^3 = è«ao + « 2 1 + (*' + *) G12 W « • +

and .Zlf is ^ with Q replaced by Q . /fc kj

Now we liavo the following mathematical formulae:

r e x p j_^±M|*. « ( / J P r | = i-M*<»-^4 _ (|i|), (n m) (2.107)

JC, (<) = 2v/- A',(0

+1
1
#_„(0 = #,(')> (2.108)

where K is the i>th-order modified Bessol function of the second kind. Hence
v

substitution of (2.106)-(2.108) i n t o (2.105) y i e l d s

p*{*°) = PaM +f~M ( w

> °)-
(2.109)

In the same manner, (2.110)

w
(2.111)
= 2>o(«>) + ^ (™)> p(«>) = PoM ~ +
3 ( < °)>

Pi(w) = PoH ~ t~( ) w

( w
> °)» (2.112)
#o(M)
where PaM = 2n 2 (2.103)
(l-R )*'

+ Z>+
W -( ^^
+D+
f + { w ) m §.c"K \t\)
i{ TJ^{<*+*> {T ) ))' (2.113)

and ^ = K'Sv±'SJ = i( 3o3±Ö3o). (

^elP.+^J-KCntOit)' (2.115)

-21-
 3
S and S are the skewness factors of u and v respectively, as S =ft and S = t) .
u v u
3
v

D and D correspond to turbulent diffusion in the x and y directions respectively,

u v

2 2
as D = ü.v and D = v.ft, ,and here we shall call them the diffusion factors.
u v

Using the conditional probability p^w) (i = 1, 4) and (2.104) >pjw)

becomes 2p (w), in which rjr* disappear; then p {w) coincides with a distribution
G w

directly derived from the Gaussian. These c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s are shown

i n F i g . 2.22. Thus it is suggested that f are very important terms±

for the sequence of the bursting process and that they are closely connected
with the turbulent diffusion.
Next, taking into account the partition level H in the diagram of Reynolds
stress w = uvjuv according to Lu & Willmarth (1973), as shown in F i g . 2 . 2 1 ( b ) ,
the contributions to the Reynolds stress can be associated with one of five events
including a hole event when |u>| < H. The hole event is labelled event 5. Then the
time fraction T^H) and the contribution to the Reynolds stress RS^H) corres-
ponding to each event can be represented by

I Pi(w)dw (» = 2,4),
T (H) =
4 (2.116)
r-u
p (w)dw
t (t = l,3),
J -00 /
TJH) = f p (w) dw = 1 - S
w (t h e h o l e e v e n f c
) (2.117)
j-n i=i

ƒ
H
( ƒ
"-H
wpi{w)dw > 0 (i = 2,4), j

wpi(w)dw < 0 {i = l,3),j

RS (H) = [ wpjw) dw = 1 - S RS {H) (the hole event). (2.119)
5 t
I (2.118)

J -ii f=i
When H = 0, the above equations describe the contribution of each event given
by F i g . 2.21 (a ) . When H > 0, it may be expected that the characteristics of each
event such as skewness and intermittency can be made clear. Also, some relation-
ships between the coherent vortex motion with turbulent production which was
observed by Corino & Brodkey (1969) or Kim etal. (1971) through flow visualiza-
tion and the data obtained in this study through point measurements may be
discussed by varying H as a parameter.

2.6.4 Behaviour of v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s with a t r i g g e r level H

I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t e some c o n d i t i o n a l
p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f u and v w i t h a t r i g g e r l e v e l H.
Denoting t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f u which produces t h e
e j e c t i o n s w i t h w=H by p,(*\H) , i t s average value Z,(B) ± s g i v e n by

«M) =—TW • | ° £-p.UI*)<4i (2-120)

-22-
The average value Z,(B) o f u which produces t h e sweeps w i t h w=H
i s a l s o given i n t h e same manner, S u b s t i t u t i o n o f (2.97) and

(2.109) i n t o (2.120) y i e l d s
/ z r , ( z ) - «,(z)
(2-121) = 1 - (2-122)
X o ( Z ) / r - «*(Z)

Bo. = + 3 0 „ ) / 2 + U2R* + l)Qtx

where, ZSRB/T* • = 7i - B !

+ <?<») / 2
, fljisCOx + a o . O / e + B 130,, +
fa.U) = ~ { ( B . , Z + B o i Z ) X o U ) +
2
and ( 3 - 2B X>os) / 6
ft,BltU* + 3)(<?>o+30,i)/6 +
«,(Z) = 2*#"(B) • « p {-RZ\/R
2
(2-123) (3B + l)(<? 03 + 30 )/6 1 1

l
fl„ = ( 3 B + l ) ( 0 » + 3 0 I l )/6 +
B(B'+ 3)(0 0 S + 30„)/6
(2-124)

Lastly, the conditional probahility distributions P.UU^B)

and Ji]w^B)
P o f u which produces t h e e j e c t i o n and t h e sweeps w i t h
w > H, r e s p e c t i v e l y , are g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s by i n t e g r a t i n g
(2.97) i n respect o f ¥ > H :

p , ( £ !•;>*) ~ J L c x p ( - | ) / ^ U , ( * ) + * (x)) exp("^)<<*

t (2-125)

2 1 2 6 )
p,(£UèB) = i « p (- f ) ^ U U > " *,<»)> exp ( -

where, x= B(B/| £|-| 2| ) / r

, I
* , ( * ) s U + <?,<,{ 5 ' - 3 u ( l - B V ) . / r * } / 6 - i(2B0 I 1 + 0„)(l-* )/2r
s
fc(x) = i M B O » + 0 t , ) x / 2 r +(^ V-^' c)/f
1 J (2-127)

Of course, (2.125) o r (2.126) c o i n c i d e s w i t h (2.101) when

H •* (X •+ -°°) •

-23-
 References (Chapter 2)
1) Rotta, J. C. : Turbulente Strömungen, B. G. 18) Kline, S. J. et al. (edi.) : Computation of turbulent
Teubner, 1972. boundary layers - - - 1968 AFOSR-IFP-Stanford
2) van Driest, E . R. : On turbulent flow near a wall, Conf., vol.1, 1968.
J. Aeron. Sci., vol.23, pp.1007-1011, 1956. 19) Reichardt, H . : Vollstandige Darstellung der
3) Schlichting, H . : Boundary layer theory (6-th edi.), turbulenten Geschwindigkeitsversteilung in glatten
McGraw-Hill, pp.560-625, 1968. Leitungen. ZAMM, Bd.31, pp.208-219, 1951.
4) Schubauer, G. B. : Turbulent processes as ob- 20) Davies, P. O. A. L & Yule, A. J. : Coherent
• structures in turbulence, J. Fluid Mech., vol.69.,
served in boundary layer and pipe, J. Applied
PP.513-537, 1975.
Phys., vol.25, pp.188-196, 1954.
21) Kline, S. J . , Reynolds, W. C , Schraub, F. A. &
5) Tennekes, H. & Lumley, J. L : A first course in
Runstadler, P. W. : The structure of turbulent
turbulence, MIT Press, 1972.
boundary layers, J . Fluid Mech., vol.30, pp.741¬
6) Bradshaw, P. : 'Inactive' motion and pressure
773,1967.
fluctuation in turbulent boundary layers, J. Fluid
Mech., vol.30, pp.241-258, 1967. 22) Kim, H. T., Kline, S. J. & Reynolds, W. C : The
production of turbulence near a smooth wall in
7) Hussain, A. K. M. F. & Reynolds, W. C. : The
a turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech.,
mechanics of an organized wave in turbulent
vol.50, pp.133-160, 1971.
shear flow, J. Fluid Mech., vol.41, pp.241-258,
23) Corino, E . R. & Brodkey, R. S. : A visual investi-
1970.
gation of the wall region in turbulent flow, J .
8) Batchelor, G. K. : Homogeneous turbulence,
Fluid Mech., vol.37, pp. 1-30, 1969.
Camb. Univ. Press, 1953,
24) Grass, A. J . : Structural features of turbulent flow
9) Inoue, E . : On the structure of wind near
over smooth and rough boundaries, J. Fluid
the ground, Bull, of the National Institute
Mech., vol.50, pp.233-255, 1971.
of Agricultural Sciences, Ser. A , No. 2, 1952.
25) Brodkey, R. S., Wallace, J. M. & Eckelmann, H. :
10) Nakagawa, H., Nezu, I. & Ueda, H. : Turbulence Some properties of truncated turbulence signals
of open channel flow over smooth and rough in bounded shear flows, J. Fluid Mech., vol.63,
beds, Proc. of J S C E , No.241, pp.155-168, pp.209-224, 1974.
1975. 26) Nakagawa, H. & Nezu, I. : Prediction of the
11) Tchen, C. M. : On the spectrum of energy in contributions to the Reynolds stress from the
turbulent shear flow. Jour, of R.N.B.S., vol.50, bursting events in open channel flows, J. Fluid
pp.51-62, 1953. Mech., vol.80, pp.99- 128, 1977.
12) Hinzc, J. O. : Turbulence, McGraw-Hill, pp.451¬ 27) Frenkiel, F . N. & Klebanoff, P. S. : Probability
566, 1959. distributions and correlations in a turbulent
13) von Karman, T. : Progress in the statistical theory boundary layers, Phys. of Fluids, vol.16, pp.
of turbulence, Proc. of N.A.S., vol.34, pp.530¬ 725-737, 1973.
539, 1948. 28) Lu, S. S. & WUlmarth, W. W. : Measurements of
14) Monin, A. S. & Yaglom, A. M. : Statistical fluid the structure of the Reynolds stress in a turbulent
mechanics, MIT Press, 1971. boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech., vol.60, pp.481-
15) Bradshaw, P. : Conditions for the existence of 511, 1973.
an inertial subrange in turbulent flow, A.R.C., 29) Antonia, R. A. & Atkinson, J. D. : High-order
R. & M., No.3603, 1967. moments of Reynolds shear stress fluctuations
16) Zagustin, A. & Zagustin, K. : Analytical solution in a turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech.,
for turbulent flow in pipes, La HouiHe Blanche, vol.58, pp.581-593. 1973.
No.2, pp.1 13-1 18, 1969.
17) Townsend, A. A . : Equilibrium layers and wall
turbulence, J. Fluid Mech., vol.11, pp.97-120,
1961.

-2k-
C h a p t e r 3 Method o f t u r b u l e n c e m e a s u r e m e n t and i t s a n a l y s i s
3.1 Introduction
The method o f t u r b u l e n c e measurements, techniques o r instruments
can be d i v i d e d b r o a d l y i n t o two groups : one i s point-measurement
t h a t a d e t e c t i n g element i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e f l o w i n g f l u i d , and
another i s f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n t h a t a t r a c e r or other i n d i c a t o r i s
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e f l u i d t o make t h e f l o w p a t t e r n v i s i b l e .
I n t h i s study, i . e . turbulence-measurements i n water f l o w , as t h e
former method a h o t - f i l m anemometer and as t h e l a t t e r method a
hydrogen-bubble t r a c e r are adopted here , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

3.2 P r o p e r t i e s o f d u a l - s e n s o r h o t - f i l m anemometers
3.2.1 P r i n c i p l e o f h o t - f i l m anemometer
As shown i n F i g . 3.1, i n a h o t - w i r e or h o t - f i l m anemometer
two b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t methods can be a p p l i e d : (a) c o n s t a n t - c u r r e n t
method and ( b ) constant-temperature method. Since we adopted a
constant-temperature anemometer manufactured by DISA, o n l y (b)-method
i s considered here.
W e l l , an equation o f heat t r a n s f e r from c y l i n d r i c a l h o t - f i l m
sensor (see F i g . 3.2) was g i v e n by Kramers:

N = 0.42/V°' +0.5 7/V° / J , ' '

u
! 5 3 0
(3-1) where, N = kD/k, R,= UDlv, P = C/>i>/k-
u r

Since ., _ EL/R* /„ 2L

2 ai
we can o b t a i n E - E\ = A'u (3-3)
0
A' = Const. X W ( 0 / O - ' P -*R,{T,- T„)
r
a

(3-4)
E s Const. Xkl P ° *R,( T ~ T )
2
T € (3-5) K

where, T s and T w are temperatures o f sensor and water, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

(3.3) i s an equation o f c a l i b r a t i o n (U-E) i n respect o f a c y l i n d r i c a l
h o t - f i l m sensor, and thus a general c a l i b r a t i o n as t o any c o n f i g u -
r a t i o n o f sensor (ex. see F i g s . 3-3 and 3-h) can be given by
2
E'-E =A'-U* (3-6)

-25-
3.2.2 Directional sensitivity o f hot-film sensor
We adopted a dual-sensor h o t - f i l m prohe(DISA 55A89, as shown
i n F i g . 3.U) i n order t o measure t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s ,
Reynolds s t r e s s and o t h e r s .
W e l l , according t o Hinze, t h e e f f e c t i v e v a l u e o f U can be
obtained a p p r o x i m a t e l y from t h e r e l a t i o n : W=uKco*'*+khm**) (.
3 7)

D i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e dual-sensors as shown i n F i g . 3-5»

x/2 -( +t), * = n/2-(v -6 )
Vi t t (3-8)
Since <f = %= */4 , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s can be o b t a i n e d from
(3.6) and (3-7): 2
(E - El) / 2
cos *-r-i'sin'*\"/* .
( 3 9 )

!
(£ -^) =o fl \ "TTT J
Denoting . „, _ r(4'-£.) f*>
I /i 2 ( <=1, 2 )
F F s (3-10)

, I
2(cos *i + i Y s i n * )
r < ( a ) =
r m o r -0-12)
(3-11) ^
An experiment o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h i s probe has
been performed i n a homogeneous water f l o w (U=3^.3 cm/s, u'/U=0.0U).
Fig. 3.6 shows t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s , t o g a t h e r w i t h t h e curves o f
(3.11). And, t h e values o f k 2
c a l c u l a t e d by (3.12) are a l s o
shown i n F i g . 3-7. From these r e s u l t s , t h e average values o f k
became equal t o ki=0.12 and k = 0 . 2 1 , which were o f t h e same order t o
2

those o b t a i n e d by Hinze or Champagne e t a l . Consequently, t h e

cosine law, i . e . k=0 i n ( 3 . 7 ) , may be v a l i d w i t h i n t h e e r r o r o f 5%-
Then, t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e instantaneous v e l o c i t y U=(u, v ,
w) and t h e output v o l t a g e Ë are o b t a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s .
From t h e cosine l a w ,

Since £">7, » (3-15) i n two-dimensional f l o w ,

» = (u., + 7J„ )/v2, 7= ( u, - u„ )/vT

x w h e r e s - El, = 4U?i ( i = 1. 2 )
(3-16) (3-17)

-26-
3.2.3 C a l i b r a t i o n o fdual-sensor h o t - f i l m anemometer
F i r s t l y , we examined t h e temperature dependence o f t h e e l e c t r i c
r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e h o t - f i l m , which r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g . 3.8.
Fig. 3-9 shows t h e o u t p u t v o l t a g e s o f anemometers i n t h e s t i l l water
(i.e. U=0). These r e s u l t s agree well with ( 3 - 5 ) , and g i v e
El =0.212(33.40- 7 „ ) . £ ^ = 0 . 1 7 8 ( 3 7 . 4 2 - 7 » ) (3-18)

Next, some c a l i b r a t i o n s as t o t h e mean v e l o c i t y were done by

using both a P i t o t tube and a f l o a t i n a homogeneous open-channel
flow. Since r = u, = = r = o , ( 3 . l 6 ) and (3.17) become

EÏ-El = Al{U/j2)H = A,U», l A l = i/ *,/z

A 2 ,(, = 1 , 2 ) ( 3 - 1 9 )

Some t y p i c a l r e s u l t s o f these c a l i b r a t i o n s are shown i n F i g . 3.10,

which agrees f a i r l y well with (3.19). From t h i s f i g u r e , t h e
exponent n i became n e a r l y equal t o 0.5 a l t h o u g h i t changed, speaking
strictly, a l i t t l e w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y range. The values o f t h e
c a l i b r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t A(Tw) are a l s o shown i n F i g . 3 . 1 1 .
They s a t i s f y ( 3 - ^ ) , and give A = 0.138(32.07-7»), ^=0.122(35.72-7»)
T (3-20).

From t h e above r e l a t i o n s o f ( 3 - l 8 ) - ( 3 . 2 0 ) , the c a l i b r a t i o n

curves o f v e l o c i t y - v o l t a g e can be e a s i l y determined. For example,
F i g . 3.12 shows t h e c a l i b r a t i o n curves o f 1-st sensor as a parameter
of t h e water temperature.

3.3 E f f e c t o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s on t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f h o t - f i l m anemometer
3.3.1 E f f e c t o f t h e n o i s e
F i g . 3.13 shows t h e data processing system c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h i s
study. Consequently, i t i s apprehended t h a t some noises may be
i n v o l v e d i n t o t h e analogue data o f h o t - f i l m anemometers u n t i l they
are converted i n t o t h e d i g i t a l data.
Wow, i f U and Tw vary i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y , t h e output v o l t a g e E
v a r i e s by AE= (OE/OU) AU+( °E/dT ) a ÓT W (3-21)

When Tw i s kept t o be c o n s t a n t , (3.21) becomes

AU_ m „ = 2 . j ( 3 . 2)
2

-27-
CU i s t h e s e n s i t i v i t y f a c t o r o f t h e anemometers, and F i g . 3-lU
shows an example o f C^-curves c a l c u l a t e d from ( 3 . l 8 ) - ( 3 . 2 0 ) and
(3.22). I f the noise i s expressed by AE, AE/E describes t h e
n o i s e - s i g n a l r a t i o of t h e analogue data. From t h i s f i g u r e ,
AU/U becomes n e a r l y equal t o (5-7)AE/E. That i s , N-S r a t i o o f
even o n l y 1% i n t h e instruments(see F i g . 3-13) causes t h a t o f
(5-7)$ i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f v e l o c i t y .
Thus, we made some devices t o minimize t h e noise
i n v o l v e d i n t o t h e analogue data.

3.3.2 E f f e c t o f t h e water temperature changes

Since t h e time r e q u i r e d f o r t h e t u r b u l e n c e measurement a t one
p o i n t i s about two minutes, t h e water temperature changes d u r i n g
t h i s one-point measurement are n e g l i g i b l e i f i t s temperature i s
nearly i n the equilibrium state. But, i f t h e r e are many p o i n t s
measured by t h e anemometers, t h e water temperature goes up a l i t t l e
gradually d u r i n g a l l these measurements.
Now, when U i s kept t o be c o n s t a n t , ( 3 . 2 l ) becomes

B = ^ L _ ( ^ + { , « ^ L ) (3-23) .

I f an i d e n t i c a l c a l i b r a t i o n curve i s used i n s p i t e o f t h e water

temperature changes ATw, t h e e f f e c t of AE corresponding t o ATw i s
evaluated as i f t h e v e l o c i t y has changed. That i s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
r e l a t i o n i s obtained from (3.22):

Fig. 3.15 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f (3.2*0 c a l c u l a t e d by u s i n g (3.18) and

(3.19). A c t u a l l y , t h e v e l o c i t y i s underestimated by about 20%
per the increase o f ATw= 1°C i f t h e e f f e c t o f ATw on t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
curve i s neglected.
By t h e way, a f i n i t e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f (3.17) yields

T X 1
V C
^^2\ '-E- ^ifj (3-25) .

-28-
Since t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s e n s i t i v i t y f a c t o r Cj_ a g a i n s t t h e water
temperature changes i s very small as seen i n F i g . 3-lU, AU/U o r AV/U
(ex. t h e r e l a t i v e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y u'/U o r v'/U) can be e v a l u a t e d
f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y i n s p i t e o f ATw.
In c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e above, a s t a b l e water temperature was
here maintained d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i n g p e r i o d by c i r c u l a t i n g water
throughout t h e day before t h e t e s t began i n order t o d i m i n i s h t h e
e f f e c t o f i t s changes on t h e h o t - f i l m as much as p o s i b l e , and i n
• s u i t AT became w i t h i n only 0.5°C a t t h e end o f a l l measurement t e s t s
W

Furthermore, t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e e f f e c t o f water temperature was

done by u s i n g t h e c a l i b r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ( c f . ( 3 . 1 8 ) and ( 3 . 2 0 ) ) .

3.3.3 E f f e c t o f t h e nonhomogeneity o f v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e s e n s o r
When t h e l e n g t h I o f t h e h o t - f i l m sensor i s l a r g e r than t h e
microscale X o f t u r b u l e n c e , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e nonhomogeneity o f
v e l o c i t y along i t s sensor should n o t be neglected. I n t h e same
manner as t h e d e s c r i p t i o n by Hinze, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s as t o
V-type sensors(cf. F i g . 3-5) are obtained approximately:

where, s u f i x e s m and t denote t h e measured and t h e t r u e values,

respectively. For example, since | dï\/dy |~ | d7 /d \~\d(7~v\/d \= uf/h
t y y

(cf. 2.2) and our sensor has 1=1 mm, t h e above e f f e c t may be
w i t h i n only 1% when h=8 cm.

3.3.4 Other e f f e c t s
To d i m i n i s h t h e e f f e c t o f i m p u r i t i e s i n t h e water upon t h e
characteristics o f t h e h o t - f i l m , t h e suspended m a t e r i a l s i n t h e
f l o w were f i l t e r e d by gauzes. And, v a r i o u s devices have been
done as t o i n s u l a t i o n badness o f probe connector by t h e submerged
water, s e l f - v i b r a t i o n o f t h e experimental channel and o t h e r s .

-29-
3.4 H y d r o g e n - b u b b l e t e c h n i q u e
3.4.1 P r i n c i p l e o f h y d r o g e n - b u b b l e t r a c e r a n d i t s a n a l y s i s
As shown i n F i g . 3 . l 6 , a f i n e p l a t i n u m w i r e o f d=50 um diameter
i s s t r e t c h e d i n the water i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f y- or z - a x i s .
This w i r e forms t h e negative e l e c t r o d e o f a pulsed D.C. c u r c u i t o f
(100-500) v o l t s , where i n r e s u l t hydrogen bubbles w i t h a diameter
of ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 0 ) d are produced and t h e y form t h e markers f o r f l o w v i s u a -
lization. I n order t o o b t a i n a marking i n space (combined t i m e -
s t r e a k markers), t h e w i r e has s h o r t s e c t i o n s a t n e a r l y r e g u l a r i n t e r -
v a l s (about 2 mm) coated f o r i n s u l a t i o n .
Fig. 3-17 shows t h e data processing system f o r hydrogen-bubble
method. Any frame i n l6mm f i l m s i s enlarged by t h e f i l m - p r o j e c t o r
and t h e coordinates o f some hydrogen-bubbles can be read t o t h e l i m i t
of 0.1mm by t h e instrument o f d i g i t a l c o o r d i n a t o r . F i g . 3.18 shows
an a n a l y s i s method o f instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e ( s i n g l e frame
method). Denoting t h r e e b u b b l e - p o i n t s near t h e r e f e r e n c e a x i s x r

(x /d-100) by 1,2 and 3, t h e f o l l o w i n g approximation

r i s obtained:

With a p r o p o r t i o n a l a l l o t m e n t o f (3.28) between d- and e - p o i n t s ,

y(0 = ^{yd + "(v.- yd)) = ^{»d+ «*>}, 7( 0 = + «*U- ««)} (3-29)

where, „ == 1^ v) S AT ±s t h e pulse-time and S i s t h e enlargement

rate of picture. Denoting t h e frame number by j , y«(») = £,y(t.>)/*.

Then, t h e instantaneous v e l o c i t y ("»(»,>), ~(1,>)) a t t h e p o i n t o f (**• y*(^'

i s o b t a i n e d i n t h e same manner as (3.29) ( c f . F i g . 3 . 1 8 ( b ) ) .

3.4.2 E f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s upon t h e h y d r o g e n - b u b b l e method

The e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s upon t h e hydrogen-bubble method
have been i n v e s t i g a t e d (ex. e f f e c t s o f buoyancy, wake o f t h e w i r e ,
the r e a d - e r r o r , response o f t h e bubble, e t c . ) . These r e s u l t s a r e
o m i t t e d here since they are s i m i l a r t o those o b t a i n e d by Schraub e t a l ,

References (Chapter 3 )
1) Hinze, J. O. : Turbulence, McGraw-Hill, pp.73- 3 ) Schraub, F. A., Kline, S. J . , Henry, J., Runstadler,
1 4 1 1 9 5 9
• - P. W. & Littcll, A. : Use oNiydrogcn bubbles for
2) Bradshaw, P. : An introduction to turbulence and quantitative determination of time-dependent
its measurement, Pergamon Press, pp.85-133, velocity fields in low-speed water flows, Trans, of
1 9 7 1
- ASME, BE, pp.429-444, 1965.
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C h a p t e r 4 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e
and e n e r g y budget

4.1 Introduction
I n the recent t u r b u l e n c e research a ' s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t ' characte-
r i s t i c of t u r b u l e n c e has been n o t i c e d t h a t a t u r b u l e n c e - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
may be more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o another turbulence-characteristic
than mean-velocity one, t h a t i s , t h e r e may be a stronger i n t e r r e l a -
t i o n among the t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
I n t h i s chapter, we i n v e s t i g a t e i n d e t a i l t h e t u r b u l e n c e
i n t e n s i t i e s , Reynolds s t r e s s , s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h e r a t e s o f
p r o d u c t i o n , d i f f u s i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n o f turbulence,and others
i n open-channel f l o w s from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y
of t u r b u l e n c e o r s i m i l a r i t y law mentioned above, and then we make
c l e a r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y the e f f e c t s of t h e Reynolds number, the Froude
number and the w a l l roughness upon these t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e and
the energy budget.
4.2 Experimental equipment and data a n a l y s i s
Three groups o f experiments on two-dimensional fully developed
t u r b u l e n t f l o w i n an open channel were conducted i n a t i l t i n g flume
15m l o n g , 50cm wide and 30cm deep, as shown i n F i g . k.l. The chan-
nel slope could be changed by a d j u s t i n g two j a c k s so t h a t normal
f l o w could be obtained. A few b a f f l e s and screens t o prevent t h e
occurrence o f l a r g e - s c a l e disturbances were set up a t t h e entrance o f
the channel, and consequently a f u l l y developed t u r b u l e n t f l o w was
obtained a t the t e s t s e c t i o n 9-5m downstream o f t h e entrance.
As described i n Table U . l , f i r s t group (a) c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e
d i f f e r e n t kinds o f the Reynolds number ReEU h/v, i . e . R e = ( l . 2 ,
m 2.9,
1+
l+.6)xl0 , where the Froude number Fr^U /Vgh m and the w a l l e q u i v a l e n t
sand roughness k+Ek U*/v were kept t o be n e a r l y c o n s t a n t , i . e . Fr=0.T
s

and k t = 0 . Second group (b) c o n s i s t e d o f f i v e d i f f e r e n t kinds o f

4
the Froude number(Fr=0.U6-3.12), where Re=3.2xl0 and k = 0 (smooth bed) s

were n e a r l y k e p t . T h i r d group ( c ) c o n s i s t e d o f f o u r d i f f e r e n t kinds

of t h e w a l l roughness (k£%0, 9, U8, 136), where Re=9800 and F r = 0 . l 6
were n e a r l y kept.
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 The t h r e e components u, v , and w o f instantaneous v e l o c i t y -
were measured "by using a set o f constant-temperature anemometers w i t h
a DISA type 55A89 dual-sensor h o t - f i l m prohe, and a s i n g l e - s e n s o r
h o t - f i l m probe(see F i g . 3-3) was used t o measure o n l y u very near
the w a l l . I t s d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n has heen a l r e a d y given i n
Chapter 3. The output s i g n a l s o f t h e anemometers were d i g i t i z e d
"by using an A-D converter (see F i g . 3-13), and then some s t a t i s t i c a l
analyses were c a r r i e d out by u s i n g a l a r g e d i g i t a l computer, FACOM
230-75, Data Processing Center, Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y .
I t i s important how t o determine t h e number N o f samples and t h e
sampling frequency f S l / A t a t any measuring p o i n t on p e r f o r m i n g analog-
t o - d i g i t a l conversion. The maximum c u t o f f wave-number koo i s given by
k.= L - *- = 77(^7X7
x .
I f Êoo i s over about a hundred, t h e s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s becomes p o s s i b l e
at l e a s t t o t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i n e r t i a l subrange, as shown i n Fig.2.6.
Thus, t h e sampling frequency f was chosen i n each r u n so as t o s a t i s f y
this analytical condition. Since t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T B i s nearly
equal t o ( 2 - 3 ) h / U max as w i l l be shown i n Chapter 5, t h e t o t a l sampling
time T=N/f i s given by 7 * -(4-2)
TB ( 2 0 0 - 300) \ U I 50

Though t h e l a r g e r t h e sample s i z e N i s , t h e b e t t e r t h e accuracy o f

data a n a l y s i s becomes, N=5000 was chosen i n t h i s study because o f
t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f computer technique. Thus, t h i s sample s i z e (
T~100T ) may be comparatively s m a l l b u t i t i n c l u d e s t h e
B

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon from t h i s data a n a l y s i s .

4.3 Universal characteristics of turbulence intensities * )

I t has been confirmed i n our previous paper(1975) o r Chapter 2
t h a t t h e t u r b u l e n t energy cp/2 played an e s s e n t i a l r o l e i n t h e t u r -
b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e o f an open-channel f l o w , and t h a t i t s behaviour
showed a monotonous decrease w i t h increase o f £=y/h. In detail,
2
the g r a d i e n t o f q against % might be n e a r l y i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s e l f
*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Proc. of JSCE, No.261 ,pp.67-76,
1977(in Japanese), or Trans, of JSCE, vol.10, 1979(in English).

-32-
 2
q i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , as s i m i l a r t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
other kinds o f energy such as t h e r m a l energy. Then,
1 d
Jll = li!2Üj =-;<o-(4.3)
2
9 dC d(
The above conception may be a l s o s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Townsend(196l)
or Zagustin e t a l . ( l 9 6 9 ) - By assuming t h a t X i s constant and
a p p l y i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f Il-eddy model proposed i n Chapter 6, t h e
f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s a l functions of turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s are obtained
X( w xe
from (i+.3): u' / <tf \ ** n f \ '-n ( ^ <* n\

where, X and T> ( i = l , 2 , 3 ) a r e t h e experimental constants.

±

I n t h i s s e c t i o n , we discuss e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e v a l i d i t y o f
(h.7) by s y s t e m a t i c a l l y v a r y i n g t h e Reynolds, t h e Froude numbers
and t h e w a l l roughness ( c f . Table k.l).

4.3.1 Mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d f r i c t i o n velocity

As a r e s u l t o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y experiment, i t was confirmed
t h a t t h e mean v e l o c i t y over t h e rough bed as w e l l as t h e smooth bed
(cf. F i g . 2.19) s a t i s f i e d very w e l l t h e l o g a r i t h m i c law,
+ +
i.e. i/ = «-«• In( y/i,) + C U/). r C„U, ) = ln(A + ) +B (2-87)

when an o r i g i n o f t h e y-axis was r e s e t a t a p o i n t o f k /U below t h e s

top o f t h e roughness element.

W e l l , i n t h e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n on t h e t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e ,
i t i s a very e s s e n t i a l work t o evaluate t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U #

a c c u r a t e l y , as mentioned i n Chapter 2. There are s e v e r a l methods

i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f U#, t h a t i s :
(1) Energy gradient method
From (2.3), ul' = SJTT, . i,= s-dh/d* (4-6)
where, S is the bed slope.
(2) Log-law method
The friction velocity can be estimated by using the Karman
constant K=0.4 since the mean velocity satisfys the log-law.

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 (3) Reynolds-stress method
The friction velocity can be evaluated from (2.5) by using
the measured Reynolds stress distribution.
(4) Velocity gradient method
By definition, v* = * du/a | y y=0

(5) Other methods

Preston tube method, direct-measurement of wall shear stress,
heat-transfer analogy method, etc.
Only (3)-method i s based on t h e t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Consequently, i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y o f t u r b u l e n c e
we c o u l d here evaluate U* most reasonably by making use o f (3) Reyno-
l d s - s t r e s s method. And, t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y u;», u ; and
evaluated from ( l ) - , ( 2 ) - and (3)-methods, r e s p e c t i v e l y , are
summarized i n Table H . l . They agree w e l l w i t h each other w i t h i n
the e r r o r o f 30%.
4.3.2 E f f e c t o f t h e R e y n o l d s number on t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s
Fig. U.2 shows t h e e f f e c t o f t h e Reynolds number on u'/U*
and V/U*. I n t h e r e g i o n o f 5 <0.5 our data are i n good agreement
w i t h t h e Laufer's data. (U.T) w i t h X=2.0, D 2.30 and D.-1.27
1=

can f a i r l y w e l l e x p l a i n these experimental r e s u l t s . However,

our data i n 5 >0-5 d e v i a t e over from t h e Laufer's data or t h e
curves o f (U.T). As w i l l be p o i n t e d out i n 4 . 5 , t h i s d e v i a t i o n
may be due t o a f a c t t h a t t h e surface wave energy i s i n c l u d e d i n
t h e measured t u r b u l e n t energy more or l e s s , and t h a t i t corresponds
t o t h e i n a c t i v e t u r b u l e n t component d e f i n e d by Bradshaw(1967)•
I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h f l o w , i . e . F r ~ 1,
t h e u n i v e r s a l s t r u c t u r e o f t u r b u l e n c e may be broken down by an
i n a c t i v e motion such as surface wave f l u c t u a t i o n .
By t h e way, Ljatkher(1967) approximated l i n e a r l y t h e Navier-
Stokes' equation and o b t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g equations ( i . e . a special
case o f Orr-Sommerfeld's equ.) by assuming t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e
Reynolds number might disappear when Re was v e r y l a r g e (This assum-
p t i o n may "be v a l i d , as seen i n F i g . h.2):
1
|, ,, m(l-n) 1 I „ _

where,

"*=ƒƒ u(x. y, t ) exp— i ( kx + at) dxdt, "*=jj v(x,y. t ) exp—i ( kx+wt) dxdt (4-9)

(h.8) i s based on an assumption t h a t u = -Wk = aU and e u/u =C.

aai

Because (h.8) i s t h e Bessel's t y p e d i f f e r e n t i a l equation i n respect

of "*/VT, i t s s o l u t i o n i s expressed by a summation o f m o d i f i e d Bessel
functions. This t h e o r e t i c a l curve i s d e s c r i b e d by a broken l i n e
i n F i g . h.2, and i t should be n o t i c e d t h a t t h i s curve agrees f a i r l y
w e l l w i t h (h.l). Furthermore, when t h e mean v e l o c i t y i s assumed
t o be n e a r l y l i n e a r , i . e . m=l, a s p e c i a l s o l u t i o n o f (h.8) i s
obtained: » * ( * . f ) = Dikh exp- (*A) f (4-10)

Consequently, (h.l) can be also deduced from (U.IO).

To sum up, (h.l) may be a u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n on a b a s i s o f
not o n l y t h e phenomenological c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f (U.3), b u t a l s o t h e
approximation o f N-S eq. o f (U.8).

4.3.3 E f f e c t o f t h e F r o u d e number on t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s
F i g . h.3 shows t h e e f f e c t o f t h e Froude number on t h e t u r b u l e n c e
intensities. Except f o r Case G-2, t h e experimental values o f u'/U #

v'/U* and w'/U show u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f F r ,

#

and agree very w e l l w i t h (h.l) w i t h X=2.0, Di=2.30, D =1.2T and D = 2 3

1.63. This suggests t h a t except f o r near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h f l o w ,

the a c t i v e component may be more dominant t h a n t h e i n a c t i v e one,
and thus t h a t t h e r e may s t r o n g l y e x i s t t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o r s i m i l a r i t y
i n t h e i r t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e Reynolds and Froude
numbers. We o b t a i n from (h.l) some n o t i c e a b l e r e s u l t s t h a t
= Dt/Dt =0.55, w'/u' = DjD = x 0.71 (4-12)

J 2
u ' / V = 0.55, i.'7ir =0.17. L/79^0.28 (4-13)

i r r e s p e c t i v e o f y/h. This shows t h a t t h e r a t i o s o f t h e r e - d i s t -

r i b u t i o n o f t u r b u l e n t energy become n e a r l y constant from t h e w a l l
r e g i o n up t o t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e as p r e d i c t e d i n Chapter 2 o r F i g . 2.5
,and t h a t t h e tendency toward an i s o t r o p i c t u r b u l e n c e , i . e . u'=v'=w'
may be suppressed even i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e region.
-35-
 Next, F i g . k.k shows t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s near t h e w a l l
+
by u s i n g y . Our data o f u'/U* agree w e l l w i t h Laufer's data
and i n d i c a t e t h e maximum value 2.8 a t y +
-15- Although t h e data
of v'/U* very near t h e w a l l c o u l d n o t be o b t a i n e d here, t h e y seemed
to vary monotonously w i t h y +
( i n d e t a i l , r e f e r t o Chapter 6 ) .

(U.15) w i t h R*=600 and l600 i s shown i n F i g . h.k, and t h i s curves

agree w e l l w i t h t h e experimental values i n t h e r e g i o n o f y +
>50.
By t h e way, Monin e t al.(1971) proposed t h e f o l l o w i n g asymptotic
r e l a t i o n s when Re i s very l a r g e : «'/i/,-2.3. .'/t/,-0.9, »'/l/,-*1.7 (4-16)
On t h e o t h e r hand, when (*,-") , (^.15) becomes
u'/{/,-2.3. v'/U,^\.27, w'/U^ 1.63 (4-17) #

An agreement between t h e b o t h i s very good.

To sum up, (U.15) i s very v a l i d i n y +
>50, b u t i t i s n o t
applicable t o the region o f y +
<50, where an u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n
w i l l be considered anew i n Chapter 6. S t i l l , t h e power-type
universal functions((2.66) and ( 2 . 8 l ) ) o b t a i n e d i n Chapter 2 a r e
examined i n F i g s , k.3 and k.k.

4.3.4 E f f e c t o f t h e w a l l r o u g h n e s s on t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s
Fig. U.5 shows t h e e f f e c t o f t h e w a l l roughness on t h e t u r b u -
lence i n t e n s i t i e s . These experimental values agree w e l l w i t h
those o f Grass(1971) o b t a i n e d by u s i n g t h e hydrogen-bubble technique
I n t h e r e g i o n o f £ >0.3, t h i s roughness e f f e c t may become f a i r l y
weak, and consequently t h e experimental values s t i l l c o i n c i d e w e l l
w i t h (U.7) independently o f t h e w a l l roughness. I t should be,
however, n o t i c e d t h a t t h i s e f f e c t appears remarkably near t h e w a l l .
So, t h e experimental values near t h e w a l l are i n d e t a i l shown
+
against y i n F i g . U.6. The values o f u'/U* i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n
g r a d u a l l y decrease w i t h increase o f k , b u t v'/U* and w'/U are
s #

h a r d l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s i z e o f roughness element. Though t h e

t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n over a smooth bed occurs mostly i n a b u f f e r -

-36-
 +
l a y e r y =10-30 by t h e e j e c t i o n s and sweeps due t o t h e f l o w i n s t a b i -
lity (see Chapter 5 ) , a b u f f e r - l a y e r over a rough bed disappears
p e r f e c t l y or p a r t l y i n t o t h e roughness elements, and consequently
the turbulence would be produced i n another way. Actually, the
p o s i t i o n y^~(15-20) where u'/U* a t t a i n s maximum becomes under t h e
a n d t n u s
t o p o f roughness element when +/b, > +, i . . kg >T0 >
k y e

i t s evident maximum o f u'/U* appears no longer (see Case D - l ) .

A poor dependence o f v'/U* and w'/U* on roughness may be due t o t h e i r
l i t t l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n , so t h a t b o t h v' and
+
w' seem t o change monotonously w i t h y w h i l e u' shows t h e maximum
value. W e l l , such an e f f e c t o f t h e w a l l roughness on u'/U* can
be phenomenologically e x p l a i n e d as f o l l o w s :
As shown i n F i g . 2.5, u' has a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o macro-scale
eddies which dominate t h e t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n . Antonia et a l .
(1971), Chen e t al.(197*0 and authors(1975) p o i n t e d o u t experimen-
t a l l y t h a t t h e macro-scale L£ near t h e w a l l decreased g r a d u a l l y
w i t h enlargement o f t h e roughness. Then, as kg increases, A i n 2

(2.65) or A 3 i n (2.66) becomes s m a l l e r , and thus u'/U* a l s o becomes

smaller. A c t u a l l y , (2.66) i s shown i n F i g . h.6 since i t can be
p r e d i c t e d i n 4 . 6 . 4 and 4.7.1 t h a t A3 becomes n e a r l y equal t o h.36
f o r smooth bed and 3-77 f o r rough bed. This r e s u l t suggests
s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t u r b u l e n t energy may t e n d
toward i s o t r o p y as t h e macro-scale eddy decays due t o t h e roughness.
+
By t h e way, U as w e l l as h£ decreases w i t h increase o f k , as s

described i n (2.87). Imamoto(l97l) suggested t h a t (u'/V )(V*) t "V s

was a u n i v e r s a l expression against y/h on a basis o f a p r o p o r t i o n a l

r e l a t i o n between U +
and L . X Now, t h i s expression o f (u'/u^iu*)^/ 3

+
i s examined against y i n F i g . h.l. I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t
U7£/,)(t/)"'/ has r e a l l y a u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
+ s

the w a l l roughness i n t h e region o f y +

<70 where i t s e f f e c t on u'/U*
appears remarkably as mentioned t h e above. Furthermore, t h i s
u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n ( a t h i c h l i n e i n F i g . h.l) w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d
i n Chapter 6.

-37-
 4.4 R e l a t i v e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y and R e y n o l d s s t r e s s
4.4.1 R e l a t i v e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y u'/U
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f only u'/U are i n v e s t i g a t e d here since
v'/U and w'/U are e a s i l y evaluated from (h.12).
Fig. k.8 shows t h e values o f u'/TJ o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g o n l y
t h e Reynolds number Re. I n % < 0 . 1 , u'/U decreases remarkably
w i t h increase o f Re, but i n £ >0.1 t h i s e f f e c t o f Re becomes weaker.
And, such a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s a l s o seen i n the experimental curves
o b t a i n e d by L a u f e r ( l 9 5 l ) and B l i n c o e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) . Wow, t h e f o l l o w i n g
r e l a t i o n can be obtained from (2.lU) and (h.l):
u! _ 2.3 e x p ( - f ) j
U £-'lnf+^(V(,) ' A{RJ=— l n * , + 5.5 (4-18)

The curves o f ( U . l 8 ) w i t h K=0.U, R =600 and 2000 agree w e l l w i t h t h e

#

experimental values i n £ >0.1 (see F i g . k.8) though ( U . l 8 ) i s i n v a l i d

very near t h e w a l l .
Next, F i g . U.9 shows t h e values o f u'/U o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g o n l y
t h e Froude number Fr. I n s p i t e o f t h e wide v a r i a t i o n of F r , t h e
experimental values get n e a r l y on a s i n g l e curve, and thus t h e y
show a good agreement w i t h ( U . l 8 ) except f o r v e r y near t h e w a l l .
L a s t l y , F i g . k.10 shows t h e values o f u'/U o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g
o n l y the w a l l roughness. Of course, t h e r e l a t i v e t u r b u l e n c e
i n t e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y very remarkably near t h e w a l l , w i t h
enlargement o f t h e roughness s i z e . Now, From (2.87) and (h.l)
we o b t a i n ^_ 2.3 e x ( - f )P ( 4 . 1 9 )

1 1
U c In f - l t " ln(i,/A)-C (i/))r

As shown i n F i g . U.10, t h e curves o f (h.±9) e x p l a i n f a i r l y w e l l

t h e e f f e c t o f t h e roughness.

4.4.2 Reynolds s t r e s s distribution

The measurement o f Reynolds s t r e s s i n a water f l o w was j u s t
r e a l i z e d o n l y e i g h t years ago by McQuivey et a l . ( l 9 6 9 ) who used a
'yawed f i l m ' technique o f s i n g l e - s e n s o r . On t h e o t h e r hand, we
measured the Reynolds s t r e s s by making use o f a dual-sensor hot-
f i l m ( c f . Chapter 3 ) .

-38-
 Fig. k.H shows the values o f Reynolds s t r e s s o b t a i n e d at each
group i n Table h.l. They show a universal distribution indepen-
d e n t l y o f t h e Reynolds, t h e Froude numbers and t h e w a l l roughness.
Now, from (2.5) and ( 2 . l i t ) we o b t a i n -m _ i _

(k.20) coincides f a i r l y w e l l w i t h t h e measured v a l u e s .

I n other words, t h i s f a c t confirms t h e v a l i d i t y o f (3)-method i n
the e v a l u a t i o n of U # mentioned i n 4.3.1. S t i l l , since -uv
very near t h e f r e e surface became n e g a t i v e value i n t h e case o f
s u p e r c r i t i c a l f l o w (Case G-3, -h, - 5 ) , t h e f l o w depth h s a t which
-ïïv =0, was adopted here ( h / h = 0 . 9 f o r Case
s G-5).

4.4.3 C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f R e y n o l d s s t r e s s
A c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f Reynolds s t r e s s i s d e f i n e d as
Rs-üv/u'v', which i s a measure i n d i c a t i n g i t s s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y o f
t u r b u l e n c e or s i m i l a r i t y .
Fig. h.12 shows the values o f R o b t a i n e d a t each group, i . e .
(a), (b) and ( c ) i n Table h.l. I n t h e w a l l r e g i o n and t h e f r e e -
surface r e g i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y , R increases and decreases monotonously
w i t h y/h, w h i l e i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n i t remains n e a r l y constant
, i . e . R =0.*+. The comparison w i t h previous data i n boundary l a y e r
and pipe f l o w s shown i n F i g . h.12 i n d i c a t e s t h a t R d i s p l a y s the
u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s and
the roughness. Now, such a curve o f R can be p r e d i c t e d from
v
(I+.7) and (U.20), as f o l l o w s : R- ~~ - [izl±zll*i*ï? u «1
uV 2.92 exp ( - 2 f) •

As shown i n F i g . U.12, (h.2l) has a good agreement w i t h t h e

experimental values though t h e r e i s an a p p l i c a t i o n l i m i t i n this
equation.
Next, R =-HU/^
q i s another c o e f f i c i e n t i n d i c a t i n g a c o r r e l a t i o n
between t h e Reynolds s t r e s s and t u r b u l e n c e , and i t s e x p e r i m e n t a l
values are a l s o shown i n F i g . I*.13. These v a r i a t i o n s are s i m i l a r
t o those o f R i n F i g . h.12. That i s , the value o f R^ i n t h e
e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n becomes n e a r l y constant, i . e . Rq =0.12- 0 . l 6 ,
which corresponds t o the value (Rq=0.15) i n t h e boundary-layer

-39-
 c a l c u l a t i o n developed by Bradshaw et a l . ( l 9 6 7 ) .
More, from (h.l) and (h.20), we also obtain
MmzSL m (i-f)-U*.f)- ( j
» 7 9.56 e x ( - 2 f )
P

(4,22) explains f a i r l y w e l l the experimental v a l u e s , as seen i n

Fig. U.13.
4.5 E f f e c t o f t h e s u r f a c e wave on t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e
According t o the conception o f ' a c t i v e - i n a c t i v e motions', p r o -
posed by Bradshaw(1967), the a c t i v e p a r t i s responsible f o r Reynolds
shear s t r e s s , w h i l e the i n a c t i v e p a r t does not c o n t r i b u t e e s s e n t i a l l y
t o t h i s shear s t r e s s . The former shows a u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
or l o c a l s i m i l a r i t y o f t u r b u l e n c e , w h i l e the l a t t e r c o n t r i b u t e s t o
the t r a n s f e r o f a s c a l a r q u a n t i t y such as t u r b u l e n t energy and
consists o f a lower frequency p a r t (a l a r g e r - s c a l e eddy).
A c t u a l l y , our data of Reynolds s t r e s s i n F i g . h.ll have shown f a i r l y
w e l l a u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , w h i l e the t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s
near the c r i t i c a l - d e p t h f l o w have shown some d e v i a t i o n s from t h e
u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n o f (h.l), as p o i n t e d out i n F i g s , h.2 and h.3.
This f a c t suggests s t r o n g l y t h a t the e f f e c t o f surface wave near t h e
c r i t i c a l - d e p t h f l o w upon i t s t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e may be due t o an
inactive part. So, the v a l i d i t y o f t h i s suggestion i s examined
i n the f o l l o w i n g on a basis of the measurement o f both surface-wave
and wall-pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s .

4.5.1 Analysis of surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n s

The surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n h' was measured by a resistance-type
wave amplitude instrument, where two f i n e n i c k e l w i r e s o f 0.1mm d i a -
meter were s t r e t c h e d p a r a l l e l t o the y-axis i n the water i n the same
manner as the case o f hydrogen-bubble w i r e . The h y d r a u l i c condi-
t i o n s o f t h i s experiments (Group W) are those over the smooth bed
v a r y i n g only the Froude number, as i n d i c a t e d i n Table h.2.
2
Fig. h.lh shows the i n t e n s i t y i/fr"' o f surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n
2
and i t s r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y vfc'2/h. The values of b o t h •h"' and
Sïï^/h increase r a p i d l y w i t h Fr and reach maximum near the critical-

-ho-
depth, i . e . F r = l , and then decrease w i t h Fr i n t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l f l o w .
Such a s o - c a l l e d resonant hehaviour near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h may be
due t o an i n a c t i v e motion, as mentioned l a t e r .
By the way, t h e equation o f f r e e surface p a t t e r n can be l i n e a r l y
approximated and i n r e s u l t i t becomes
2
a%' F SH' IF *RS NS dk' 2s dk'
i i _ gpt) — 2B —- — ( —- ) - =0 (4-23)
V P T 2 2
dx U H dxdt K
U j dt h d x Uh m dt >

where, S i s t h e bed slope, 3 i s t h e Boussinesq c o e f f i c i e n t and N i s

the h y d r a u l i c exponent ( N= 7/ 3 + ( l + 2 h/B)' 1
,B i s t h e channel w i d t h ) .
Assuming n =B-exp t (**-wt) and o>s kr +w iZ (4-24),

(It.23) gives / (N- 2 p ) ( i - f ' ( f i - 2fi*+

r

y u
where, J »~ * .
So, t h e existence c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e small amplitude wave o f (h.2h)
are given by <6 = yv/ 2. 4=2/)-N/2 (4-26) 4 - fi± J^p- 1) + j F * (4-27)

On t h e o t h e r hand, e l i m i n a t i n g 4> from (H.23) and {h.2h),

»h SUk) 2
F W - ^ + 4 * ) - 4
— — (4'28)
u
m 8 2
(kk) F 2
[fi(2fi-\)F +\) 2
+ S*

Consequently, denoting /? =e
r 2)* +fi-fin)-*- (4-29) ,

the wave o f (U.21+) becomes s t a b l e f o r F <FR T C , and u n s t a b l e f o r

F >F
r r,c. F i g . 1+.15 shows a diagram o f existence and s t a b i l i t y o f
the small disturbances, t h a t i s , t h e curves o f (U.26), (U.27) and
(U.29) using B=1.02 and N=10/3- From t h i s diagram, t h e c r i t i c a l -
l 2
depth f l o w (the. c e l e r i t y 4> o f i t s wave i s zero, i . e . £ =/?" ' = i from r

(U.27)) becomes s t a b l e because Fr,c=1.6. Unfortunately, t h i s

small amplitude t h e o r y cannot e x p l a i n t h e resonant behaviour i n
Fig. h.lh. W e l l , i t has been observed since Boussinesq t h a t t h e
'undular h y d r a u l i c j u m p ' - l i k e surface wave o c c u r r e d near t h e c r i t i c a l
depth f l o w . So, such a low-frequency u n d u l a t i o n may have a s t r o n g
c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e i n a c t i v e p a r t o f t u r b u l e n c e , which w i l l be
i n v e s t i g a t e d furthermore.
Also, we examined t h e r a t i o o f t h e surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n energy

-1*1-
 to the t u r b u l e n t energy, i . e . Q= — (4.30)
ƒ * ( / . / 2 ) ? dy

31)
Applying ( I t . 7 ) , (*t.30) y i e l d s a
= {-^) ' JJ\—) U
*

As shown i n F i g . l+.ll+, the v a r i a t i o n o f fi vs. Fr i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t

of t h e surface-wave fluctuation intensity. And, we understand
t h a t the surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n energy becomes i n same order o f
the t u r b u l e n t energy near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h f l o w .

Next, t h e s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n
was done by making use o f t h e F.F.T. method (the sample s i z e N was
chosen N=lt096), and i t s raw r e s u l t s were smoothed by a d i g i t a l
2
t r i a n g u l a r f i l t e r , and then they were normalized by h' .
Consequently, these a n a l y s i s o f t h e frequency spectrum F ( f ) s a t i s f i e d
w i t h i n e r r o r s o f 2-3% t h e normalized c o n d i t i o n t h a t f
[ F(f)df=l •
J 0
Now, these r e s u l t s o f F ( f ) are shown i n F i g . h.16 as a parameter
o f Fr. When Fr i s so small as(T) or .2'' shown i n F i g . U.l6, F(f)
has an e v i d e n t peak a t f = 2 - 3 (Hz), and f o r f > f , i t seems t o
m m

s a t i s f y t h e -5 power u n i v e r s a l law o b t a i n e d by t h e wind-wave t h e o r y ,

that i s : F { f ) = a ( J ^ n (4. 32)

Such a good agreement w i t h a u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n o f {h.32) may be

due t o the a c t i v e p a r t ( c f . F i g . It. l i t ) , w i t h increase o f Fr (
( D •> (5) > ( D ) •> "the energy t r a n s f e r from t h e h i g h e r frequency i n t o t h e
lower one occurs remarkably, and consequently t h e lower frequency
p a r t o f F ( f ) becomes more dominant near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h f l o w .
On t h e other hand, i n t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow(lê), 7 , 8 ) , the
h i g h e r frequency p a r t o f F ( f ) becomes more dominant again. Hence,
t h i s f a c t suggests s t r o n g l y t h a t a lower frequency u n d u l a t i o n occurs
r e a l l y near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h and thus t h a t i t s f l o w i s dominated
by t h e i n a c t i v e p a r t , as p o i n t e d out p r e v i o u s l y .

4.5.2 Analysis of wall-pressure fluctuations

A pressure t a p o f 1mm diameter was set f l u s h on t h e smooth bed
i n t h e center o f t h e channel and i t s w a l l - p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n p was

-1+2-
measured by using a gauge-type pressure t r a n s d u c e r . The h y d r a u l i c
conditions o f t h i s experiments (Group P) are i n d i c a t e d i n Table h.2.
F i g . U.1T shows t h e i n t e n s i t y p'^vp" " o f w a l l - p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a -
2

t i o n and i t s r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y p'/P (P=pgh, see (2.h)). The v a r i -

1
a t i o n o f p vs. Fr i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e surface-wave f l u c t u a t i o n
intensity. That i s , p' shows an evident maximum near t h e c r i t i c a l -
depth. By t h e way, t h e dominant terms o f t h e pressure equation
are given by ? 2 /_/l\ _ = 2 gj^jj ...(4.33)

where, V i s t h e dimensionless L a p l a c i a n by h.
I f t h e t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i s dominated by t h e a c t i v e p a r t , t h e u n i -
+
v e r s a l expressions o f u =fin.( f . * , ) and v*fV = D -expO f ) , become v a l i d , m t

and consequently t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n i s a l s o o b t a i n e d
from ( U . 3 3 ) : P'/ u>
fi = '/x
P 0 = c(c, R,) (4-34)

J
Or, A = / ' ( _ i ) . ( 0 .fl.)= fun. ( 7 i , ) - f
r G r (4.35)
m

Although t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U* i n t h i s experiments was e v a l u a t e d

from (U.6), i t c o u l d be concluded from F i g . U.l8 t h a t i t s values
were f a i r l y accurate (a t h i c k l i n e i n F i g . U.l8 i s given from ( 2 . 7 ) ,
as f o l l o w s : U, ( cm/sec) = k ' , i = {f/2ylH)vR,)>l 3
U-36)

Now, F i g . h.17 a l s o shows t h e values o f P'/TO using t h i s fric-

t i o n v e l o c i t y U^. As Fr i n c r e a s e s , p'/to deviates g r a d u a l l y from
a u n i v e r s a l value G(0,R ) and reaches maximum a t F r - 0 . 8 .
e For Fr >
0.8, p'/xo decreases monotonously w i t h Fr and approaches again t o
G(0,R ) a t F r ^ 2 . 5 -
e This f a c t confirms t h a t such a d e v i a t i o n from
G(0,R ) may be caused by t h e i n a c t i v e p a r t whose c o n t r i b u t i o n i s
e

most remarkable near t h e c r i t i c a l - d e p t h , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e side o f

s u b c r i t i c a l range. A l s o , i t has been recognized r e a l l y t h a t t h e
u n i v e r s a l value G(0,R ) c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e a c t i v e p a r t was a f u n c t i o n
e

o f o n l y t h e Reynolds number. For example, according t o t h e Corcos

i+
(196U)' data (see F i g . 8.10), p'/T =G(0,R )=2.5 a t Re=3xl0 . 0 e

A c t u a l l y , our data o f p'/xo i n t h e open-channel f l o w where | F r - l | i s

l a r g e and thus t h e a c t i v e p a r t i s dominant, t e n d t o approach t o t h i s
u n i v e r s a l value.
 Next, t h e frequency spectra o f w a l l - p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s were
obtained i n t h e same manner as 4 . 5 . 1 , and they were shown i n F i g . h.19-
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e resonant phenomenon o f t h e diaphragm i n t h e p r e -
ssure transducer occurred a t about 5 Hz, and consequently these spec-
t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s were q u i t e i n a c c u r a t e . However, t h e values o f
spectra i n f <5 Hz may be r e l i a b l e , and so F i g . h .19 shows c l e a r l y
t h a t t h e lower-frequency p a r t o f F ( f ) becomes more dominant near t h e
c r i t i c a l - d e p t h (ex. ( 5 ) , ( 6 ) ) , as s i m i l a r t o F i g . h.l6. This f a c t
a l s o i n d i c a t e s e v i d e n t l y t h e existence o f t h e i n a c t i v e motion near
the c r i t i c a l - d e p t h .
I—I
4.6 S p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n and
characteristic eddy-scale *) gj
4.6.1 Wave-number s p e c t r u m o f e a c h v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t
Since i t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o measure d i r e c t l y t h e wave-number
spectrum S(k) i n t r o d u c e d i n Chapter 2, S(k) must be even now e s t i -
mated from t h e frequency spectrum F ( f ) by a p p l y i n g t h e Taylor's p
f r o z e n - t u r b u l e n c e h y p o t h e s i s , i . e . 8A/at=-u dA/a* (4-37)
- -
, where A i s t h e t r a n s f e r a b l e quantity. As i t s a p p l i c a t i o n c r i t e r i o n
, Lin(l953) gave t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s :
2 2 2
{du/dt) /{u (du/dx) } = 5(u.'/uy- (4-38) and | „ du/a | < \u du/a*|
y (4'39)

(k.38) i s s a t i s f a c t o r y w i t h e r r o r s o f 5% i n t h e r e g i o n o f £ >0.1
f o r t h e smooth bed since u'/U <0.1 (see F i g s . U.8-U.10).
Next, a p p l y i n g t h a t u/u =C' mai
1
and Ljk=ST (see 4 . 6 . 4 ) , (U.39)
becomes ky>(l/7) o r u >(7/f)^
X (4 . 40)

Judging from (U.38) and (U.Uo), t h e v a l i d i t y o f (h.3l) may become

worse close t o t h e w a l l . However f o r t u n a t e l y , according t o many
recent researches c i t e d by Monin e t a l . ( l 9 7 5 ) , t h e f r o z e n - t u r b u l e n c e
approximation (H.37) may be a p p l i c a b l e f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y except f o r
the p r o d u c t i v e subrange, i . e . kLx <1. Then, t h e f o l l o w i n g trans¬
f o r m a t i o n can be a p p l i c a b l e : SCt) = lU/2n) • , k=2n//u (4«4i)
Now, F i g . 1|.20 shows an example o f s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s S ( k )
of each v e l o c i t y component which were estimated by u s i n g ( U . i l l )
*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Proc. of JSCE, No.241,
pp.155-168, 1975.
-hh-

i
from F ( f ) o b t a i n e d i n the same manner (F.F.T. method) as F i g . k.l6.
Judging from t h i s f i g u r e , t h e sampling number N was reasonably chosen
N=4096. F i r s t l y , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of S (k) satisfys f a i r l y w e l l
u

the r e s u l t s summarized i n Table 2.1. Since the Reynolds number Re

i s comparatively s m a l l , the i n e r t i a l subrange may be so narrow ( c f .
(2.52)) as t o detect i t s existence o r t h e l o c a l i s o t r o p y e x a c t l y .
However, the -5/3 power law i s r e a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e c o g n i z e d ,
and thus the phenomenological model o f F i g . 2.9 becomes here a p p l i -
cable. Although the observed values i n t h e lower frequency spectrum
may not be conclusive because o f t h e a n a l y t i c l i m i t a t i o n of (U.HO),
they agree f a i r l y w e l l w i t h the Karman's i n t e r p o l a t e d f o r m u l a (2.48).
And t h u s , we could not here detect t h e m u l t i - s t r u c t u r e o f spectrum,
i . e . t h e occurrence o f a few kinds o f cascade process among t h e diffe-
r e n t scales, whose occurrence has been r e p o r t e d i n t h e f i e l d
experiments such as t h e atmospheric t u r b u l e n c e , t h e ocean o r r i v e r
turbulence. This may be due t o only a s i n g l e i n f l u x o f e x t e r n a l
energy, i . e . an o r d e r - s c a l e o f Lx or h(mean-velocity s c a l e ) : see
Fig. 2.9.
Next, as t o S ( k ) and S ( k ) , an evident existence o f t h e
v w -5/3
power law cannot be recognized i n F i g . 4.20. Now, S ( k ) or S ( k )
v w

f o r a s m a l l - s c a l e eddy (kL »l)

x c a l c u l a t e d from each power law
of S ( k ) i n Table 2.1 by u s i n g (2.42) i s given by a d o t t e d l i n e i n
u

Fig. 4.20. Compared w i t h t h e observed v a l u e s , i s o t r o p y can be

recognized i n the viscous subrange, as p r e d i c t e d i n Chapter 2.

4.6.2 S p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n n o r m a l i z e d by L x

I n order t o i n v e s t i g a t e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y the s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u -
tions on the d i f f e r e n t f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , i t i s necessary t o normal-
ize them by a s u i t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c scale. As t h i s s c a l e ,
L (macro-scale) or ri(micro-scale) i s u s u a l l y chosen.
x Here, we
adopted Lx because of an easy comparison w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u -
l t s obtained i n 2.3.
Now, assuming t h a t (2.48) i s v a l i d up t o k=0, we can o b t a i n
L =(x/2)S (0)
x U (4-42)
 However, f o r t h e p r e s e n t , (k.k2) i s considered t o he a rough esti-
mate because o f (4.40). And, a l l t h e analyzed r e s u l t s were p l o t t e d
by making use o f X-Y p l o t t e r i n t h e computer c e n t e r , i n t h e manner
as described i n F i g . 4 . 2 1 .
F i g . 4.22 shows t h e s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t t h e t y p i c a l mea-
sured p o i n t s o f each r e g i o n f o r t h e smooth bed. Since R# ^Ej_ i s
n e a r l y equal t o 500, t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve c a l c u l a t e d w i t h RL=500
in 2.3.2 i s d e s c r i b e d by a t h i c k l i n e i n F i g . 4 . 2 2 . Although t h e
e f f e c t o f t h e n o i s e i n v o l v e d may appear i n t h e h i g h e r wave-number
p a r t o f i - i ^ 7 o J t h i s observed s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s show a u n i v e r -
x

s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and agree w e l l w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve t h r o u g h -

out t h e subranges. The r e s u l t s f o r t h e rough bed shown i n F i g .
4.23 are a l s o s i m i l a r t o those f o r t h e smooth bed. I n t h i s manner,
a l l t h e r e s u l t s f o r t h e l o w e r - v e l o c i t y group, i . e . (c)-group i n Table
4 . 1 showed a good agreement w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve.
Next, F i g . 4 . 2 4 shows t h e s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s near t h e w a l l
(£=0.l8) and near t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e ( £ = 0 . 7 5 ) f o r t h e h i g h e r - v e l o c i t y
group, i . e . (b)-group i n Table 4 . 1 . Although t h e observed values
f a l l on a u n i v e r s a l curve i r r e s p e c t i v e o f F r , t h e y i n d i c a t e some
systematic d e v i a t i o n from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve c a l c u l a t e d w i t h
R =2000.
L But, since t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e -5/3 power law i s s t i l l
recognized, t h e above d e v i a t i o n may be due t o t h e i n a c c u r a t e v a l u e
of L j . So, we c o r r e c t t h e value o f L x i n the following.
From ( 2 . 4 7 ) , r„= c( < L j u ' * ) * = (S (t)//.,)-< kLj*
1
tt (4. 43)

From (2.50), r< „ c ( . ^ _

(4«44)

I f t h e value o f L x i s a c c u r a t e , Ym must c o i n c i d e w i t h Y t -
So, i f t h e value Ym measured from F i g . 4 . 2 4 i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e
s
t h e o r e t i c a l value y t > ^x i - c o r r e c t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g so t h a t Ym
:
coincides w i t h Y t L &l -
x m lr /rj**
t (4-45)

By t h e way, w h i l e C i s n e a r l y equal t o 0.5 ( c f . F i g . 2.10), K i s a

f u n c t i o n o f RL as shown i n F i g . 2.11. From F i g . 4.25 which r e -
p l o t t e d t h e v a r i a t i o n o f K, we o b t a i n a s i m p l y approximated f u n c t i o n :
K= K„ + 3 . 9 8 ^ - V » , K m = 0.691 (4*46)

-46-
 Now, t h e s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s normalized by u s i n g L x corrected
i n t h i s manner (see F i g . 4.21) a r e r e p l o t t e d i n F i g . 4.26. Actually,
such c o r r e c t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n s show a good agreement w i t h t h e t h e o r e -
t i c a l curves w i t h RL=1000 or 2000 i n t h e i n e r t i a l subrange whose
observed values are most r e l i a b l e . And, (a)-group i n Table h.l
a l s o showed t h e s i m i l a r r e s u l t s .
To sum up, a l l these data have confirmed t h a t t h e i n e r t i a l sub-
range where t h e -5/3 power l a w was v a l i d had t h e u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e Reynolds, t h e Froude numbers and t h e w a l l
roughness.

4.6.3 Local isotropy and d i s s i p a t i o n spectrum

F i g . 4.27 ( a ) and ( b ) show t h e spectrum S ( k ) f o r t h e smooth and
v

the rough beds, r e s p e c t i v e l y . S ( k ) as w e l l as S ( k ) becomes

v u

universal f a i r l y well when i t i s normalized by L . X The agreement

w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve o b t a i n e d i n 2.3 i s v e r y good i n t h e range
of l - *>30
x f o r t h e smooth bed and l - k>20 x f o r t h e rough bed.

This f a c t suggests t h a t t h e i s o t r o p i c r e l a t i o n , i . e . a l o c a l i s o t r o p y
may be f a i r l y v a l i d i n t h e viscous subrange and t h a t t h e tendency
toward i s o t r o p y may be a l i t t l e s t r o n g e r f o r t h e rough bed t h a n t h e
smooth bed. This suggestion may not be c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e r e s u l t s
o b t a i n e d i n 4.3 (e.g. F i g . 4 . 6 ) .
Next, a l t h o u g h t h e spectrum S ( k ) o f t h e Reynolds s t r e s s
u v i s zero
f o r any wave-number k i n t h e s t r i c t l y i s o t r o p i c t u r b u l e n c e , i t i s
e s s e n t i a l t o s (t)*o
uv i n t h e shear f l o w . F i g . 4.28 shows t h e co-
spectra S ( k ) o f -üv o b t a i n e d by F.F.T. method.
u v Though t h e r e a r e
f a i r l y l a r g e s c a t t e r s i n t h e observed v a l u e s , i t can be recognized
t h a t S ( k ) becomes smaller t h a n S ( k ) i n t h e range o f L -k>30 .
u v u x

This r e s u l t a l s o suggests t h a t t h e tendency toward i s o t r o p y appears

i n t h i s viscous subrange.
L a s t l y , t h e d i s s i p a t i o n spectrum D (k) s k*s (k) i s shown i n F i g . 4.29
u u

, t o g a t h e r w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves. Up t o t h e i n e r t i a l subrange
(the i n c r e a s i n g p a r t o f D (*)-*'/!>), t h e observed values agree v e r y w e l l
u

w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve. And a l s o , i n t h e viscous subrange

-hi-
 an agreement "between t h e b o t h i s comparatively good although t h e data
i n t h i s range may be l i t t l e accurate.

4.6.4 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c e d d y - s c a l e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s
F i g . 4 . 3 0 shows t h e macro-scale L x evaluated from (k.k2) and i t s
c o r r e c t e d value L by u s i n g ( 4 . 1 + 5 ) , which were measured by a s i n g l e -
x

sensor h o t - f i l m . McQuivey et a l . ( l 9 6 9 ) a l s o evaluated L x from

(4.1+2), w h i l e Raichlen(l96T) evaluated i t on a b a s i s o f t h e Dryden's
formula, i . e . Sji) = ( 2 i > ) . { i +(
v t ) t, ( 4 > 4 ? )

The both methods are almost i d e n t i c a l . Evidently, the scatters

i n the c o r r e c t e d values L^- are very l e s s than those i n t h e values L . x

From t h i s f i g u r e , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s are o b t a i n e d i r r e s p e c t i v e
k=B
o f F r :
Ljh = B-t+ , (f<0.6) (4.48) , U > - (f^0.6) (4-49)

where, the u n i v e r s a l constants B and B3 are b o t h n e a r l y equal t o u n i t y .

And, they c o n f i r m t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n 2.4.
Fig. l+.3l(a) shows t h e data measured by a dual-sensor hot-film,
and o f course they agree v e r y w e l l w i t h t h e data measured by a s i n g l e
one. Consequently, t h e data v e r y close t o t h e w a l l can be comple-
mented by u s i n g a single-sensor h o t - f i l m . Now, t h e e f f e c t o f rough-
ness upon L was i n v e s t i g a t e d i n F i g . l + . 3 l ( b ) .
x As expected p r e v i o u s -
l y , t h i s e f f e c t appears e v i d e n t l y near t h e w a l l o f ^ < 0.1. We(l9T5)
has already confirmed t h a t t h e data o f s a t i s f i e d w e l l (2.65) and
then gave A2 =31 ( f o r smooth bed) and 20 ( f o r rough bed). Such a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t L^. decreases w i t h enlargement o f t h e roughness
have also already r e p o r t e d by Engelund(l969), A n t o n i a e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) 5

Chen e t a l . ( l 9 T 4 ) and o t h e r s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e roughness

e f f e c t becomes weaker over t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , and then i t i s
considered t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n s (1+.1+8) and (4.I+9) are s a t i s -
factory i n t h i s region. Since t h e t u r b u l e n t d i s s i p a t i o n th/u* i s
expressed by t h e u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n 0(f) i r r e s p e c t i v e o f even t h e
roughness as p o i n t e d out l a t e r , (2.50) becomes

Ljh = K- ( . / / { / , ) > . <Z> - ' ( f ) (4.50)

From ( U . 7 ) , (I,/A)A--' i s f i n a l l y a function of only Consequently,

adopting B=1.0 f o r t h e higher v e l o c i t y group, then (1+.1+6) gives

-1+8-
B = 1 . 1 f o r t h e lower v e l o c i t y group. These r e s u l t e x p l a i n s w e l l
the v a r i a t i o n s i n F i g s . 4.30 and 4.31 ( o r see F i g . 4.34).
c a n t e
Next, t h e micro-scale A x d e f i n e d as x s u' / J(du/dxV
x evaluated
from t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e methods.
(1) Spectrum method : Evaluation from the dissipation spectrum D (k), u

i.e. *.=> [f ~Djk)dkj -V* .

k

(2) Probability method : Evaluation from the r.m.s.-value of du/dt

(or Au/AtJ by using (4.37).
(3) Zero-crossing method : Assuming that u and du/U are independent
Gaussian, X x is evaluated from \x= U/W, where N is the count
number of the zero-crossing (i.e. u=0).
The s u p e r i o r i t y among t h e i r methods has heen already examined i n our
previous p a p e r ( l 9 7 5 ) , and consequently t h e spectrum method was adopted
here. F i g . 4.32 (a) and (b) show t h e micro-scale A x observed i n t h e
higher and the lower v e l o c i t y groups, r e s p e c t i v e l y . From ( 2 . 5 2 ) ,
{h.l) and (4.U8), t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n i s obtained:

c
• f - ( f ) - ' - y s s
4
As f o r t h e higher v e l o c i t y group (Re - 3 x l 0 ) , approximating t h a t A =A X

( t h i s approximation i s f a i r l y v a l i d since t h e l o c a l i s o t r o p y may e x i s t

i n t h e viscous subrange, see 4 . 6 . 3 ) , t h e curve o f ( 4 . 5 l ) c a l c u l a t e d
w i t h B=1.0 and R#=l600 i s shown i n F i g . 4.32 ( a ) . B u t , our observed
data d e v i a t e over i n p a r a l l e l from t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l curve. This i s
caused by a f a c t t h a t t h e s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s i n t h e viscous subrange
could be h a r d l y done f o r t h e higher v e l o c i t y group as shown i n F i g .
4.26. The d e v i a t i o n i n t h e Raichlen's(1967) data may be a l s o due
1
to t h i s reason. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e L a u f e r s ( 1 9 5 4 ) data i n a i r
f l o w are close t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve because he s u f f i c i e n t l y o b t a i n -
ed t h e d i s s i p a t i o n spectrum up t o t h e f a i r l y h i g h e r frequency, i . e .
4
foo=5-T kHz. As f o r t h e lower v e l o c i t y group (Re ^ l x l O ) , t h e observec
values obtained by author and McQuivey e t a l . ( l 9 6 9 ) show a comparative-
l y good agreement w i t h (4.51) using B = l . l and R*=600 since t h e i r d i s s i -
p a t i o n spectra were a n a l i z e d up t o t h e viscous subrange (see F i g . h.29)•
S t i l l , t h e b e t t e r agreement w i t h t h e observed data i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e

-49-
 r e g i o n i s o b t a i n e d i f (4.49) i s reasonably used i n s t e a d o f (U.48)
i n (U.51). To sum up, i t should be n o t i c e d t h a t t h e m i c r o - s c a l e X x

s a t i s f y s f a i r l y v e i l t h e 1/3 pover l a v , i . e . Jh = cir l

/s
(. )
4 52

v h i l e t h e macro-scale L x s a t i s f y s t h e 1/2 pover l a v .

Next, t h e values o f L / X are shovn i n F i g . U.33.
x x (2.52) and
(4.46) y i e l d 1 rjjr pr
= = u + 3 9 8 )
1 yir yif - - ^ ^ •
The observed values f o r t h e l o v e r v e l o c i t y group are close t o the
t h e o r e t i c a l curve (4.53), v h i l e those f o r t h e h i g h e r v e l o c i t y group
deviate b e l o v from t h i s curve since X x vas overestimated.
L a s t l y , t h e r e l a t i o n s among t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c eddy scales L , X x x

and n are shovn i n F i g . 4.34. That i s , from [h.l) and (4.U8),

R /Rt=2.ZST
L exp(-f) (4-54) ,
and from ( 2 . 4 4 ) , . , / /

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c scale decreases monotonously v i t h decrease o f y/h

due t o the v a i l r e s t r a i n t . I t i s recognized t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f the
v a i l r e s t r a i n t may become veaker f o r t h e s m a l l e r - s c a l e , and consequentl;
L , X and n y i e l d t h e 1/2,
x 1/3 and ( l A - l / 6 ) pover l a v s , respectively.
Another n o t i c e a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h a t the r a t i o o f macro-scale t o
micro-scale becomes l a r g e r as t h e Reynolds number R # or R L i s larger
(compare t h e curves o f R*=600 and l600 i n F i g . 4.34). This means
t h a t the i n e r t i a l subrange e x i s t s more v i d e as t h e Reynolds number i s
larger. Hovever, j u d g i n g from F i g . 4.34, t o the e x t e n t o f t h e
Reynolds number i n our experiments, b o t h L ^ A and X/n are a t most i n
one o r d e r , vhere t h e s t r i c t e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i n e r t i a l subrange cannot
be expected as p o i n t e d out p r e v i o u s l y .

4.7 T u r b u l e n t e n e r g y budget i n o p e n - c h a n n e l f l o w
4.7.1 T u r b u l e n t e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n
We (1975) have already examined the s u p e r i o r i t y among t h r e e k i n d s
o f the e v a l u a t i o n method o f d i s s i p a t i o n e proposed i n 2.3.3.
To be b r i e f , t h e accurate values o f L x and X x cannot be e a s i l y o b t a i n e d
, especially i n very l a r g e Reynolds number, as have been p o i n t e d out
i n F i g s . 4.30 and 4.32. Consequently, both (A) and (C) methods seem

-50-
t o "be rough e s t i m a t i o n . On the o t h e r hand, because t h e -5/3 power
law was recognized c l e a r l y i n every s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n (see 4 . 6 ) ,
i t can be concluded t h a t t h e (B)-method, i . e . (2.1+7), i s most r e l i a -
ble. This c o n c l u s i o n i s a l s o g i v e n by Grant e t a l . ( l 9 6 2 ) , Bradshaw
(1967), Lawn(1971) and o t h e r s .
Now, F i g . 1+.35 (a) and (b) show t h e dimensionless d i s t r i b u t i o n s
o f t u r b u l e n t energy d i s s i p a t i o n eh/U^ e v a l u a t e d from (2.1+7) f o r t h e
higher and lower v e l o c i t y groups, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The observed values
of eh/uj i n both groups i n d i c a t e a s i m i l a r v a r i a t i o n , t h a t i s a u n i -
v e r s a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e Reynolds, t h e Froude numbers
and t h e w a l l roughness. Above a l l , i t should be n o t i c e d t h a t the
e f f e c t of roughness upon eh/lkj i s much smaller than upon u'/U o r L /h. # x

W e l l , t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n s were given i n Chapter 2:

"/u* = AAy+)-> (wall region) (2.61+)

«*/£/,'= c,(i - f ) 0 f-> (equilibrium region) (2.78)
s
a/i/, = B,( f + B,) (free-surface region)(2.70)
The curve o f (2.78) w i t h Ci=3.0 i s shown by a t h i n l i n e (2) i n F i g .
1+.35» and r e a l l y i t agrees w e l l w i t h t h e observed values i n the e q u i -
librium region. A l s o , t h e curve o f (2.70) w i t h Bi=5 and B =0.1 2

shows a good agreement w i t h the observed values i n the f r e e - s u r f a c e

region. Although t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s i n Chapter 2 are v a l i d
i n t h i s manner, i t i s more d e s i r a b l e t o o b t a i n t h e o v e r a l l u n i v e r s a l
f u n c t i o n o f ch/U^ from t h e same reason as t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o v e r a l l
s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n 2.3.2. For t h i s purpose, by u s i n g (1+.7)
as u'/U and (1+.1+8) as L /h, we can o b t a i n from (2.50)
# x

B i s equal t o 1.0 and 1.1 f o r t h e h i g h e r v e l o c i t y group(R =l600) and #

the lower one (R*=600), r e s p e c t i v e l y . K ( R L ) i s determined from

(1+.1+6) and (I+.5I+), and then t h e curve o f (I+.56) i s i n d i c a t e d by a t h i c k
l i n e ( I ) i n F i g . 1+.35- Throughout t h e f l o w f i e l d except f o r very
near the w a l l , (U.56) coincides v e r y w e l l w i t h t h e observed values.
Moreover, the curves o f (I+.56) f o r b o t h groups become n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l

-51-
 because o f the small v a r i a t i o n o f K vs. R L (see F i g . 2.11), and t h i s
3
shows the independence o f the d i s s i p a t i o n eh/U # on the Reynolds number
, as mentioned above.
Next, F i g . U.36 shows the dimensionless d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f d i s s i p a -
+
t i o n e Eev/u£ i n the w a l l r e g i o n . Although we here could not obtain
the data i n the viscous sublayer, Laufer(l954) succeeded i n the measu-
+
rement very near the w a l l i n a i r p i p e f l o w , i . e . y <10, and hence h i s
data are r e p l o t t e d i n F i g . 4.36. The observed values o f e +
also
show w e l l a universal characteristic. That i s , they a t t a i n the
maximum near the sublayer edge Ó+-10, and then decrease monotonously
w i t h increase o f y+. The t h e o r e t i c a l curves o f (4.56) and (2.78)
are i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 4.36 by s o l i d l i n e s ( l ) and J ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The observed values show a b e t t e r agreement w i t h (2.78) than (it. 56)
+
because (It. 7) o r (It.56) becomes i n a p p l i c a b l e near the w a l l o f y <50
as mentioned i n 4.3.3. On the o t h e r hand, when R* i s very l a r g e /
(2.78) becomes n e a r l y equal t o (2.6k) i n the w a l l r e g i o n , and thus
+
i t i s confirmed t h a t the d i s s i p a t i o n e over the sublayer edge can be
given by (2.6k) o r (2.78), namely the - 1 power law o f y . +
Then,
A! becomes n e a r l y equal t o C^.O.

4.7.2 P r o d u c t i o n and d i f f u s i o n o f t u r b u l e n t e n e r g y
The t u r b u l e n t energy p r o d u c t i o n PEE -üv3u/8y i s e a s i l y o b t a i n e d
from the measured Reynolds s t r e s s and mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
Over the e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , the t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s g i v e n
from (2.1k) and (4.20), as f o l l o w s : W /, 1\
= 1 f U f ) ( 4 5 7 )
77?» l - - - I F 7 " ) " - -
The observed values o f P and i t s t h e o r e t i c a l curve o f (It.57) are
both shown i n Figs. It.38 and It.ho, as mentioned l a t e r .
I t i s necessary f o r the e x p l a n a t i o n o f the t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n
+
mechanism t o i n v e s t i g a t e the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i t s p r o d u c t i o n P EPv/U^
+
i n the w a l l r e g i o n . However, since P i n t h i s r e g i o n could not b * e

measured, only i t s t h e o r e t i c a l curve c a l c u l a t e d from ( 2 . 5 ) , (2.12)

and (2.13) ( a f t e r van D r i e s t ) was p l o t t e d by a broken l i n e (3) i n
F i g . It. 36. The v a r i a t i o n o f P +
is similar to that of e . +

-52-
In d e t a i l , t h e t u r b u l e n t p r o d u c t i o n P, t h e t u r b u l e n t d i s s i p a t i o n e
and t h e d i r e c t - d i s s i p a t i o n E are n e a r l y equal t o each o t h e r a t t h e
+
sublayer edge y ~ 10 ( c f . 2.2.1 or F i g . 2.2). I n t h e sublayer
+
( y < _ 1 0 ) , they show E> e> P, i . e . t h e d e f i c i e n c y o f t u r h u l e n t energy.
+
In t h e b u f f e r l a y e r (10<_ y <_ 3 0 ) , they show P> e, i . e . t h e s u f f i c i e n c y
+
of t u r b u l e n t energy. And, i n t h e l o g r e g i o n ( y > 30, see F i g . 2.15),
they show P- E , i . e . t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e o f t u r b u l e n t energy.
z
Next, we consider t h e t u r b u l e n t energy d i f f u s i o n T = q v/2. r

Although t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between v and w c o u l d n o t be measured i n our

experiments, t h e f o l l o w i n g approximation may be valid,because
2 2
w v- v v according t o Laufer's experimental r e s u l t s :

r S
r i - l = U / 2 + „*) v
l
(4-59)

Fig. 4.37 shows t h e observed values o f T r evaluated from (4.59) f o r

the both groups. Although t h e r e a r e some s c a t t e r s i n t h e data
of F i g . 4.37(a), our data show a u n i v e r s a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s p i t e o f
the wide v a r i a t i o n o f Fr, and t h e y agree w e l l w i t h Lawn's data.
According t o Lawn and a u t h o r , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e Reynolds number upon
T /U# i s a l s o very s m a l l ( Laufer's data may be i n a c c u r a t e i n t h i s
r

respect). On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e e f f e c t o f t h e roughness upon

T /U^ appears e v i d e n t l y near t h e w a l l , as seen i n F i g . k.37(b).
r

That i s , as t h e roughness becomes l a r g e r , t h e maximum value o f Tr

decreases g r a d u a l l y and i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n becomes f l a t t e r . In this
manner, Tr/U^ becomes n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l i n respect o f t h e Reynolds
and Froude numbers, w h i l e i t i s e v i d e n t l y i n f l u e n c e d near t h e w a l l
by t h e roughness. So, because t h e d i f f u s i o n Tr w i l l have a close
connection w i t h t h e t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n mechanism, as p r e d i c t e d i n
2.6, t h e e f f e c t o f t h e roughness upon t h i s mechanism w i l l be i n d e t a i l
i n v e s t i g a t e d i n Chapter 5-
Incidentally, the diffusion T r i n t h e f r e e surface r e g i o n can be
expressed by a u n i v e r s a l f u n c t i o n since t h e roughness e f f e c t may d i s -
appear. Then, from Zagustin's hypothesis and ( 2 . 7 5 ) , we can o b t a i n
 Since Bi=5 and B =0.1 as mentioned i n 4.7.1, (U.60) y i e l d s
2

T /U*
T = f'(5f + l)/2 (4-61)

Of course, (k.6l) s a t i s f y s t h e r e l a t i o n t h a t T= 3Tr/3y= -e i n the free-

surface r e g i o n . The curve o f (k.6l) i s shown hy a s o l i d l i n e (3/
i n F i g . k.31. A c t u a l l y , i t has a good agreement w i t h the observed
values i n t h i s r e g i o n .

4.7.3 T u r b u l e n t e n e r g y budget
Since t h e t u r b u l e n t p r o d u c t i o n P, t h e d i s s i p a t i o n e and t h e d i f f u -
s i o n T= 9T /9y were o b t a i n e d i n t h e previous s e c t i o n , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
r

among them, i . e . t h e t u r b u l e n t energy budget can be considered here.

According t o the t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s i n 2 . 2 , when R^ i s v e r y
l a r g e , t h e t u r b u l e n t energy equation i n the main f l o w r e g i o n i s g i v e n
9 T
by £JL - e A
j . fr \ d,R \

Since i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d i r e c t l y measure t h e pressure energy

d i f f u s i o n R' = 3R/3y, we here e s t i m a t e R' from (k.62), t h a t i s :
R*=P-*-T (4«63)

F i g . 4.38 shows t h e t u r b u l e n t energy budget over t h e smooth bed.

I t i n d i c a t e s the s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as Laufer's r e s u l t s about t h e
pipe f l o w experiments. I n t h e r e g i o n o f £ <0.7, t h e p r o d u c t i o n P
becomes n e a r l y equal t o t h e d i s s i p a t i o n e. Consequently, t h e t r a n s -
p o r t o f k i n e t i c energy T p l a y s only secondary r o l e i n t h e t u r b u l e n c e
behaviours and i s n e a r l y balanced by t h e t r a n s p o r t o f pressure energy
R'. Since f o r £j >0.7 t h e p r o d u c t i o n P and t h e pressure d i f f u s i o n R'
are s c a r c e l y recognized, t h e d i s s i p a t i o n e i s n e a r l y balanced by t h e
t r a n s p o r t o f k i n e t i c energy T.
From (k.62) and these e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s ,
0 = j\p-e)dy = \^P- e)dy + ƒ * (P - j * T dy
' / 1 v 1 > v '

Wall Region Equi. Re. Free-Surface Region

a t i S
^ ' jl>(P-t)dy=\U-T)dy>0 -(4.64)

(h.6k) concludes t h a t t h e energy excess range where P > e e x i s t s

near the w a l l , w h i l e the energy d e f i c i e n c y range where e > P- 0

-54-
e x i s t s near t h e f r e e s u r f a c e . Between two ranges t h e r e e x i s t s
t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e range where t h e energy f l o w s under a dynamically
e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e so t h a t P - e, as already shown i n F i g . 2.13.
By t h e way, from ( 2 . 2 8 ) , t h e t u r b u l e n t energy equation i n t h e
w a l l r e g i o n i s given by Pv _ tv Tv i?v a 1
( 7 \
+ ( 4 6 5 )
u; ~ u; u; 7JJ" ö«
y [ ï U J J *
+
Expanding t h e v e l o c i t y i n a Taylor s e r i e s about y = 0 y i e l d s
n
£-WWAW.\> +«>"> .
S l n c e + i
J(d* /a -y = o.3 and
y AdwVdyV =o.i a c c o r d i n g t o Hinze (1975),
+5
(h.6l) becomes J / 2 U * = 0.05 y + 2
2
+ o( y ) (4-68)
2
Consequently, t h e r a t e v = - 9 ( , ~ / 2 ^ ) / ö
7 y
+i
o f work by t h e viscous stress
becomes n e a r l y equal t o V =-0.1 v e r y close t o t h e w a l l .
T Thus,
Vm i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n must not be n e g l e c t e d because i t i s o f t h e same
order as t h e p r o d u c t i o n P +
or t h e d i s s i p a t i o n e , as seen i n F i g . +
U.36.
F i g . U.39 r e p l o t s t h e t u r b u l e n t energy budget i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n ,
where t h e values o f P, e, T and V T were o b t a i n e d by L a u f e r ( l 9 5 U ) .
P i s roughly balanced by e. The sum o f T and V T i s r o u g h l y balanced
by R'. I n d e t a i l , t h e sublayer ( y <10) +
i s t h e d e f i c i e n c y range
(P < e) o f t h e t u r b u l e n t energy. The b u f f e r l a y e r (10< y < +
30)
i s i t s excess range (P > e ) , and the l o g r e g i o n ( y >30) +
i s i t s equi-
l i b r i u m range (P - e ) , as mentioned p r e v i o u s l y . The excess t u r b u -
l e n t energy i n t h e b u f f e r l a y e r i s t r a n s p o r t e d i n t o t h e sublayer by
t h e pressure d i f f u s i o n (R' < 0), and a l s o i n t o t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n
by t h e k i n e t i c energy d i f f u s i o n (T < 0). Consequently, t h e t u r b u l e n t
budget among them balances i t s e l f .
Next, F i g . h.kO shows t h e t u r b u l e n t energy budget over t h e rough
bed. Although t h i s budget r e l a t i o n over t h e rough bed i s n e a r l y
s i m i l a r t o t h a t over t h e smooth bed, t h e roughness e f f e c t appears
i n t h e d i f f u s i o n terms T and R' near t h e w a l l . Though t h e t u r b u -
lence p r o d u c t i o n mechanism over t h e rough bed i s , a t p r e s e n t , s t i l l
unknown, i t s mechanism may be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t over t h e
smooth bed, since t h e b u f f e r l a y e r ( t h e excess range of t h e t u r b u l e n t
energy) e x i s t s no l o n g e r over t h e rough bed. A clue t o make c l e a r

-55-
 i t s mechanism w i l l be given i n Chapter 5.
L a s t l y , F i g . h.kl shows t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p r o d u c t i o n P
and t h e d i s s i p a t i o n e. Although t h e r e are a l i t t l e s c a t t e r s i n t h e
observed values, t h e values o f |P-e|/e become n e a r l y equal t o 0.2 i n
the e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , and then i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e region they
increase up t o 1 . 0 , i . e . P = 0. The curve (T) i n F i g . h.kl which
was c a l c u l a t e d from (U.56) and ( 4 . 5 7 ) , agrees w e l l w i t h t h e observed
values, and thus i t explains w e l l t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between P and e.

References (Chapter 4)
14) Chen, C K. & Roberson, J. A. : Turbulence in
1) Raichlen, F. : Some turbulence measurements
in water, Proc. of ASCE, EM-2, pp. 73-97, 1967. wakes of roughness elements, Proc. of ASCE,
2) McQuivey, R. S. & Richardson, E. V. : Some H Y - l . p p . 5 3 - 6 7 , 1974.
turbulence measurements in open-channel flow, 15) Antonia, R. A. & Luxton, R. E . : The response
Proc. of ASCE, HY-1, pp. 209-223, 1969. of a turbulent boundary layer to a step change in
surface roughness, J. Fluid Mech., vol.48, pp. 721
3) Imamoto, H . : Hydraulic studies on turbu-
- 761, 1971.
lence in open-channel flow, Doctral thesis
presented to Kyoto University, 1971 (in Japa- 16) Engelund, F. : Dispersion of floating particles
nese). in uniform channel flow, Proc. of ASCE, HY-4,
4) Blinco, P. H. & Partheniades, E : Turbulence pp. 1149-1162,1969.
characteristics in free surface flows over smooth 17) Laufer, J. : Investigation of turbulent flow in a
and rough boundaries, J. Hydraulic Research, two-dimensional channel, NACA, TR-1053, 1951.
vol.9, pp.43-69, 1971. 18) Bremhorst, K.. & Walker, T. B. : Spectral measure-
ments of turbulent momentum transfer in fully
5) Nakagawa, H., Nezu, I. & Ueda, H. : Turbulence of
developed pipe flow, J. Ruid Mech., vol.61,
open channel flow over smooth and rough beds,
pp. 173-186, 1973.
Proc. of JSCE, No.241, pp. 155-168, 1975.
19) Hinze, J. O. : Turbulence (2-nd edi.), McGraw-
6) Townsend, A. A. : Equflibrium layers and wall
Hill, pp.586-770, 1975.
turbulence, J. Fluid Mech., vol.11, pp.97-120,
1961. 20) Corcos, G. M. : The structure of turbulent pressure
field in boundary layer flows, J. Fluid Mech.,
7) Luufer, J. : The structure of turbulence in fully'
vol.18, pp.353-378, 1964.
developed pipe flow, NACA, TR-1174, 1954.
21) Monin, A. S. & Yaglom, A. M. : Statistical fluid
8) Bradshaw, P. ; 'Inactive' motion and pressure
Mechanics, MIT Press, vol.2, pp.337-652, 1975.
fluctuations in turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid
Mech., vol.30, pp.241-258, 1967. 22) Lin, C. C. : On Taylor's hypothesis and the
9) Nakagawa, H. & Nezu, I. : On a new eddy model acceleration terms in the Navier-stokes equation,
in turbulent shear flow, Proc. of JSCE, No.23I, Quar. of Applied Math., vol.x, pp.295-306,
pp.61-70, 1974. 1953.
0) Ljatkher, V. M. : Calculation of spectra of tur- 23) Bradshaw, P. : Conditions for the existence of
bulent pulsations in uniform flows, Proc. of 12-th an inertial subrange in turbulent flow, A.R.C.,
Cong, of IAHR, vol.2, B-3, 1967. R. & M., No.3603, 1967.
24) Grant, H. L . , Stewart, R. W. & MoiUiet, A. :
1) Smuiek, R. : Discussion on 'Measurement of
Turbulence spectra from a tidal channel, J. Fluid
turbulence in water' by Richardson et al., Proc
Mech., vol. 12, pp. 241-268, 1962.
of ASCE, HY-1, pp.519-523, 1969.
25) Townsend, A. A. : The structure of turbulent
2) Monin, A S. & Yaglom, A. M. : Statistical fluid
shear flow, Camb. Univ. Press, 1956.
mechanics, MIT Press, vol.1, pp.257-416, 1971.
26) Lawn, C. J. : The determination of the rate of
3) Grass, A. J. : Structural features of turbulent flow
dissipation in turbulent pipe flow, J. Fluid Mech.,
over smooth and rough boundaries, J. Fluid
vol.48, pp.477-505, 1971.
Mech., vol.50, pp. 233-255, 1971.

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Chapter 5 Experimental consideration on mechanism o f
turbulence production
5.1 Introduction
The physics o f -wall-turbulence have now been e s t a b l i s h e d i n a t
l e a s t a q u a l i t a t i v e sense through experiments and r e f i n e d data analy-
sis, as p o i n t e d out by M o l l o - C h r i s t e n s e n ( l 9 7 1 ) • K l i n e e t al.(1967)
and Kim e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) discovered t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon, i n which
e j e c t i o n s played a predominant r o l e , by making v i s u a l s t u d i e s o f t h e
mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n by t h e hydrogen-bubble technique.
A l s o , Corino & Brodkey(1969) and Grass(1971) found by f l o w v i s u a l i z a -
t i o n t h a t sweeps are prominent near t h e w a l l . This suggests t h a t
sweeps may be as important as e j e c t i o n s f o r t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n .
This was v e r i f i e d by Nychas e t a l . ( l 9 7 3 ) and Offen & K l i n e ( 1 9 7 4 , - 7 5 ) •
On t h e basis o f these q u a l i t a t i v e r e s u l t s , some researchers
(Lu & W i l l m a r t h 1973, Brodkey e t a l . 1974,etc.) have attempted t o
o b t a i n more q u a n t i t a t i v e knowledge about t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Reynolds
s t r e s s , i . e . turbulence p r o d u c t i o n , by u s i n g - p o i n t measurements.
In t h i s chapter, we a l s o e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e t h e mechanism
of turbulence p r o d u c t i o n i n open-channel flows by means o f b o t h c o n d i -
t i o n a l point-measurements and f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n , on t h e basis o f t h e
t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s o f 2.6 and t h e previous r e s u l t s mentioned above

5.2 P r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s of t h e v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s and
the instantaneous Reynolds s t r e s s * )
5.2.1 P r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f v e l o c i t y and
i t s h i g h e r moments
The data p l o t t e d i n F i g . 5-1 are t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t i e s measu-
r e d i n each r e g i o n o f t u r b u l e n t f l o w over a smooth bed. Data were
sampled by d i v i d i n g t h e r e g i o n -3 < ü, v < 3 i n t o 40 c e l l s , where
ü=u/u' and v=v/v'. When t h e skewness f a c t o r S and t h e f l a t n e s s
f a c t o r F are g i v e n , t h e Gram-Charlier d i s t r i b u t i o n (2.96) i s d e t e r -
mined by using t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s from (2.9k):

fto = f „ - 3 H « * - 3 , ' (5-1)

J
Q*=F.-3 = i* - 3

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Jour, of Fluid Mech-.,

vol.80, pp. 99-128, 1977.
 Now, t h e experimental values of S and F f o r u and v are shown i n
F i g . 5.2, t o g e t h e r w i t h data obtained i n a boundary l a y e r by Gupta &
Kaplan(1972) and i n an o i l f l o w by K r e p l i n ( l 9 7 3 , quoted i n Eckelmann
1974). Owing t o the d e f i c i e n c y o f measurements i n the v i c i n i t y o f
the w a l l , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o make a d e f i n i t e remark about the differe-
nce i n t h e values of these q u a n t i t i e s i n f r e e - s u r f a c e f l o w and in
boundary-layer f l o w . But, except f o r the f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n , a good
agreement between the two may be observed. I n the free-surface region
both | s | and |F| have t h e i r maximum v a l u e s , w h i l e t h e y increase mono-
t o n o u s l y i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r o f t h e boundary-layer f l o w . This d i s c r e -
pancy may be due t o the presence o f l a r g e - s c a l e i n t e r m i t t e n c y i n t h e
boundary-layer f l o w .
I t i s noteworthy t h a t S u and S v are almost symmetrical w i t h respe-
+
c t t o each other about t h e a x i s S=0 (Gaussian) f o r any value o f y ,
and change s i g n a t y - 1 0 . +
A l s o , F i g . 5.2 suggests t h a t the Gram-
C h a r l i e r d i s t r i b u t i o n should be taken i n t o account i n b o t h t h e w a l l
and the f r e e - s u r f a c e regions because t h e d e v i a t i o n from t h e Gaussian
d i s t r i b u t i o n becomes l a r g e r i n these regions.
The t h e o r e t i c a l curves o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y given by (2.96)
were c a l c u l a t e d by using the measured values o f S and F ( F i g . 5-2),
and are shown i n F i g . 5.1. Despite some s c a t t e r i n the observed
data, the a c t u a l phenomena can be f a i r l y w e l l e x p l a i n e d by the Gram-
Charlier d i s t r i b u t i o n . Though t h e f o u r t h - o r d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s i n
b e t t e r agreement w i t h the experimental r e s u l t s t h a n the t h i r d - o r d e r
one, the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two does n o t h i n g t o change the essen-
t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n t h e w a l l and equilib-
+
rium regions over the viscous s u b l a y e r , i . e . y >_ 10, the t h i r d - o r d e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n seems t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate. But i t i s b e t t e r t o
consider t h e f o u r t h - o r d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e region,
because t h e d e v i a t i o n from the observed values becomes c o m p a r a t i v e l y
large. Like S u and S , v shown i n F i g . 5.2, the d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f p(u)
and p ( v ) i n d i c a t e n e a r l y symmetrical d e v i a t i o n t o the p o s i t i v e and
negative sides o f the zero a x i s r e s p e c t i v e l y ; p(u) having i t s maximum

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 value on t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e and i t s longer t a i l on t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e ,
and v i c e versa f o r p ( v ) .
The above d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f l o w over t h e smooth bed a p p l i e s
i n t h e case o f t h e rough beds t o o . The values o f t h e f o u r t h - and
f i f t h - o r d e r moments are shown i n F i g . 5-3, as w e l l as t h e data ob-
t a i n e d by Lawn(l97l). I n t h e w a l l and e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n s , t h e
f o u r t h - o r d e r moments h a r d l y d e v i a t e from t h e Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n
and thus t h e t h i r d - o r d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n may be v a l i d i n these regions.
I n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n , however, t h e t h i r d - o r d e r approximation
may y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t e r r o r s because o f a considerable d e v i a t i o n
from t h e Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Judging from F i g . 5-3, t h e f i f t h - o r d e r moment w i d e l y deviates
=
from Gaussian v a l u e , Mso 0. The f o l l o w i n g can be deduced i n t h e
same way as (2.9k): <? = M -10M X (5-2)
The values o f M 50 c a l c u l a t e d from (5-2) by s e t t i n g Q 5 0 equal t o zero
are shown i n F i g . 5.3, and they agree f a i r l y w e l l w i t h t h e observed
values. This i s t h e reason why t h e h i g h e r - o r d e r cumulants can be
neglected as described i n 2.6. Since a l l t h e odd-order moments o f
a Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n are equal t o zero, i t i s suggested t h a t t h e
t h i r d - o r d e r Gram-Charlier d i s t r i b u t i o n should replace t h e Gaussian
one. A l s o , i t seems t h a t i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n t h e f i f t h - o r d e r moment
( i n g e n e r a l , odd-order moments) i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e roughness,
which w i l l be discussed l a t e r i n d e t a i l .

5.2.2 Probability density function of instantaneous Reynolds s t r e s s

The observed values o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n P ( w ) o f w

the Reynolds s t r e s s i n each f l o w r e g i o n are i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5.k,

as an example o f t h e f l o w over a smooth bed. The f l u c t u a t i n g Rey-
nolds s t r e s s w (= uv/üv ) was sampled by d i v i d e d -6 < w < 8 i n t o kO
cells. The sums o f t h e values o f P ( w ) i n t h e ranges w < -6 and
w

w > 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y are p l o t t e d on t h e broken l i n e s i n F i g . 5«4.

Since p ( w ) = 2 p ( w ) as i n d i c a t e d by (2.103) and (2.104), p ( w ) was
w Q v

c a l c u l a t e d by using t h e values o f R given i n F i g . 4.12, and t h e resu-

lting curves are shown as s o l i d l i n e s i n F i g . 5-k. Good agreement

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between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental values was o b t a i n e d ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , and any small discrepancy b e t -
ween t h e two was due t o a l a r g e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h - o r d e r moments
from Gaussian as shown i n F i g . 5.3- Consequently, t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l
p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n p ^ w ) o f Reynolds s t r e s s can be represented
by one d i r e c t l y d e r i v e d from a Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h h i g h accu-
racy, as v e r i f i e d by Lu & ¥illmarth(l9T3) and Antonia & Atkinson(1973).
I t may be noted from F i g . 5.4 t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
values o f uv has a very sharp peak a t v=0 and a v e r y l o n g t a i l exten-
ding t o l a r g e values o f |w| . I n a t h e o r e t i c a l equation p ^ w ) becomes
i n f i n i t e a t w=0 because K (0)= 0
00
and becomes l a r g e r on t h e p o s i t i v e
side o f t h e curve than on t h e negative side because y j _ J ™ ^ (tcjdtossl

Consequently, i t can be suggested t h a t almost a l l o f t h e events

occur w i t h small values o f |w| b u t sometimes an event occurs w i t h a
very l a r g e value o f |w|. Hence, we can conclude t h a t t h e i n s t a n -
taneous Reynolds s t r e s s might have marked i n t e r m i t t e n c y .
I n order t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n d e t a i l , t h e obser-
ved values o f t h e skewness f a c t o r S u v and t h e f l a t n e s s f a c t o r F u v of
w are shown i n F i g . 5-5, t o g e t h e r w i t h data obtained by Antonia &
Atkinson (1973). P r o v i ded t h a t Q jk s 0 for j + k 5, S and F can be
uv uv

evaluated in terms of the lower moments in the same way as in (2.94):

S u v = M M + m M 3
(Mn-B*)* ( ™ <>* i2 n + ( ^ 3 i + -Mia) + 25(522*- 3M 22 + 9)},

F M 16if
uv = f ( i 2 2 ZW» <* + 3i-^13 + 2é(M M 21 03 +M M )
12 30

2 2
+ 18(M + 2M^ + 2M\ ) - 30B M
2 2 22

+ 12B(M + M 31 13 -9 ^ M 12 - M ) - 3(B* + 24B* + 6)}. (5.4)

m

The theoretical values of S uv and F uv were calculated from (5.3) and (5. h) by
using t h e experimental values o f t h e moments as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5-5.
The c a l c u l a t e d values are i n comparatively good agreement w i t h t h e
observed ones. Some o f t h e discrepancy i n t h e F u v (8-th order mom-
ent o f u or v ) diagram may be due t o t h e e r r o r i n t r o d u c e d by neglec-
t i n g t h e h i g h e r - o r d e r cumulants.
As p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t h i r d - o r d e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e f o u r t h - o r d e r one i s n o t l a r g e . Both S u v and
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 F u v show a gradual v a r i a t i o n w i t h y/h up t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n
(that i s , S - -2, Fuv u v = 10-20 i n t h i s r e g i o n ) , s i m i l a r t o t h e d i s -
t r i b u t i o n o f t h e h i g h e r - o r d e r moments shown i n F i g . 5-3, b u t i n t h e
f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n they increase a b r u p t l y and then decrease towards
the surface. Although good agreement between t h e behaviour o f Suv
and Fuv i n open-channel f l o w and i n boundary-layer f l o w can be seen
up t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , some discrepancies s i m i l a r t o those i n
Fig. 5'2 are evident i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n corresponding t o t h e
outer l a y e r . Since t h e absolute values o f Suv and Fuv are compara-
t i t e l y l a r g e i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n , t h e s t r o n g asymmetry and
i n t e r m i t t e n c y i n t h e Reynolds-stress f l u c t u a t i o n s may appear, as
i n f e r r e d from F i g . 5-4.
The e f f e c t o f roughness on Suv and F v seems t o appear o n l y i n t h e
U

w a l l r e g i o n , so t h a t t h e i r values f o r t h e rough beds become smaller

than those f o r t h e smooth bed. This means t h a t t h e p r o f i l e o f t h e
p ( w ) d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t so slender and t h e i n t e r m i t t e n c y o f t h e
w

Reynolds-stress f l u c t u a t i o n s i s smaller i n case o f a rough bed.

5.2.3 Conditional probability distribution of instantaneous

Reynolds s t r e s s
As mentioned i n 2.6, Pw-(w) cannot describe t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
each event s e p a r a t e l y , because some o f t h e terms corresponding t o
d i f f e r e n t events may balance each o t h e r as i n d i c a t e d by (2.10k).
Thus, t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n s p-j_(w) ( i = l - 4 )
expressed by (2.109)-(2.112) should be considered i n order t o discuss
the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f each event t o t h e Reynolds s t r e s s . This can be
done by determining both t h e skewness f a c t o r S and t h e d i f f u s i o n f a c -
t o r D connected w i t h u and v , and t h e i r observed values f o r smooth
and rough beds are shown i n F i g . 5.6, t o g e t h e r w i t h data f o r a pipe
f l o w obtained by Lawn(l9Tl). Although t h e d i f f u s i o n f a c t o r i s sma-
l l e r than t h e corresponding skewness f a c t o r , both curves are q u a l i t a -
t i v e l y s i m i l a r and have t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F i r s t , the
r e l a t i o n between D and Du v resembles t h a t between S and S , f o r exa-
u v

mple t h e Du curve i s almost t h e r e f l e x i o n o f t h e Dy curve i n t h e zero

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 axis. Also, S u < 0, S v > 0 and D u < 0, D v > 0 except i n t h e imme-
diate v i c i n i t y of the w a l l . Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c seen i n F i g . 5.6
i s t h e remarkable e f f e c t o f roughness i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w a l l .
I n case o f t h e smooth bed, S and D b o t h vary so g r a d u a l l y t h a t they
remain n e a r l y constant when y/h i s below t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n .
For a rough bed, t h e absolute values o f S and D decrease towards t h e
w a l l so r a p i d l y t h a t they become zero a t y/h~0.1 and t h e n , changing
s i g n , increase upon approaching t h e w a l l . These trends are shown
by t h e dashed l i n e s i n F i g . 5.6. Since i n t h e middle o f t h e e q u i l i -
b r i u m r e g i o n t h e values o f S and D f o r a rough bed always c o i n c i d e
w i t h those f o r a smooth bed, i t can be concluded t h a t roughness has
an e f f e c t on t h e values o f S and D i n t h i s r e g i o n a t l e a s t .
Although t h e r e i s a c l o s e resemblance between our curves and Lawn's
f o r a smooth bed, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n magnitude over t h e whole depth
between t h e two may be caused by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n data p r o c e s s i n g .
As mentioned by F r e n k i e l & Klebanoff(1967), t h e analog method used by
Lawn cannot be expected t o o b t a i n such accurate values o f t h e h i g h e r -
order moments as t h e d i g i t a l procedure adopted here.
S , D , S~ and D~ can be e v a l u a t e d from (2.115) f o r t h e values o f
+ +

S and D o b t a i n e d above and are shown i n F i g . 5.7. Judging from

(2.115) and t h e symmetry between S u and S , and Du and D
v v i n F i g . 5.6,
+ +
S and D w i l l reduce t o n e a r l y zero, and S~ and D~ w i l l reduce t o
S v and D , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
v The roughness e f f e c t i s marked f o r S~ and
+ +
D~ up t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , w h i l e n e i t h e r S nor D d i s p l a y s
t h i s e f f e c t because o f c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e roughness terms.
I n t h e same manner, F i g . 5.8 shows t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e
h i g h e r - v e l o c i t y group i n Table 4 . 1 ( b ) . From F i g s . 5.7 and 5.8,
the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be o b t a i n e d :
+
(1) j S~j D and D show a close universality irrespective of Fr
and Re.
(2) S~ and D~ near the wall are influenced remarkably by the wall
roughness.
(3) Both S~ and D show a similar variation. Consequently D~/S~ 3

becomes roughly equal to 0.7.

-62-
 + +
(4) Both S and D beoome nearly equal to zero 3 though the approvi-
mation of =0 is worse than that of Pd~.
+ +
Next, by s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values o f S , D , S" and D~ i n t o (2.109)
f
-(2.112) v i t h t h e Bessel f u n c t i o n K ] / ( t ) equal t o (7r/2/)J e~ , t h e con-
2

d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e Reynolds s t r e s s can be ob-

tained. An example o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r each event i s
presented i n F i g . 5-9» The p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e p o i n t
y/h=0.193 i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n over a smooth bed i s represented
i n terms o f | v | p ( v ) . S i m i l a r f i g u r e s have been obtained i n t h e
other regions and f o r rough beds. These t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s agree
very v e i l v i t h t h e observations by Brodkey e t a l . ( l 9 7 4 , F i g . 9 ) .
I n F i g . 5.9 b o t h t h e e j e c t i o n and t h e sveep events e x h i b i t much
l a r g e r values and much l o n g e r t a i l s than t h e i n t e r a c t i o n events, v h i -
ch i m p l i e s t h a t t h e e j e c t i o n and sveep events have much g r e a t e r i n t e -
rmittency. Despite having a s m a l l e r maximum, t h e curve o f t h e e j e c -
t i o n events has l a r g e r values t h a n t h a t o f t h e sveep events beyond
v=5, so t h a t i t may be expected t h a t e j e c t i o n s make t h e g r e a t e s t con-
t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Reynolds s t r e s s . Since |w|pi(v) i s s i m i l a r t o
|v|pit(v) v h i l e |v|p (v) i s s i m i l a r t o | v | p ( v ) , the characteristics
2 3

o f these events mainly depend upon t h e s i g n o f u. This gives t h e o -

r e t i c a l support t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n by Brodkey e t a l . ( l 9 7 M that the
b u r s t i n g process may be governed by t h e f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t y u r a t h e r
than by v. The f a c t t h a t vpi, ( v ) i n F i g . 5.9 takes s m a l l n e g a t i v e
values f o r l a r g e values o f v i s unreasonable, and t h e r e f o r e t h e sveep
events cannot be represented a c c u r a t e l y by (2.112) i n t h i s range o f
v. This n e g a t i v e pi*(v) v o u l d probably be c o r r e c t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g
terms o f h i g h e r than t h i r d order v h i c h have been described e a r l i e r .
Thus t h e discrepancy betveen t h e experimental r e s u l t s and t h e t h e o -
r e t i c a l values p r e d i c t e d by t h e t h i r d - o r d e r approximation v i l l become
l a r g e r near t h e f r e e s u r f a c e , vhere S u v and F u v are l a r g e .

-63-
 5.3 I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f R e y n o l d s s t r e s s a n d
mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n * )
5.3.1 I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f Reynolds s t r e s s
As d e f i n e d i n 2 . 6 , t h e f r a c t i o n o f time Tj_(H) and t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n
to t h e Reynolds s t r e s s RSj_(H) corresponding t o each event i n t h e flow-
over a smooth bed are shown i n F i g s . 5.10 ( a ) , (b) and (c) f o r a t y -
p i c a l p o i n t i n t h e w a l l , e q u i l i b r i u m and f r e e - s u r f a c e regions r e s -
pectively. T h e o r e t i c a l curves were obtained from (2.1l6)-(2.119),
w h i l e our experimental data were analysed by almost t h e same method
of c o n d i t i o n a l sampling as t h a t used by Lu & W i l l m a r t h ( l 9 T 3 ) :
5 5)
T (n) = UmAjr^l (t.H)dt
t T t =-£-.2 {/,('.//)}> <'

T
RSXH)=±r lim ^rf "(') •(»)/,('.//)«" («-(') / , ( ' , / / ) ) , (5-6)

where fl : |a-(/)|>// and t h e p o i n t (u,v) i n t h e i - t h quadrant,

Lo : otherwise

As f o r t h e hole event ( i = 5 ) , T s W = i-Z T,(H) . RS,(n) = \-h Rs (H)

t (5.) 7

I n t h e w a l l r e g i o n ( F i g . 5.10 a) and t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n (
Fig. 5.10 b ) , t h e agreement between t h e experimental data and t h e
p r e d i c t e d values i s f a i r l y good over a wide range o f h o l e s i z e H,
so t h a t i t may be expected t h a t t h e t h i r d - o r d e r p r o b a b i l i t y distri-
b u t i o n represents t h e c o r r e c t p i c t u r e f o r a sequence o f b u r s t i n g
processes. I n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n ( F i g . 5.10 c ) , however, a d i s -
crepancy between t h e two appears f o r l a r g e values o f H, owing t o t h e
neglect o f h i g h e r - o r d e r terms.
Although t h e time occupied f o r H < 1 amounts t o about a h a l f o f
the t o t a l t i m e , t h e corresponding c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Reynolds s t r e s s
i s o n l y a few p e r c e n t , which suggests t h a t w ( t ) has a l a r g e i n t e r -
mittency. Though t h e inward i n t e r a c t i o n shows s l i g h t l y l a r g e r values
than t h e outward i n t e r a c t i o n , they both become n e g l i g i b l y small a t
H -5, and consequently t h e negative c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Reynolds s t r e -
ss disappears. The sweep event decreases r a p i d l y w i t h H and beyond

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Jour, of Fluid Mech.,

vol.80, pp. 99-128, 1977.
-6k-
H -10 only the e j e c t i o n event c o n t r i b u t e s t o the Reynolds stress,
w h i l e the time occupied by t h i s event i s very s h o r t . From t h i s , i t
may be i n f e r r e d t h a t the e j e c t i o n event may a r i s e i n the form o f a
very sharp p u l s e , which agrees w e l l w i t h the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Corino
& Brodkey(1969), Kim et a l . ( l 9 T l ) or Grass(l97l) by means o f f l o w
visualization. The c o r r e l a t i o n s i n magnitude among the f o u r events
are i n v a r i a n t over the whole depth. I n p a r t i c u l a r , the f a c t t h a t
T2 < Ti» and RS 2 > RS4 f o r s m a l l values o f H implies t h a t the e j e c t i o n
event i s more i n t e n s i v e than t h e sweep event i n t h i s range.
A t y p i c a l example of the c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
the Reynolds s t r e s s i n the f l o w over a rough bed i s presented i n F i g .
5.11, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e experimental r e s u l t s . Since t h e roughness
e f f e c t appears predominantly i n the w a l l r e g i o n as i n d i c a t e d i n Chap-
ter k, o n l y the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Reynolds stress i n t h i s r e g i o n i s
discussed here; i t was v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e o t h e r r e -
gions was almost t h e same as t h a t f o r a smooth bed, shown i n F i g . 5-10.
The agreement between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves and the experimental
values i s f a i r l y good. I t i s noteworthy t h a t the r e l a t i o n s between
the magnitudes o f the e j e c t i o n and t h e sweep and between t h e magnitudes
of the inward and t h e outward i n t e r a c t i o n s become t h e reverse o f those
f o r a smooth bed, because o f the negative values o f S~ and D~. This
r e s u l t w i l l be discussed i n d e t a i l l a t e r .

5.3.2 Relative i n t e n s i t y of t h e d i f f e r e n t events

I n order t o describe c l e a r l y the r e l a t i o n between the sequence o f
the b u r s t i n g process and t h e Reynolds s t r e s s , i t i s necessary to
i n v e s t i g a t e the r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y o f each event at H=0. Fig. 5.12
(a) and (b) show the d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f the Reynolds stress contributed
by each event vs. y/h f o r t h e smooth and rough beds respectively.
Experimental r e s u l t s f o r a smooth boundary l a y e r by Lu & W i l l m a r t h (
1973) and f o r a smooth o i l channel by Brodkey et a l . ( l 9 7 4 ) are a l s o
shown. I t i s very i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t the observed values completely
agree w i t h the curves c a l c u l a t e d from (2.118) over the whole depth,
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f the roughness s i z e . This i m p l i e s t h a t the t h e o r e -

-65-
t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n 2.6 may be able t o e x p l a i n t h e b u r s t i n g phe-
nomenon i n some d e t a i l f o r b o t h rough and smooth beds.
I n case o f t h e smooth bed, t h e r e e x i s t s t h e r e l a t i o n e j e c t i o n >
sveep > i n v a r d i n t e r a c t i o n > o u t v a r d i n t e r a c t i o n v i t h i n t h e observed
range o f y/h. The d i f f e r e n c e betveen t h e t v o i n t e r a c t i o n s , however,
+
i s almost n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l , because S ^ 0 on t h e basis o f t h e sym-
metry betveen S u and S v and between and D .v I n the wall region
the i n t e n s i t i e s o f a l l events decrease w i t h i n c r e a s i n g y/h, and good
agreement was o b t a i n e d between our r e s u l t s and those by Brodkey e t a l .
(19TM. Although t h e values o f t h e e j e c t i o n given by Lu & W i l l m a r t h
(1973) agree w e l l w i t h our data, t h e values o f t h e sweep show some
differences. This discrepancy w i l l be discussed l a t e r , w i t h t h e
+
characteristic q u a n t i t i e s i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n represented by a y
parameter.
Next, i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , t h e i n t e n s i t y o f each event i s
n e a r l y constant i r r e s p e c t i v e o f y/h. Since i n t h i s r e g i o n a dynamic
e q u i l i b r i u m e x i s t s between t h e t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n ,
and a s i m i l a r i t y i n t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e e x i s t s independently o f e x t e r -
n a l boundary c o n d i t i o n s ( c f . Chapter U), i t i s expected t h a t t h e b u r -
s t i n g process and t h e accompanying t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n may a t t a i n a
s t a b l e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e i n t h i s r e g i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n almost constant
i n t e n s i t y f o r each event. The r a t e s o f i n t e n s i t y c o n t r i b u t e d by e j e -
c t i o n s and sweeps are about 75% and 60% r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e excess
Reynolds s t r e s s balances t h e sum o f t h e negative r a t e s c o n t r i b u t e d by
the inward and outward i n t e r a c t i o n s . S i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were
v e r i f i e d by p o i n t measurements by Lu & W i l l m a r t h o r Brodkey e t a l . and
by flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n by Corino & Brodkey(1969) or Kim e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) .
In the free-surface r e g i o n t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y o f each event
r a p i d l y increases w i t h y/h. Near t h e f r e e surface b o t h ejections
and sweeps show a p o s i t i v e s t r e s s r a t e o f over 100*. w h i l e t h e n e g a t i -
ve stress brought about by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s increases t o such an e x t e -
nt t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p o s i t i v e s t r e s s and t h e negative
s t r e s s are equal t o t h e n e t Reynolds s t r e s s , whose absolute v a l u e ,

-66-
 however, becomes v e r y s m a l l , i . e . -üv^O.
The r e l a t i o n s between the i n t e n s i t i e s o f each event i n case o f the
rough beds and the smooth bed are almost the same, as shown i n F i g .
5.12 ( b ) , so t h a t we can confirm the o b s e r v a t i o n by Grass(1971) t h a t
both e j e c t i o n s and seeps e x i s t i r r e s p e c t i v e o f the roughness c o n d i t i -
ons. But, i n the range from the w a l l t o the middle of the e q u i l i b -
rium r e g i o n , where the roughness e f f e c t on the t u r b u l e n t structure
appears ( c f . Chapter k), some d i f f e r e n c e s i n the i n t e n s i t y p r o f i l e s
f o r the rough and smooth beds can be observed. I t i s noteworthy
t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o the case o f a smooth bed, the i n t e n s i t y of ejections
decreases towards the w a l l t o become n e a r l y equal t o t h a t o f the sweeps
at y / h - 0 . 1 , and sweeps may become more i n t e n s e than e j e c t i o n s i n the
v i c i n i t y of the w a l l as was observed by Grass(1971) u s i n g the hydrogen
bubble technique. This f a c t t h a t b o t h e j e c t i o n s and sweeps, which
are the predominant events i n the b u r s t i n g phenomenon, may be greatly
a f f e c t e d by the roughness c o n d i t i o n i s v e r y important and w i l l be
discussed i n d e t a i l l a t e r .
I n the same manner, F i g . 5-13 shows the c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o Reynolds
s t r e s s from the d i f f e r e n t events f o r the h i g h e r - v e l o c i t y group ex-
periments. I n s p i t e o f the wide v a r i a t i o n o f Fr, the values o f each
RS^ coincide f a i r l y v e i l w i t h each o t h e r , and also they agree w e l l
w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l curves and the observed values of F i g . 5.12 (a).
Next, the f r a c t i o n s o f time occupied by each event on the smooth
and rough beds are shown i n Figs. 5.14 (a) and (b), respectively,
t o g e t h e r w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l curves c a l c u l a t e d from (2.116).
U n l i k e RSj_, the magnitude o f the f r a c t i o n of t i m e T± s a t i s f i e s the
r e l a t i o n sweep > e j e c t i o n > o u t w a r d - i n t e r a c t i o n >_ i n w a r d - i n t e r a c t i o n .
Also, these r e s u l t s agree very w e l l w i t h those o b t a i n e d by Brodkey et
al.(197*0. Each f r a c t i o n of time i s n e a r l y constant i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
y/h except i n the f r e e - s u r f a c e region, that i s , T 2 or T 4 and Ti or T 3

become roughly equal t o 30% and 20%, respectively. On the o t h e r hand,

the f r a c t i o n s o f time f o r a l l events t e n d t o approach a d e f i n i t e value
on the f r e e surface. I t may be seen from t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c as w e l l

-67-
 as t h a t o f RS-^ t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g process near t h e f r e e surface may
consist o f smoother and more i s o t r o p i c events.
L a s t l y , t h e t u r b u l e n t energy p r o d u c t i o n P=-üv 8U/3y i s p l o t t e d vs.
the flow depth i n F i g . 5«15- The p o s i t i v e and negative time-average
production Pp and P , r e s p e c t i v e l y , are given by
n

Of course, P=Pp-P i s t h e n e t p r o d u c t i o n .
n The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f nega-
t i v e production t o t h e net p r o d u c t i o n i s comparatively s m a l l up t o
the e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , b u t i n t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e r e g i o n i t becomes o f
the same order as t h a t o f t h e n e t p r o d u c t i o n though i t s absolute va-
lue i s very small. I t can be concluded, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e energy
interchange from turbulence t o t h e mean f l o w should n o t be n e g l e c t e d
i n t h e free-surface region. This p r o p e r t y has been suggested by
Hino e t al.(1975) i n an o s c i l l a t i n g pipe f l o w , t o o .

5.3.3 Mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n
and i t s p r e d i c t i o n
Since t h e t u r b u l e n c e occurs almost i n t h e e j e c t i o n and sweep events
and moreover most remarkably near t h e w a l l , we i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o n t r i -
b u t i o n s o f t h e e j e c t i o n and sweep i n t h i s region.
Fig. 5-16 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f RSj_ and T^ f o r t h e e j e c t i o n
and sweep i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n , whose data were obtained i n t h e e x p e r i -
ment Case A - l (R*=600). A l s o , t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Brodkey e t a l .
(R*=195) and Lu & Willmarth(R*=l800) are shown i n F i g . 5.16. Except
+
f o r t h e outer l a y e r ( y ~ R#), a good agreement among these data i s
recognized, and thus t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are
obtained. F i r s t l y , f o r t h e w a l l and e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n s , i . e .
30 <_ y +
<_ 0.6R#, RS^ and T^_ become n e a r l y constant. That i s , acco-
r d i n g t o our experimental data,
TÏ= 0.29 ± 0.012 , r„= 0.34 ± 0.008 1
f (5-9)
ftSj = 0.77 ± 0.029 , R$ = 0.57 ± 0.029 J

Figs. 4.39 & k.kl and (5-9) suggest s t r o n g l y t h a t when t h e t u r b u l e n t

s t r u c t u r e i s i n e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e and thus i t s s i m i l a r i t y i s expected,
the e j e c t i o n and sweep motions also show a s t a b l e behaviour and

-68-
 consequently t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s may become constant i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
+
y. This e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should be taken i n t o account i n
m o d e l l i n g t h e t u r b u l e n c e , which w i l l be considered i n Chapter 6.
Next, i t should be n o t i c e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n i n magnitude between
+
the e j e c t i o n and sweep may reverse a t y =10, which corresponds t o
the edge o f t h e viscous sublayer. That i s , i n t h e sublayer t h e
sweeps may become more dominant than t h e e j e c t i o n s . Actually,
because t h e sublayer i s t h e range o f t h e d e f i c i e n c y of turbulent ener-
gy, as mentioned i n 4.7, t h e sweep motion ( u >0, v <0) may p l a y an
important r o l e i n t h i s energy t r a n s f e r .
W e l l , such an i m p o r t a n t f a c t t h a t t h e mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e -
+
p r o d u c t i o n becomes d i f f e r e n t a t t h e edge o f sublayer, i . e . y =10,
can be w e l l e x p l a i n e d by t h e t h e o r y o f 2.6, as f o l l o w s : F i r s t l y , we
+
assume t h a t even i n t h e r e g i o n o f y <20,
(1) R becomes n e a r l y constant. A c t u a l l y , R =0.36 according t o
Eckelmann(1974).
(2) S +
=0 and S" =S V =-S u , j u d g i n g from F i g . 5.2.
(3) D +
=0 and D"/S~ -0.7, as i n f e r r e d from 5.2.3.
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e above assumption, RSi /RS and T4/T2 can be t 2

predicted from (2.116) and (2.118) as a f u n c t i o n o f S~, and then

t h e i r calculated r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g s . 5.17 and 5.18, respective-
ly. Here, F i g . 5.2 gives t h a t S~ becomes p o s i t i v e f o r y +
>10, w h i l e
S~ becomes negative f o r y +
<10. Consequently, F i g . 5.17 indicates
+ +
t h a t RS4/RS2 <1 when y _>10, w h i l e RS /RS >l when y
lt 2 <10. Near t h e
edge o f sublayer, t h e magnitude o f t h e e j e c t i o n and sweep becomes
+
n e a r l y equal t o one another. I n t h e same way, T4/T2 >1 f o r y > 1 0 ,
+
w h i l e T4/T2 <1 f o r y <10. C e r t a i n l y , these p r e d i c t e d results
e x p l a i n w e l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e observed values shown i n
Fig. 5.16.

5.3.4 E f f e c t o f w a l l r o u g h n e s s upon b u r s t i n g e v e n t s
The r a t i o RS4/RS2 o f t h e Reynolds stress o f a sweep t o t h a t o f an
e j e c t i o n i s p l o t t e d i n F i g . 5.19, f o r each degree o f roughness, w i t h
the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Wallace e t a l . ( l 9 7 2 ) , Lu & W i l l m a r t h ( 1 9 7 3 )

-69-
and Brodkey e t a l . ( l 9 7 U ) . I n our experiments, f o r y +
>100 and case
of a smooth bed RS4/RS2 remains n e a r l y constant, the Reynolds s t r e s s
of sweeps being about 10% o f t h a t o f the e j e c t i o n s , showing a good
agreement w i t h data by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s . For y +
<100, our values
increase towards the w a l l l i k e those o f Wallace e t a l . ( l 9 7 2 ) o r Brodkey
et a l . (197*0, w h i l e the values by Lu & Willmarth(1973) show the reverse
tendency, decreasing towards the w a l l . Lu & W i l l m a r t h suggested
t h a t t h i s discrepancy might be due t o the d i f f e r e n c e i n the Reynolds
number. However, from F i g . 5.17 i t can be seen t h a t RS /RS may 4 2

r a t h e r increases towards t h e w a l l because S~ i s considered t o decrease

as i t approaches the w a l l because o f the v a r i a t i o n o f the skewness
f a c t o r S shown i n F i g . 5.2. Compared w i t h F i g . 5.19, the calculated
curves represent w e l l the experimental r e s u l t s i n the w a l l region.
The f a c t t h a t the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f sweeps becomes l a r g e r than t h a t o f
the e j e c t i o n s as the w a l l i s approached i s also suggested by the r e -
s u l t s obtained by Z a r i c ( l 9 7 2 ) . Judging from the above, a tendency
f o r the values o f RS4/RS2 i n the v i c i n i t y o f the w a l l t o decrease
towards the w a l l , as i n d i c a t e d by Lu & W i l l m a r t h , seems t o be
incorrect.
Our data show t h a t i n the w a l l region the values o f RS4/RS2 i n c -
rease i n p r o p o r t i o n t o the roughness s c a l e , w h i l e i n the outer p a r t
of the w a l l region the roughness e f f e c t diminishes w i t h increasing
+
y and the same t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e as i n the f l o w over a smooth bed
i s seen i n Fig. 5.19. This roughness e f f e c t on the Reynolds s t r e s s
i s due t o the v a r i a t i o n o f the skewness f a c t o r S and the d i f f u s i o n
f a c t o r D w i t h roughness. As shown i n Fig. 5.20, S~ and D~ b o t h dec-
rease w i t h i n c r e a s i n g roughness i n the range from the w a l l t o the
middle o f the e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , 'which r e s u l t s i n the increase o f
RS4/RS2 shown i n Fig. 5.17. Thus the experimental r e s u l t s shown i n
Fig. 5-19 can be reasonably explained.
2
D e f i n i n g T =q v/2U^ as the t u r b u l e n t energy t r a n s p o r t
r (see Eq. (
4 . 5 9 ) ) , the f o l l o w i n g equation can be derived:

-70-
 W < 7 (5-io)

Since Q21 -D~, Q 3 ~S~ and v»/u'=0.55 (Eq.(4.12)), (5-10) i s reduced

0

to t h e f o l l o w i n g , independent o f t h e roughness condition:

s
T =0.2B(u'/(/,)>(
r 0-+O.6 5") = 0.36('/ü,)5-
ü ( 5 . H )

F i g . 5.20 shows t h e values o f Tr c a l c u l a t e d from (5.10) using t h e

measured v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s . As mentioned i n 4 . 7 . 2 , t h e roughness
e f f e c t i s marked on t h i s k i n d o f f i g u r e . We can see from (5.11)
t h a t Tr depends upon t h e values o f D" and S" and so i t decreases w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g roughness. Since 3Tr/3y i s d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e
t u r b u l e n t energy budget as t h e term r e p r e s e n t i n g t u r b u l e n t energy
d i f f u s i o n (see 2 . 2 . 2 ) , i t i s expected t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g corresponding
t o t h e e j e c t i o n o r sweep motion i s c l o s e l y connected w i t h t h e t u r b u -
l e n t energy budget i n t h e form o f t h e t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n .

5.3.5 B e h a v i o u r o f v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s when t u r b u l e n c e o c c u r s
I t i s an e s s e n t i a l work how t o connect t h e knowledge o f b u r s t i n g
events obtained by point-measurements w i t h t h a t o b t a i n e d by v i s u a l
methods. Since t h e l e v e l H i s expected t o f u l f i l l t h e f u n c t i o n o f
a f i l t e r by which t h e e j e c t i o n motion can be d e t e c t e d from t h e e j e c -
t i o n event s i g n a l s , as p o i n t e d o u t i n 2 . 6 , we here examine t h i s sugg-
estion i n the following.
An example o f t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f u, i . e .
p (u
e |w>H) and p ( u |w>H) c a l c u l a t e d from (2.125) and (2.126) as w e l l
s

as those o f v i s shown i n F i g . 5.21. When H-5 i s chosen, almost a l l

the events a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e range o f w>_ -H (see F i g . 5.10), and
consequently p ( u ) o r p ( u ) c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l
e s probabi-
l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n p(ü) shown'in F i g . 5 . 1 . I n comparison w i t h t h e
sweep event, t h e e j e c t i o n event has a c o n t r i b u t i o n from t h e l a r g e r
values o f |u| and |v| when H i s l a r g e . That i s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t -
ween u<0 and v>0 becomes l a r g e r i n t h e stronger e j e c t i o n .
F i g . 5.22 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e average values u (H) and
u ( H ) o f u/u' when t h e magnitude w o f t h e e j e c t i o n and sweep, respec-
s

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 t i v e l y , j u s t a t t a i n s t h e l e v e l H, t o g e t h e r v i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l cur-
ves c a l c u l a t e d from (2.121) and (2.122). Although t h e r e i s a l i t t l e
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e observed and t h e o r e t i c a l values o v i n g t o using
the d i g i t a l s i g n a l s o f v ( t ) , agreement betveen t h e t v o i s comparative-
l y good. Of course, u <0 and u > 0 , and t h e l a r g e r H i s , t h e more
e s

i n t e n s i v e t h e v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s accompanied v i t h t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u -
;
c t i o n become. At H= 5 vhere t h e i n t e r a c t i o n events almost disappear,
Fig. 5.22 i n d i c a t e s t h a t u =-1.0~ -1.5
e and u = 1.0- 1.5•
s

Well, since a coherent motion o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon i s v i s u a l i z e d

i n a form o f t h e streamwise v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n u ( t ) i n s t e a d o f t h e
Reynolds s t r e s s f l u c t u a t i o n w ( t ) , a t r i g g e r l e v e l u^ i s set f o r u ( t ) .
Then, denoting t = 0 vhen | u ( t ) / u ' | crosses a s p e c i a l t r i g g e r l e v e l U L
i n an i n c r e a s i n g d i r e c t i o n , w ( t ) i n t h e e j e c t i o n o r sveep event has
been ensemble-averaged. F i g . 5-23 shovs the behaviours o f t h e ensem-
ble averaged e j e c t i o n s and sveeps v i t h t h r e e cases o f t r i g g e r l e v e l s ;
u =0.5, 1.0 and 1.5, i n the v a i l r e g i o n .
L The existence o f t h e cohe-
r e n t motion i s n o t recognized a t u^O.5, h u t i f u ^ i s s e t a t 1.0, v ( t )
has a l a r g e peak immediately a f t e r u ( t ) reaches a l e v e l o f -1.0 o r 1.0,
and a l a r g e r peak appears a t u =1.5- L I n t h e same manner, F i g . 5.24
shovs the behaviours o f the e j e c t i o n motion i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n .
S e t t i n g UL=1.0~ 1.5, f o r d|u|/dt >0 t h e t u r b u l e n c e occurs immediately
a f t e r |u| a t t a i n s t h e u^, v h i l e f o r d|u|/dt <0 immediately b e f o r e |u|
attains the u . L F i g . 5-25 shovs t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n the f r e e -
surface r e g i o n . v ( t ) i n t h i s r e g i o n shovs a p p a r e n t l y more e n l a r g e d
and chaotic behaviour because -uv becomes n e a r l y equal t o zero.
The f a c t t h a t t h e e j e c t i o n or t h e sveep motions can be d e t e c t e d i n
v ( t ) vhen u ^ >_ 1.0, agrees v e i l v i t h the point-measurement data given
by Lu & W i l l m a r t h ( 1 9 7 3 ) • Since U L = 1 . 0 ~ 1.5 corresponds r o u g h l y t o
H-5 j u d g i n g from F i g . 5-22, t h e e n e r g e t i c e j e c t i o n o r sveep motions
v h i c h can be observed v i s u a l l y (see F i g . 2.20 o r F i g . 5.39), v o u l d be
able t o be detected from t h e c o n d i t i o n a l l y s o r t e d s i g n a l s v ( t ) vhen
H i s s e t a t about 5-

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5.4 P e r i o d i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon*)
5.4.1 B r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of the bursting period obtained previously
K l i n e e t a l . ( l 9 6 7 ) , Corino & Brodkey(1969), Kim e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) , Nychas
et a l . ( l 9 7 3 ) , Offen & K l i n e ( l 9 7 4 , -75) and others found by f l o w v i s u a l -
i z a t i o n t h a t a sequence o f t h e b u r s t i n g events had a q u a s i - c y c l i c p r o -
cess. That i s t o say, i t shows a p e r i o d i c motion on t h e average i n
space and t i m e , b u t n o t p e r f e c t l y p e r i o d i c a t one place i n time nor a t
one time i n space. For example, Corino & Brodkey p o i n t e d out i n F i g .
2.20 t h a t there were v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e sequence, and t h a t a l l o f t h e
steps d i d not appear a l l t h e time or i n t h e exact fashions described,
but on t h e average i t proceeded.
Thus, i n order t o r e v e a l t h e governing parameters o f t h e b u r s t i n g
phenomenon, i t i s necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e i t s p e r i o d i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i -
cs. The v i s u a l method whereby t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d i s determined by
counting t h e frequency o f occurrences o f t h e coherent motions near t h e
w a l l v i s u a l i z e d on high-speed movie f i l m s , i s simple and p l a i n .
However, i t needs l a b o r i o u s work and more or l e s s i n v o l v e s s u b j e c t i v e
judgement. On t h e o t h e r hand, some researchers as w e l l as the author
have shown t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a sequence o f b u r s t i n g events such as
e j e c t i o n s , sweeps and i n t e r a c t i o n s can be also d e t e c t a b l e even i n t h e
f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t y s i g n a l s obtained by h o t - w i r e or h o t - h i l m anemo-
meters when a c o n d i t i o n a l sampling technique i s reasonably used.
I f i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h a reasonable c r i t e r i o n f o r
d i s c r i m i n a t i n g t h e e j e c t i o n s or t h e sweeps from these v e l o c i t y s i g n a l s ,
the b u r s t i n g p e r i o d can be a l s o evaluated e a s i l y from t h e data a n a l y s i s
of point-measurement s i g n a l s by using a high-speed d i g i t a l computer.
Of course, these r e s u l t s should be compared w i t h t h e v i s u a l data, since
i t may be f a i r l y difficult t o detect a c c u r a t e l y t h e coherent motions
extending i n space only by one or a few h o t - f i l m s .
F i r s t l y , Rao e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) estimated t h e mean b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T B

from t h e s i n g l e - h o t - w i r e s i g n a l s o f u ( t ) i n a boundary l a y e r by u s i n g

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Memoirs of Faculty of Engineering,

Kyoto University, vol. 40, part 4, 1978.

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 a special c r i t e r i o n f o r discrimination. They proposed t h e f o l l o w i n g
experimental r e s u l t s .

T t / , V = 0.65 Rf
B (5-12) a n d T U /i =Z2
0 max t (5-13)

where, R 0 i s d e f i n e d as Re^U e/v, 6** i s t h e displacement t h i c k n e s s

max

and 6 i s t h e momentum t h i c k n e s s . They found t h a t t h e mean b u r s t i n g

p e r i o d c o u l d scale w i t h o u t e r r a t h e r than i n n e r parameters, as shown
in (5.12) and (5-13), and t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e
b u r s t i n g p e r i o d might be log-normal.
Next, Kim e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) found t h a t when t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n o f
u(t) reached t h e r e - r i s e maximum, t h e l a g time T agreed f a i r l y w e l l 0

w i t h t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d e v a l u a t e d from t h e v i s u a l data. Consequent-

l y , they suggested t h a t T 0 could be regarded as a b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T . B

By these means, Laufer & Narayanan(1971) evaluated t h e mean p e r i o d o f

the b u r s t i n g phenomenon near t h e viscous sublayer i n a boundary l a y e r ,
and v e r i f i e d t h a t (5-12) was v a l i d and c o u l d be reduced t o t h e f o l l o w -
ing equation by assuming t h e l/7-power v e l o c i t y law:

where 6 i s t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s .
Consequently, (5-12), (5-13) and (5.1*0 are almost t h e same. (
T
B max/ "becomes n e a r l y equal t o k from (5-13) since 5/6 f o r t h e
u 5
#

l/7-power v e l o c i t y law.) A l s o , t h e dependency o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d

upon t h e outer parameter ( U m a x and 6) i s confirmed.
However, Lu & Willmarth(1973) p o i n t e d out t h a t these c r i t e r i a had
something unreasonable, and proposed another method described as
follows. The f l u c t u a t i n g s i g n a l s w'(t)=-uv/u'v' o f t h e Reynolds s t -
ress were used as a d e t e c t i o n o f t h e coherent motions. The mean
period T e o f t h e e j e c t i o n motion was evaluated from w ' ( t ) i n t h e e j e -
c t i o n event, when t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e v e l was s e t a t t h e value o f
(4.0-4.5) where t h e sweeps almost disappeared. The mean p e r i o d T s

of t h e sweep motion was a l s o evaluated i n t h e same manner. Their

r e s u l t s agreed f a i r l y w e l l w i t h t h e v i s u a l data, or (5.14), and t h i s
e v a l u a t i o n method might become more reasonable than previous methods.
 Indeed, Sabot & Comte-Bellot(1976) evaluated t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d i n
a pipe f l o w by t h i s method.
I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e above, t h e present study i s t o propose another
reasonable e v a l u a t i o n method o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d , and i n v e s t i g a t e
the p e r i o d i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon i n open
channel f l o w s .

5.4.2 D i s c r i m i n a t i o n c r i t e r i o n and d e f i n i t i o n o f b u r s t i n g period

The instantaneous Reynolds-stress s i g n a l s w(t)=uv/uv are reasonably
used as d i s c r i m i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , since they are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d
t o t h e mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n , namely t h e b u r s t i n g pheno-
menon. Now, w ( t ) i s c o n d i t i o n a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r events: w i ( t )
when u>0 and v>0, w ( t ) when u<0 and v>0, w ( t ) when u<0 and v<0 and
2 3

wi»(t) when u>0 and v<0. Obviously, w ( t ) = wi ( t )+w ( t )+w ( t

2 3 ( t ) .
Two t y p i c a l examples o f t h e c o n d i t i o n a l l y sampled s i g n a l s w ( t ) i n 2

the e j e c t i o n event are shown i n F i g . 5.26. I t i s confirmed t h a t t h e

Reynolds stress f l u c t u a t i o n s w ( t ) are v e r y i n t e r m i t t e n t , and e s p e c i a l -
l y t h a t t h e e j e c t i o n s and sweeps generate turbulence v i o l e n t l y i n the
form o f a v e r y sharp p u l s e , as mentioned i n previous s e c t i o n .
The h o l e s i z e H f o r t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e b u r s t i n g events i s i n t r o -
duced as a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e v e l o f t h e e j e c t i o n o r sweep motions.
Assuming t h a t each motion w i t h a c e r t a i n l e v e l H occurs when |w-j_(t)|
reaches or exceeds l e v e l H, i t s mean p e r i o d Tj_ ( i = l - 4 ) i s o b t a i n e d
by counting t h e number Nj_ o f t h e occurrences i n t h e t o t a l observing
time T, as f o l l o w s : T ( H ) = T/Nj_
i (i=l,2,3,U)
For example, F i g . 5.27 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e mean p e r i o d T ( H ) 2

(or T ) o f an e j e c t i o n event normalized by outer parameters( U

e m a x and
h) f o r a smooth bed. Since T 2 i s a monotonously i n c r e a s i n g function
o f H, t h e mean p e r i o d T e o f t h e e j e c t i o n motion which can be observed
v i s u a l l y , t h a t i s , an event (5) i n F i g . 2.20, cannot be determined
from F i g . 5.27 w i t h o u t p r o v i d i n g a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c r i t e r i o n .
According t o t h e Lu & W i l l m a r t h method, as mentioned p r e v i o u s l y ,
T u
e max/ h
becomes ( 4 - 1 0 ) since t h e l e v e l H i s about 10, a t which t h e
c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e sweeps almost disappears. This range o f T i s e

too l a r g e t o know t h e e f f e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c parameters such as Re, Fr

-75-
and the w a l l roughness upon the b u r s t i n g p e r i o d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .
Now, i t may be n o t i c e d i n F i g s . 5.27 and 5.28 that T 2 shows a
n e a r l y l i n e a r increase w i t h H when H<5, and a more remarkable increase
when H>5 although the slope o f T (H) 2 increases more or l e s s c o n t i n u -
ously. This tendency o f T (H) 2 may be r e l a t e d t o the f a c t t h a t the
i n t e r a c t i o n events scarcely c o n t r i b u t e t o the p r o d u c t i o n of Reynolds
stress when l e v e l H reaches about 5- This suggests t h a t the e j e c t i o n
s i g n a l s w ( t ) or the sweep s i g n a l s w i j ( t ) w i t h H<_5
2 contain a part , of
the i n t e r a c t i o n motions corresponding t o the events (l)-(4) i n F i g .
2.20. This suggestion might be also i n f e r r e d from t h e r e s u l t s o f a
c o n d i t i o n a l sampling technique, as already shown i n 5.3.5.
From the above phenomenological c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s
of the i n t e r a c t i o n motions should be removed from t h e sequence o f t h e
b u r s t i n g process i n order t o evaluate the p e r i o d o f only t h e e j e c t i -
ons or sweeps. However, t h e r e i s a t present q u i t e a l a c k o f know-
ledge about the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the i n t e r a c t i o n - l i k e motions which
may be contained i n the s i g n a l s o f w ( t ) or wi»(t).
2 Hence, we now
propose a t e n t a t i v e assumption t h a t the i n t e r a c t i o n - l i k e c o n t r i b u t i o n s
may be o f the same order as those o f the i n t e r a c t i o n event s i g n a l s
w j ( t ) or w ( t ) , since the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f |w^(t) |<_5
3 might be roughly
equal t o each o t h e r , owing t o a d e t e c t i o n of old-born or new-born
small b u r s t i n g motions. By assuming t h a t the number Nj_ o f n occurren-
ces of these i n t e r a c t i o n - l i k e motions w i t h a l e v e l o f H i s roughly
given by an average of those o f two i n t e r a c t i o n events: t h a t i s ,
Nj_ =(N +N )/2, the r e v i s e d b u r s t i n g p e r i o d i s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
n 1 3

T=
2 T/(N -N ) 2 in for ejections, T^E T/(N -Ni )
4 n f o r sweeps.
T U
2 max / h i s shown against H i n F i g . 5.29 (.(T -Tj_ ) denotes T )
e n 2 for
the case corresponding t o F i g . 5.27. When H i s s m a l l , T2U /h i s max

l a r g e owing t o the strong c a n c e l l a t i o n e f f e c t o f t h e interaction-like

motions, as mentioned above. Because the i n t e r a c t i o n - l i k e motions
disappear g r a d u a l l y as H increases, t h i s c a n c e l l a t i o n e f f e c t becomes
weaker, and consequently T 2 approaches T . 2 Thus, we t r y t o t e n t a t i -
v e l y define the mean p e r i o d of the e j e c t i o n s T e and the sweeps T" s

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 as t h e minimum value o f T ( H ) and Ti+(H), r e s p e c t i v e l y , because i t
2

may be considered t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n - l i k e c o n t r i b u t i o n s almost d i s ¬

appear a t t h i s minimum p o i n t . Since t h e minimum value T ( H ) or TV(H) 2

remains s t a t i o n a r y even when H v a r i e s t o some e x t e n t , T e or T g can be

determined u n i q u e l y , and t h e r e f o r e t h i s e v a l u a t i o n method may be w e l l -
d e f i n e d as compared w i t h previous methods.

5.4.3 Bursting period and i t s p r o b a b i l i t y characteristics

The evaluated values o f T e and T s f o r t h e smooth and rough beds
are shown i n F i g . 5-30, normalized by t h e o u t e r parameters. Since
t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n R ( T ) has a second-mild maximum, as shown i n
u

Fig. 5'31, the bursting period T B was a l s o evaluated by Kim et a l ' s

method, although i t was d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate T-n a c c u r a t e l y , except
when near t h e w a l l . The values o f T g had a good agreement w i t h those
o f T-g, as seen i n F i g . 5 » 3 0 . Therefore, our t e n t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n
method o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d seems t o be f a i r l y reasonable. *)
I n t h e same manner, F i g . 5.32 shows t h e data obtained i n the higher-
v e l o c i t y group. Although t h e r e are some s c a t t e r i n g s i n these data,
T U
e m a x / h and T U s m a x / h are approximately constant f o r any y/h, i r r e s -
pective of the hydraulic conditions. That i s ,

VC/mox , ^ m n x __ ( T _ . 5 _ 3 . f j ) (5-15)
h n
(5.15) shows t h e same order as ( 5 . l U ) or Lu & W i l l m a r t h ' s results i n
a boundary l a y e r , though a q u a n t i t a t i v e comparison among these data
cannot be done reasonably because o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e f l o w con-
d i t i o n s and t h e e v a l u a t i o n methods. I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t t h e
ejection period T e becomes n e a r l y equal t o t h e sweep p e r i o d T , as s

p o i n t e d out by Lu & W i l l m a r t h . This means t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s , on

an average, a t l e a s t one each o f e j e c t i o n and sweep motions i n a bur-
s t i n g process. Consequently, t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T^ can be i d e n t i -

*) Furthermore, we (Sympo. Dynamic Flow Measurements 1978) j u s t now

propose_another d i f f e r e n t e v a l u a t i o n method whereby t h e e j e c t i o n
p e r i o d T i s determined a t t h e l e v e l H=H.s where RS (H0.5 ) - 0 . 5 x
e 0 2

RS2(H=0). Since t h e i n t e r a c t i o n events almost disappear a t t h e

H0.5, t h i s new method a l s o gives t h e n e a r l y same r e s u l t s as t h e
above, i . e . ( 5 . 1 5 ) .

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 f i e d v i t h t h e e j e c t i o n or sveep one, T ~ T ~ T-g . e s

From t h e previous and present i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , i t nay "be concluded

t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d i n t h e v a i l and e q u i l i b r i u m regions o f open
channel f l o v s can scale v i t h t h e o u t e r parameters (U m a x and h) r a t h e r
than t h e i n n e r parameters (U* and v / U ) , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f Re, Fr and
#

the v a i l roughness. This i s a l s o supported by t h e n o t i c e a b l e f a c t

t h a t t h e v a i l roughness s c a r c e l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d ,
v h i l e t h i s e f f e c t can be n o t i c e d c l e a r l y i n t h e b u r s t i n g process
near t h e v a i l as p o i n t e d out i n 5 . 3 . 4 .
Furthermore, F i g . 5-33 shovs t h e t r i g g e r l e v e l s H e and H s o f ejec-
t i o n and sveep, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t v h i c h t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d vas e v a l u -
ated ( c f . F i g . 5-27). F i g . 5-33 gives t h a t H - (3-6) and H - 3, e s

vhose values, i n f a c t , correspond roughly t o t h e l e v e l a t v h i c h t h e

i n t e r a c t i o n motions n e a r l y disappear. A l s o , F i g . 5«34 shovs t h e
levels u e and u s corresponding t o H e and H , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
s These
data give t h a t üg- -1.4 and u = 1 . 3 , a t v h i c h t h e e j e c t i o n and sveep
s

motions can be s u r e l y d e t e c t e d , as j u d g i n g from F i g s . 5-23-5.25.

Next, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n p ( T ) o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T
T

v i l l be discussed * ) . The experimental values o f piji(T) can be

e a s i l y obtained from F i g . 5-26, since H e and H have a l r e a d y d e t e r -
s

mined i n F i g . 5.34. According t o t h e suggestion o f Rao e t a l .

''1971), t h e data o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f log(T/T) have
been p l o t t e d i n a n o r m a l - p r o b a b i l i t y paper o f F i g . 5-35. Also,
Fig. 5.36 shovs t h e normalized p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s OQ l o g ( T / T ) 1
0

f o r smooth and rough beds, vhere i r„= i^77,

og ° =
0 (dog T/TO) }^ 1

The s t r a i g h t l i n e described i n t h i s f i g u r e i s a log-normal d i s t r i -

b u t i o n v h i c h i s v r i t t e n by

Though t h e r e i s a l i t t l e s c a t t e r i n g i n our h o t - f i l m data, these data

have a good agreement w i t h ( 5 - l 6 ) , as v e i l as t h e v i s u a l data o b t a i n -
ed by Kim e t a l . ( l 9 7 l ) . Consequently, i t i s confirmed t h a t t h e

*) When i t i s n ' t necessary t o d i s t i n g u i s h betveen t h e e j e c t i o n p e r i -

od T and t h e sveep p e r i o d T , these s u f f i x e s v i l l _ b e o m i t t e d i n
e s

the f o l l o v i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s . That i s , T= T - T = T . e s B

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 p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d can be described approximately
by a log-normal d i s t r i b u t i o n , i . e . (5.16), i r r e s p e c t i v e o f Re, Fr
and t h e w a l l roughness.
Then, t h e f o l l o w i n g equation can be o b t a i n e d e a s i l y from (5.16):

f r'V (7)</7=ri-exp ( f p " ) .

r * = ( log ,)/a0 (. )
5 17

-'fi
1>/2
Denoting T =T,
B C-pE( (T-T) 2
) and I|>EO"B/TT

(5-18)

Thus, i f the mean value Tg and i t s c o e f f i c i e n t U> o f v a r i a t i o n are

known, (5.16) can be determined as a p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e
bursting period. The experimental values o f ijj f o r t h e e j e c t i o n p e r i -
od are shown i n F i g . 5-37, and s i m i l a r r e s u l t s have been a l s o o b t a i n e d
f o r the sweep p e r i o d . As concerns our h o t - f i l m data, t h e values o f
near t h e w a l l are n e a r l y c o n s t a n t , i . e . u)=l.0-1.5, w h i l e t h e v i s u a l
data o f kirn e t a l . show i^-0.5• A t p r e s e n t , though i t i s d i f f i c u l t
t o e x p l a i n t h e cause o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e between the h o t - f i l m and
v i s u a l data, the former may be apt t o be accompanied by a k i n d o f
unevenness i n v o l v e d i n t h e point-measurements o f t h e coherent motions
which e x t e n t i n space. Consequently, t h e h o t - f i l m data are probably
evaluated l a r g e r than t h e v i s u a l data.

5.5 I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon
5.5.1 Dependence o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon upon t h e i n n e r and o u t e r
parameters
For t h e p r e s e n t , from the previous and present experimental data,
we can approve t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d may be c o n t r o l l e d
by the outer r a t h e r than t h e i n n e r parameters. Consequently, t h e
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n o f an open-channel f l o w may be
c h a r a c t e r i z e d not o n l y by the i n n e r parameter (see Chapters 2 and 4 ) ,
but a l s o by t h e outer parameter t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e
r e g i o n s , which have been a l r e a d y recognized i n a boundary l a y e r f l o w .

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 Nov, t h e streamvise, the v e r t i c a l and t h e t r a n s v e r s e s p a t i a l
scales o f t h i s coherent motion are denoted by X , \ l 2 and X , respec-
3

tively. Since the mean streamvise s p a t i a l scale \~i i s n e a r l y equal

t o TgU , vhere U c c i s the convection v e l o c i t y and U ~ U = O ^ U ^ x ,
c m

i t becomes from (5-15) as T,/A ~ 1.5~ 3.0 ( i n open channel) (5-23)

, as v e i l as Xi/6-4 i n a boundary l a y e r , as shovn by Hinze(l975)-

The mean v e r t i c a l s p a t i a l scale X 2 i s considered t o be b e l o v t h e v a i l
r e g i o n t h i c k n e s s , i . e . X£ < 100. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s suggested
from the v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n ( c f . F i g . 2.20) t h a t X 2 £ 50, vhere t h e
coherent motions appear most v i o l e n t l y . The mean t r a n s v e r s e spa-
t i a l scale X may be able t o be i d e n t i f i e d v i t h the spacing
3 hetveen
the h i g h and l o v speed streaks v h i c h vere found by K l i n e e t a l . (196*7)•
I t vas confirmed by our v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s (see t h e next s e c t i o n )
t n a t
l f = T uJv~\QQ
s (5-24)

i n open channels, v h i c h c o i n c i d e d v i t h the data i n boundary l a y e r s .

From t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d above, i t i s deduced t h a t a t y p i c a l
eddy v i t h coherent motions near t h e v a i l may depend upon b o t h t h e
inner and outer parameters. Consequently, t h e eddy model q u a l i t a t i -
v e l y described by Hinze(1975) i n F i g . 6.6 may f a i r l y reasonably expla-
i n the mechanism o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon, as v i l l be shovn l a t e r .
Furthermore, by hydrogen-bubble m e t h o d ( F i g . 3 . l 6 ) ve have a l s o found
a log-normal d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the p r o b a b i l i t y o f X%, as shovn i n F i g .
5.38. That i s , the p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n PX(satisfied very
+
v e i l the f o l l o v i n g e q u a t i o n , independently o f y .

From (5.16) and (5-25), i t seems t h a t the b u r s t i n g phenomenon has

s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t l y the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a log-normal distribution
v h i l e i t i s c o n t r o l l e d by both the i n n e r and outer parameters. Hence,
a c l o s e r i n t e r r e l a t i o n betveen the v a i l and t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e regions
i n an open-channel corresponding t o the i n n e r and the o u t e r l a y e r s i n
a boundary l a y e r i s suggested more than had been p r e v i o u s l y expected.
I n c i d e n t a l l y , Laufer & Narayanan(1971) deduced t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g
phenomenon near t h e v a i l might be caused by the bulge motions near

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 the boundary l a y e r edge, b u t we cannot f i n d any bulge motions i n an
open-channel f l o w . We i n f e r here t h a t t h e r e may e x i s t a close r e l a -
t i o n between t h e b u r s t i n g mechanism and t h e breakdown mechanism o f
the l a r g e s t - s c a l e eddy w i t h scale Lo. I f the Strouhal s i m i l a r i t y
might be v a l i d f o r b o t h mechanisms, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n c o u l d be
obtained. T u /h^{Si Y
B max K
l
U J h ) (5-20)

where, Stj^ i s t h e S t r o u h a l number and i t may be now t e n t a t i v e l y rough-

l y equal t o 0 . 2 , w i t h an assumption t h a t t h e breakdown o f t h i s eddy
would be r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e Karman-vortex. Then, ( 5 . 2 0 )
may c o i n c i d e r o u g h l y w i t h (5.1*0 or ( 5 . 1 5 ) since L ~ 0 0.8(see F i g . k . 3 0 ) .

5.5.2 F u r t h e r s u g g e s t i o n s on b u r s t i n g phenomenon
I t may be f a i r l y w e l l a s s e r t e d from t h e v i s u a l and h o t - f i l m measure-
ments t h a t t h e breakdown o f t h e l a r g e s t - s c a l e eddy i s i n t e r m i t t e n t ,
and t h e n generates most o f t h e t u r b u l e n t energy or t h e Reynolds stress
(cf. F i g s . 2.5 & 2.9). On t h e o t h e r hand, as i n d i c a t e d by Sandborn
(1959)5 t h e breakdown o f t h e s m a l l e s t - s c a l e eddy i s also i n t e r m i t t e n t ,
and t h e n d i s s i p a t e s most o f t h e t u r b u l e n t energy.
Among t h e e v a l u a t i o n methods o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d mentioned
p r e v i o u s l y , t h e methods o f Rao et a l . ( l 9 7 l ) and Ueda & H i n z e ( l 9 7 5 )
are based on a m i c r o s c a l e i n t e r m i t t e n c y , w h i l e t h e methods o f Kim e t
al.(l97l), Lu & W i l l m a r t h ( 1 9 7 3 ) , t h e present author as w e l l as t h e
v i s u a l method are based on a macroscale i n t e r m i t t e n c y . Since almost
the same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d have been e v a l u a t e d
from these two d i f f e r e n t methods, i t i s i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e breakdown
of a macroscale eddy may have a close r e l a t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
t h a t o f a m i c r o s c a l e eddy, and t h a t t h e t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e may be
essentially c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b o t h t h e macro- and m i c r o - s c a l e s .
Consequently, an energy cascade process i n which t h e t u r b u l e n t energy
of macroscale eddies i s g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f e r e d t o t h a t o f m i c r o s c a l e
eddies, would be more c o m p l i c a t e d than we have p r e v i o u s l y understood.
Now, assuming t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a s e l f - s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e breakdown
of eddies o f t h i s cascade process, log-normal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
bursting process or t h e coherent motion r e p o r t e d here c o u l d be
explained by t h e eddy model o f Gurvich & Yaglom(l96T)• Thus, i t i s
suggested t h a t t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon may be c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o
the breakdown mechanism o f both t h e macro- and m i c r o - s c a l e eddies.
By t h e way, some researchers have a l r e a d y found t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d
also the h i g h and low speed s t r e s k s , whose spacing i s n e a r l y equal t o
2h, on t h e f r e e surface of an a c t u a l r i v e r , t h a t i s t o say, t h e b o i l
phenomenon. Therefore, although t h e scale between t h e b u r s t i n g and
the b o i l phenomena i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t when t h e Reynolds number i s very
l a r g e , t h e both phenomena are very s i m i l a r t o one another. Hence, we
may be able t o expect t h e p o s i b i l i t y o f an i n t e r r e l a t i o n between t h e
b o t h phenomena, and furthermore we are now i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s p a t i a l
s t r u c t u r e o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon by o b t a i n i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n a l s p a t i a l
c o r r e l a t i o n s i n order t o make c l e a r t h e above suggestions.

5.6 V i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o f b u r s t i n g phenomenon * )
5.6.1 I n s t a n t a n e o u s v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n v e r t i c a l p l a n e
The v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s o f t h e l o w e r - v e l o c i t y group i n Table U . l ( c )
were v i s u a l i z e d by t h e hydrogen-bubble method i n order t o o b t a i n t h e
distinct pictures. The t i m e - l i n e s o f hydrogen bubbles were photo-
graphed by t h e l6mm high-speed cine-camera. F i g . 5-39 shows some
t y p i c a l photographic i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e e j e c t i o n and sweep motions
f o r t h e rough bed (Case D - l ) . The p i c t u r e s o f No.l - k i n d i c a t e t h e
e j e c t i o n motions, w h i l e t h e p i c t u r e s o f No.5 - 9 i n d i c a t e t h e sweep
motions. For example, t h e p i c t u r e o f No.l probably shows t h e f i r s t
stage o f the b u r s t i n g , where a low-speed s t r e a k i s l i f t e d from t h e
wall. The p i c t u r e o f No.2 probably shows t h e o s c i l l a t o r y motion i n
the streamwise d i r e c t i o n , and then t h e v i o l e n t b u r s t o r breakup occurs
i n No.3 p i c t u r e . These p i c t u r e s o f t h r e e stages o f t h e b u r s t i n g
motion agree very w e l l w i t h Kim e t a l ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s . Also, the
e j e c t i o n motion may occur more v i o l e n t l y than sweep motion does.
By means o f t h e method described i n 3.4.1, t h e instantaneous velo-

*) Refer t o our paper {Visualization of wall turbulence in open-

channel flow by hydrogen-bubble method) p u b l i s h e d i n 5-th Sympo.
on Flow V i s u a l i z a t i o n , ISAS Univ. o f Tokyo, pp.47-50, 1977-

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 c i t y p r o f i l e s (ü, v) vere analyzed, and some examples o f these data
f o r t h e smooth bed are shovn i n F i g . 5.1*0, t o g e t h e r v i t h the mean
v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n U(y) described by a t h i c k s o l i d l i n e . Since
according t o (5.15) the b u r s t i n g p e r i o d i n t h i s case i s n e a r l y equal
to T = ( l . 5~3.0)h/U = ( l ~ 1 . 5 ) s e c , t h e e i g h t successive p i c t u r e s i n
B max

F i g . 5.40 (a) & (b) are expected t o show one sequence o f the b u r s t i n g
process. The lov-speed p a r t (u=u-U <0) tends t o be s u r e l y l i f t e d up
and e j e c t e d from t h e w a l l .
I n order t o examine t h e behaviours o f t h e low-speed and t h e h i g h -
speed p a r t s , we have performed the c o n d i t i o n a l l y ensemble average o f
the instantaneous v e l o c i t y ( u , v ) , i n t h e same manner as Grass(1971)
did. The t o t a l successive p i c t u r e s o f l 6 o frames were d i v i d e d i n t o
8 groups; t h a t i s , one group c o n s i s t e d o f 20 successive frames, whose
elapsed time T G was 3-7 seconds ( c f . F i g . 5.40). Thus, i t i s expec-
t e d t h a t each group contains at l e a s t one b u r s t i n g process or t h e
coherent motion, since t h e value o f T G i s l a r g e r than t h e mean b u r s -
t i n g p e r i o d T-g. The frames o f p i c t u r e where t h e v e l o c i t y u i n d i c a t e d
the maximum or t h e minimum at any measured p o i n t Pj_ ( i = l - 12) were
chosen from each group, and then these instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s
were ensemble averaged. Figs. 5.41 and 5.42 show the c o n d i t i o n a l l y
averaged instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s a t i n s t a n t s when u became
minimum and maximum a t any p o i n t Pj_, r e s p e c t i v e l y . As seen i n F i g .
5.41, t h e low-speed p a r t drew b l a c k has a s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h
v >0, and s u r e l y i t shows the e j e c t i o n motion. I n t h e same manner,
F i g . 5-42 shows t h e sweep motion. The both f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
l i f t u p - e j e c t i o n motions may e x i s t up t o t h e f u r t h e r r e g i o n from t h e
w a l l , compared w i t h t h e sweep motions. This suggests a p o s i b i l i t y o f
the i n t e r r e l a t i o n between the e j e c t i o n ( b u r s t i n g ) and the b o i l pheno-
mena, as mentioned previously.

5.6.2 Instantaneous velocity profiles i n horizontal plane

A f i n e p l a t i n u m w i r e was s t r e t c h e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f z-axis i n
the water flume (8.5m l o n g , 30cm wide, 30cm deep), and t h e i n s t a n t a -
neous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l plane were v i s u a l i z e d
 (see F i g . 3.1b*). Figs. 5.43 & 5.44 show some t y p i c a l photos o f these
p r o f i l e s obtained f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t kinds o f t h e Reynolds number,
i . e . R = 340, l600 and 5100.
e

F i r s t l y , a t Re=340(Fig. 5.43 A ) , t h e t i m e - l i n e s are s c a r c e l y a g i t a -

ted, and consequently the f l o v becomes laminar. As f o r the f l o w o f
Re=l600, the f l o w near the f r e e surface £=0.7 (see F i g . 5.43 B) are
s t i l l n e a r l y laminar, w h i l e the h i g h and low speed streaks appear rema-
+
r k a b l y near the w a l l y =22 ( F i g . 5.*+3 C). F i v e successive p i c t u r e s
of F i g . 5.43 C show t h a t the h i g h and low speed streaks have f a i r l y
v a r i a t i o n s i n both the streamwise space and t h e t i m e . Although the
behaviours o f the coalescence and d i v i s i o n o f these streaks are very
complicated, the mean spacing between the h i g h and low speed streaks
s u r e l y s a t i s f i e s (5.24); t h a t i s A t -B __./5=R =110, and a l s o i t s proba-
4 #

b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t i s f i e s (5-25), as shown i n F i g . 5-38.

L a s t l y , F i g . 5.44 shows some photos obtained by v a r y i n g t h e h e i g h t
+
y f o r Re=5100. The p i c t u r e o f No.l i n d i c a t e s the v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e
+
i n the viscous sublayer, i . e . a t y = 5 , and t h e v e l o c i t y c e r t a i n l y f l u -
ctuates even i n the sublayer, as have been already p o i n t e d out by
+
Einstein et a l . ( l 9 5 6 ) . A t y =10 and 15, t h e h i g h and low speed s t r e -
aks are observed most c l e a r l y , whose spacing becomes equal t o A t ~ B / l 5 #

+
=R /3=100, t o o .
W However, as y increases, the streaks i n t e n d t o be-
come weaker and also i t s spacing may become l a r g e r (see our paper des-
c r i b e d i n the margin o f p. 82). At present, i t i s q u i t e unknown
whether t h i s i s due t o the f a c t t h a t the b u r s t i n g phenomenon may become
weaker near the f r e e surface o r t h i s may i n d i c a t e an i n t e r r e l a t i o n
w i t h the b o i l phenomenon. Thus, we are now performing the f u r t h e r
d e t a i l e d researches about these t h i n g s .

References (Chapter 5 )
4
1) Davies, P. O. A. L. & Yule, A. J. : Coherent ) Willmarth, W. W. & Lu.S. S. : Structure of the
structures in turbulence, J. Fluid Mech., vol.69, Reynolds stress near the wall, J. Fluid Mech.,
vol
pp.513-539, 1975. - 5 5 , pp.65-92, 1972.
5
2) MoUo-Christensen, E. : Physics of turbulent now, ) Wallace, J. M., Eckelmann, H. & Brodkey, R. S. :
w
A1AAJ., vol.9, pp. 1217-1228, 1971. ^ - l region in the turbulent shear flow, J.
3) Kline, S. J., Reynolds, W. C , Schraub, F . A. & Fluid Mech., vol.54, pp.39-48, 1972.
6 )
Runstadler, P. W. : The structure of turbulent Nychas, S. G., Hershey, H. C. & Brodkey, R. S. :
A
boundary layers, J. Fluid Mech., vol.30, pp.741- visual study of turbulent shear flow, J . Fluid
7 7 3 , 1 9 6 7
' Mech., vol.61, pp.513-540, 1973.

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 7) Offen, G. R. & Kline, S. J. : Combined dye- 19) Zaric, Z. : Analyse statistique de la turbulence
streak and hydrogen-bubble visual observation of pre" d'une paroi par e'chantillonnage .-onditionnel,
a turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech., Comptes Rendus, t-269, Se'ric-A, pp.513-515,
vol.62, pp. 223-239, 1974. 1972.
8) Lu, S. S. & Willmarth, W. W. : Measurements of 20) Echelmann, H. : The structure of the viscous
the structure of the Reynolds stress in a turbulent sublayer and the adjacent wall region in a turbulent
boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech., vol.60, pp.481 - channel flow, J. Fluid Mech., vol.65, pp.439¬
511, 1973. 459, 1974.
9) Brodkey, R. S., Wallace, J. M. & Eckelmann, H. : 21) Rao, K. N., Narasimha, R. & Narayanan, M. A. B. :
Some properties of truncated turbulence signals The 'bursting' phenomenon in a turbulent bound-
in bounded shear flows, J. Fluid Mech., vol.63, ary layers, J. Fluid Mech., vol.48, pp.339-352,
pp. 209-224, 1974. 1971.
10) Nakagawa, H. & Nezu, I. : Prediction of the 22) Lu.S. S. & Willmarth, W. W. : Measurement of
contributions to the Reynolds stress from the the mean period between bursts, Phys. of Fluids,
bursting events in open-channel flows, J. Fluid vol.16, pp.2012-2013, 1973.
Mech., vol.80, pp.99-1 28, 1977. 23) Laufer, J. & Narayanan, M. A. B. : Mean period
11) Frenkiel, F. N. & Klebanoff, P. S. : Probability of the turbulent production mechanism in a
distributions and correlations in a turbulent boundary layer, Phys. of Fluids, vol. 14, pp. 182¬
boundary layer, Phys. of Fluids, vol. 16, pp. 726¬ 183, 1971.
737, 1973. 24) Hinze, J. 0. : Turbulence (2-nd edi.), McGraw-
12) Bayazit, M. : Free surface flow in a channel of Hill, pp.586-770, 1975.
large relative roughness, J. Hydraulic Research, 25) Clark, J. A. & Markland, E. : Flow visualization
vol. 14, pp. 115-126, 1976. in turbulent boundary layers, Proc. of ASCE,
13) Gupta, A. K. & Kaplan, R. E . : Statistical charac- HY-10, pp.1653-1664, 1971.
teristics of Reynolds stress in a turbulent boundary 26) Gupta, A. K., Laufer, J. & Kaplan, R. E. : Spatial
layer, Phys. of Fluids, vol. 15, pp. 981-985, 1972. structure in the viscous sublayer, J. Fluid Mech.,
14) Antonia, R. A. & Atkinson, J. D. : Higher-order vol.50, pp.493-512, 1971.
moments of Reynolds shear stress fluctuations in 27) Sandborn, V. A. : Measurements of intermittency
a turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech., of turbulent motion in a boundary layer, J. Fluid
vol.58, pp.581-593, 1973. Mech., vol.6, pp. 221-240, 1959.
15) Lawn, C. J. : The determination of the rate of 28) Ueda, H. & Hinze, J. 0. : Fine-structure turbu-
dissipation in turbulent pipe flow, J. Fluid Mech., lence in the wall region of a turbulent boundary
vol.48, pp.477-505, 1971. layer, J. Fluid Mech.,. vol.67, pp. 125-143, 1975.
16) Corino, E. R. & Brodkey, R. S. : A visual investi- 29) Mollo-Christensen, E. : Intermittency in large-
gation of the wall region in turbulent flow, J. scale turbulent flows, Annu. Review of Fluid
Fluid Mech., vol.37, pp. 1-30, 1969. Mech., vol.5, pp. 101-1 18, 1973.
17) Kim, H. T , Kline, S. J. & Reynolds, W. C. : The 30) Gurvich, A. S. & Yaglom, A. M. : Breakdown of
production of turbulence near a smooth wall in eddies and probability distribution for small-
a turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech., scale turbulence, Phys. of Fluids, vol.10, pp.
vol.50, pp. 133-160, 1971. S59-S65, 1967.
18) Grass, A. J. : Structural features of turbulent flow 31) Einstein, H. A. & Li, H. : The viscous sublayer
over smooth and rough boundaries, J. Fluid along a smooth boundary, Proc. of ASCE, EM-2,
Mech., vol.50, pp.233-255, 1971. pp. 1-27, 1956.

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Chapter 6 P h y s i c a l model o f w a l l turbulence
6.1 Introduction
Even before t h e existence c f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon vas 'Ï.J**.-?*r*-»"»*'r«3 r,

c l e a r l y by K l i n e et a l . ( i 9 6 7 ) , t h e r e had been already s e v e r a l ? t t e ~ p t c

to describe t h e mechanism o f the t u r b u l e n c e p r o d u c t i o n near t h e v a i l
by s u i t a b l e t u r b u l e n c e eddy models, among v h i c h a horseshoe v e r t e x
a
model proposed by Theodorsen(l955) n d a reneval model of t h e viscous
sublayer proposed by E i n s t e i n & Li(1956) should be s t i l l noteworthy,
as mentioned i n the f o l l o w i n g .
W i l l m a r t h & Tu(l967) proposed an 'average model of v o r t e x l i n e '
(see F i g . 6.1) i n order t o q u a l i t a t i v e l y e x p l a i n the p r e s s u r e - v e l o c i t y
c o r r e l a t i o n s near the v a i l , from v h i c h the existence o f the b u r s t i n g
phenomenon might be i n f e r r e d . Next, K l i n e et a l . ( l 9 6 7 ) o f f e r e d an
eddy model (see F i g . 6.2) by v h i c h t h e mechanism of v a l l - t u r b u l e n c e
.production could be reasonably explained. Both of these eddy models
are very s i m i l a r t o Theodorsen's horseshoe v o r t e x model. We can
recognize f o r the present t h a t such an eddy model might be most s u i t -
able f o r a q u a l i t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e b u r s t i n g process. As a
f a c t , Black(1968) f o r m u l a t e d t h i s horseshoe v o r t e x model phenomeno-
l o g i c a l l y (see F i g . 6.3), a f t e r v h i c h he could s u c c e s s f u l l y e x p l a i n
s e v e r a l turbulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s q u a n t i t a t i v e l y . For example,
i t i s n o t i c e d t h a t t h i s model can reasonably e x p l a i n the c y c l i c deve-
lopment and breakdown of the primary motion, as shovn i n F i g . 6.4.
Also,. Yokoshi(1970) t r i e d t o e x p l a i n the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e of an
a c t u a l r i v e r by using the horseshoe v o r t e x model (see F i g . 6.5) and
he suggested t h a t a b o i l phenomenon i n the r i v e r v o u l d be caused by
t h i s eddy.
I n order t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y describe the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i n the
e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n , v e ( l 9 T 4 ) a l s o proposed a Il-eddy model vhereby a
horseshoe v o r t e x model vas s i m p l i f i e d by assuming t h a t some of the
horseshoe v o r t i c e s i n the v a i l r e g i o n , as shovn i n F i g . 6.6, survived
w i t h o u t the vortex-breakdown d u r i n g t h e i r development, even i n the
+
region of y >100, and also a t t a i n e d the e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e of t u r b u -
 l e n t energy, v h i c h w i l l be described i n d e t a i l i n t h e next s e c t i o n .
I t i s considered t h a t Hinze's(1975) eddy model shown i n Fig. 6.6
summarizes reasonably t h e previous eddy models mentioned above, on a
basis o f t h e new knowledges o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon.
In t h e l i g h t o f t h e above, t h e present study i s t o propose three
d i f f e r e n t kinds o f t u r b u l e n t eddy model i n order t o e x p l a i n t h e t u r -
bulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s or t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon q u a n t i t a t i v e l y .
As shown i n Fig. 6.7, t h e Il-eddy model i s f i r s t l y proposed i n t h e
equilibrium region. Next, a renewal model i s proposed i n t h e w a l l
region o f y +
<50, where t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon occurs remarkably
and i t s horseshoe v o r t e x i s under development, t h a t i s , a n o n - e q u i l i -
brium s t a t e . L a s t l y , a combined model i s t e n t a t i v e l y proposed i n
order t o connect t h e Il-eddy model w i t h t h e renewal model near t h e
edge o f t h e w a l l r e g i o n .

6.2 n-eddy model * )

6.2.1 C o n s t i t u t i o n o f a n-eddy model a n d i t s f o r m u l a t i o n
Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t a horseshoe v o r t e x model proposed already by
Theodorsen and other researchers i s f a i r l y reasonable i n q u a l i t a t i v e
aspects, as mentioned above, t h i s horseshoe v o r t e x model i s accepted
as an o r i g i n a l eddy model i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n s . But, since
i t i s f a i r l y d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n exact expression o f t h e horseshoe
v o r t e x model i n order t o discuss q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i t s behaviours, a
s i m p l i f i e d eddy model which has t h e angular v o r t e x l i n e s as d e s c r i b -
ed i n Fig. 6.8 may be considered here. As t h e v o r t e x l i n e o f t h i s
s i m p l i f i e d eddy model has a II-shape, t h i s model may be c a l l e d ' a
IT-eddy model' .
Now, a p a r t i c u l a r eddy i s considered i n t h e moving coordinates
w i t h t h e convective v e l o c i t y U c o f i t s eddy, as shown i n Fig. 6.8.
A r e c t a n g u l a r v o r t e x l i n e ABCD which has an angle o f i n c l i n a t i o n 6
toward t h e x-axis i s assumed f o r two-dimensional t u r b u l e n t shear

*) Refer t o our paper {On a new eddy model in turbulent shear flow)
p u b l i s h e d i n Proc. of JSCE, No. 231, pp.61-70, 1974.

-87-
 flow. I t s legs AB and CD are i n a plane p a r a l l e l t o t h e x-y p l a n e ,
and i t s t o p BC i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e z-axis. The c o n d i t i o n 9=0 may
represent an i n c i p i e n t stage o f t h e Il-eddy which coincides w i t h a
r
liïirji;; eddy or an attached eddy on t h s ".. ali. However, since t h e
i n c i p i e n t stage o f t h e Il-eddy or t h e horseshoe v e r t e x i s very com-
p l i c a t e d because o f t h e n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e ( c f . F i g . 6.7), an
e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n under which t h e H-eddy i s l i f t e d up from t h e
bottom and f u l l y developed i s considered here. That i s t o say, some
of t h e horseshoe v o r t i c e s i n t h e w a l l r e g i o n s u r v i s e w i t h o u t t h e v o r -
+
t e x breakdown during t h e i r development, even i n t h e region o f y > 1 0 0 ,
and then they a t t a i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e i n t h e t u r b u l e n t structure
, as mentioned i n Chapters h and 5. Since AB »BC because o f BC* -
At - 100 ( c f . Fig. 6.6), t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v o r t e x BC t o t h e
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e can be ignored except t h a t t h e v o r t e x BC w i l l
suffer the l i f t force. The v o r t e x tubes AB and CD may be reasonably
assumed t o have an e l l i p t i c a l cross s e c t i o n w i t h a long radius a i n
the x - d i r e c t i o n and a short radius b i n t h e z - d i r e c t i o n , since t h e y
are d i s t o r t e d by t h e v o r t e x - s t r e t c h i n g e f f e c t . Consequently, i t can
be assumed t h a t t h e primary motion o f t h e Il-eddy describes an e l l i -
p t i c steady c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h angular v e l o c i t y w i n t h e v o r t e x axis.
From t h e above assumptions, t h e motion o f any Il-eddy i s f o r m u l a t e d

as f o l l o w s : i ( 0 = ï ( ( ) - " cos <ot • sin* 1

0

7W= 7oW+ » cos oi/.cos* I (6-1)

~z(t)= ~2 (t) + b sin ot
0 J

where, t h e wave-sign and d o t - s i g n denote t h e moving coordinates and

the time d i f f e r e n t i a l ( = d / d t ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Of course, x =u,
y =v and z =w since U=U . C ( x o , y , i o ) i s an a r b i t r a r y coordinates
0

on t h e r o t a t i n g axis i n t h e v o r t e x tube, and i t s v e l o c i t y Uo=(x ,yo, 0

z )
0 i s probably much smaller than t h a t o f t h e e l l i p t i c motion,
since t h e Il-eddy a t t a i n s t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e . That i s t o say,
the Il-eddy c o n s i s t s o f a primary motion w i t h an e l l i p t i c steady
c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e v o r t e x a x i s , and a secondary motion, i . e . t h e
o v e r a l l deformation motion o f t h e eddy, w i t h a p e r t u r b a t i o n o f i t s
vortex tube due t o t h e v o r t e x - s t r e t c h i n g e f f e c t .
 By t h e way, since t h i s secondary motion d i s t o r t s t h e l e n g t h I (=
AB=CD) o f t h e legs and t h e i n c l i n a t i o n angle 9, i t i s very difficult
to determine t h e v e l o c i t y U 0 o f t h e secondary motion a c c u r a t e l y .
So, t h e f o l l o w i n g s i m p l i f i e d f o r m u l a t i o n i s considered here. The
Il-eddy i s s u r e l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e v o r t e x - s t r e t c h i n g since t h e r e i s
the v e l o c i t y shear 3U/3y=3U/3y even though t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y
U EU-U i s very s m a l l .
C Then, t h e e q u i l i b r i u m Il-eddy ABCD is infini-
t e s i m a l l y perturbed t o AB'C'D by t h i s v o r t e x - s t r e t c h i n g e f f e c t , as
shown i n F i g . 6.9 (consequently, z =0).
0 The head BC s u f f e r s t h e
l i f t f o r c e L and the drag f o r c e D. So long as t h e IT-eddy under t h e
e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n does not instantaneously disappear by t h e
s t r e t c h i n g , some apparent resistances F must be thought t o work upon
AB and CD o f t h e eddy against t h e forces o f L and D, which probably
r e s u l t from complex i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e mean f l o w and t u r b u l e n c e .
Now, d e s c r i b i n g t h e v o r t e x tube BC as a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h a
radius R and a l e n g t h li , t h e f o l l o w i n g equation can be o b t a i n e d
from F i g . 6.9. - Re
FI7!
2
] AFCOB6 + Fsine. jO) +ÓD=O ]

-mRH x iy"—{AFsini~ FcasO *j9)+4L=Q j ^ ^

where, t h e drag f o r c e n= c Re, 0^ and the l i f t f o r c e

fi d L^^RH^U .

Since t h e apparent r e s i s t i n g f o r c e F may have a strong c o r r e l a t i o n

w i t h t h e l e n g t h I o f t h e v o r t e x tube AB, F i s simply assumed t o be
l i n e a r w i t h I, i . e . ÓF= kje (where k i s a p r o p o r t i o n a l c o n s t a n t ) .
The equations o f v o r t i c i t y and mass conservation are g i v e n , r e s p e c t i -
v e l y , by 5o.s r ( constant) and st = constant P (6-3)
where S denotes a cross s e c t i o n a l area o f t h e v o r t e x ( S=7rab).
Also, from F i g . 6.9, t h e f o l l o w i n g s are obtained :
4*-.j« fl-<sinfl.4*
CM and j =je o e e. e
y sln + cos d (e-4)

From t h e above equations, t h e f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l equations

are obtained by adopting only t h e f i r s t order o f t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n s .

ó'ê) ~ \c DKÓB)

The c o e f f i c i e n t s A, B, C and D are f a i r l y complicated. However,

when t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y U i s approximated t o be equal t o zero
according t o Favre e t al's(l96T) or Sternberg's(19&7) experimental
data, these c o e f f i c i e n t s become as f o l l o w s :
k Cy , dUc c, dV
2
A= - j j - -£ e> sin 0 — <£._•_J_ a, sin» cos« — (6'6)
pxR'Z) n dy „ dy
_ i _ o>«,i cW — n•_,____«„»»«
JT —
B = n

dy
Consequently, t h e secondary motion Uo=(Ax,Ay,0) can be p r e d i c t e d
from ( 6 . 5 ) . Considering t h a t t h e apparent r e s i s t i n g f o r c e i s i n c l u -
ded o n l y i n t h e term A, i t i s suggested t h a t a p e r t u r b a t i o n along a
v o r t e x l i n e may be represented by At. So, 6 i s assumed t o be i n -
dependent o f time t f o r s i m p l i f y i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s .
Then, from ( 6 . l ) - ( 6 . 6 ) , „(,)= a<Usin& ,i s i n 9 + ^ < u cos (*> t + d)<™6
0 0 0

v(t)=—O<D sin ait cosS +A <o cos {<i> t + t) sin 8

0 0 0
(6-7)

w(t) = 6o> cos <ot

where, j~ k
dU
(6,8)
'T^Hrt'^^'iy-
and, Ao and 6 are constants.
(6.7) are t h e basic equations o f t h e Il-eddy model, whose f i r s t
and second terms describe t h e primary and secondary motions, respe-
ctively. I t i s n o t i c e d t h a t f o r l a r g e r v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t dU/dy o r
l a r g e r angular v e l o c i t y w t h e v o r t e x l i n e may be more e a s i l y r a i s e d
w i t h a longer p e r i o d o f t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n and i n an extreme case t h e
Il-eddy may be broken down by quick s t r e t c h i n g w i t h o u t any v i b r a t i o n .
However, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate t h e a c t u a l v a l u e o f con a t p r e -
sent.

6.2.2 T u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s and R e y n o l d s s t r e s s e s e v a l u a t e d by
a n-eddy
Assuming t h a t t h e d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e primary and
secondary motions i s n e g l i g i b l e , i . e . co>>w 05 the turbulence i n t e n s i -
t i e s and Reynolds stresses c o n t r i b u t e d by any n-eddy can be e v a l u a -
t e d from ( 6 . 7 ) , as f o l l o w s :
 (6.10) o b v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no c o r r e l a t i o n betveen u
and v and betveen v and v , v h i c h coincides v i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of tvo-dimensional shear f l o v . Since 0 <_ 6 <_ TT/2 and -uv" > 0,
(6.10) gives (A a> )
0 0
2
(6-11)

Of course, (6.11) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e secondary

motion i s smaller than t h a t o f t h e primary motion. Also, the
c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t R i s given by

y^—
( 6 - 1 2 )
/ { M W l H - C W W f l ) {(aft^«+U,«jW»,

Obviously, (6.12) evaluates 0 < R < 1 , v h i c h also agrees v i t h t h e

turbulence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Next, from ( 6 . 9 ) , t h e f o l l o v i n g can
be obtained: — —_ i 2 ,, , ,
u
~" =2 ( ( - ) M ^ o ) " j { s u i f l - c o s f l }
a 2 2
(6-13)
2 2
Since u ' > v ' i n t h e a c t u a l t u r b u l e n t shear f l o v (see Chapter k),
2 2
almost a l l o f II-eddies must s a t i s f y t h e r e l a t i o n t h a t u > v .
Consequently, almost a l l o f Il-eddies have t o be a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e
f o l l o v i n g range o f t h e i n c l i n a t i o n angle:
9
<j (6-14)

6.2.3 S p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n s o f energy
The above i n v e s t i g a t i o n has been l i m i t e d o n l y t o a s p e c i f i e d eddy
element, b u t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t u r b u l e n c e as a v h o l e c o n t r i b u t e d
by a l l o f t h e eddies should be made c l e a r . I n order t o a t t a i n t h i s
purpose, t h e conception o f energy spectrum about eddy s c a l e X must
be i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e same manner as Chapter 2, t o g e t h e r v i t h adopt-
ion o f space vave number i n E u l e r i a n expression i n s t e a d o f t h e above
Lagrangian form.
Although a p a r t o f t h e primary motions may produce t u r b u l e n c e

-91-
due t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e mean f l o w , i t i s considered t h a t
almost o f t h e primary motions i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n have a
t u r b u l e n c e cascade process where a l a r g e r scale eddy s u c c e s s i v e l y
transports i t s t u r b u l e n t energy i n t o a smaller scale eddy, because
i n t h i s r e g i o n t h e r e e x i s t s an e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e o f t h e t u r b u l e n t
energy and any eddy element s a t i s f i e s t h e s i m i l a r i t y law, as shown i n
Figs. 2.9 & 2.13.
Here, we adopt Heisenberg's concept o f t h e e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y i n
the cascade process, as f o l l o w s . Since t h e e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y v T

o f any Il-eddy i s given by x}w, i t can be adopted t h a t »T-(«* +**W2

i n terms o f i t s average. When t h e e f f e c t i v e viscous f o r c e a g a i n s t
the primary motion can be approximated t o be equal t o hivo^lX •by-
a p p l i c a t i o n o f Oseen's law f o r a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r (where, 1?" i s t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v e l o c i t y o f a Il-eddy), a r a t e W o f work done by t h e
mean e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y o f eddy against t h e eddy motion can be g i v e n
: ï
by UïïVrjiT^" .2
Adopting v- =(7 -i-" "+» )/3 , t h e f o l l o w i n g i s o b t a i n e d .
! J

W~Ax • (6-15)
2 * 3

According t o Heisenberg's concept, t h e t r a n s p o r t T o f energy i n t h e

cascade process i s equal t o t h e r a t e o f work per u n i t volume, i . e .
T=W/(TTab • 1 ) . A l s o , t h e t r a n s p o r t T i s equal t o i t s f i n a l dissipati-
on r a t e e, as shown i n F i g . 2.9- Assuming t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
the secondary motion may be n e g l i g i b l e i n t h i s cascade process
because o f aw >> AQWQ? "the f o l l o w i n g equation can be o b t a i n e d from

where, e= b/a < 1 and K i s a constant i n t r o d u c e d f o r u n c e r t a i n t y i n

the above assumptions ( K = o ( l ) ) .
Next, since t h e one-dimensional wave number k i n t h e x - d i r e c t i o n
i s given by k = it i d/a (see our paper 1 9 7 4 ) , ( 6 . l 6 ) becomes
S n

(3./X)
,2 = ••(6.17)
J
(1+. )
 By t h e way, i n t h e range ( k 0 k <_ k ) where t h e cascade process
e x i s t s , t h e Reynolds s i m i l a r i t y i s v a l i d , and furthermore t h e t u r -
b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f has a s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n ,
which i s t h e same conception as ' s e l f - s i m i l a r i t y 1
mentioned i n 5 . 5 .
Consequently, t h e r a t i o e may be regarded as constant because t h e
shape o f any Il-eddy i s s i m i l a r t o each o t h e r .
2
Therefore, a spectrum d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n G(k) o f to w i l l be o b t a i n e d
for k 0 < k <k do, 2
A ( 3 t / K ) *" 3

(irsintf) 'X h H
t t (6-i8)
d l 8
(i+..>*
Now, on t h e assumption t h a t u 0 i s so i n a p p r e c i a b l e compared w i t h
w i n t h e cascade process, t h e spectra o f t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s can
be w r i t t e n , as f o l l o w s : ,
r*(t) = -^(j.in«) G(i) £ ,(t) S I

(6-19)

-y- (7 • tal)" J

That i s .
3
/

3(1 + .

_ _£_W£>*
w ( B _ j ) X («M >.. K r X f
3 +,J)>S
(1

2__W^ ( B . ,X.X K
f r .

(6.20) shows t h a t each s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n i s i n p r o p o r t i o n t o

the -5/3 power o f k i n t h e cascade process ( kn --• k _- k ) , which
s u r e l y coincides w i t h t h e l o c a l i s o t r o p i c t h e o r y proposed by
Kolmogoroff ( c f . Section 2 . 3 ) ,
1
L a s t l y , denoting k =ó''> ' , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e secondary
0 a

motion should not be neglected i n t h e range o f '<*<>. Then,

since t h e Il-eddy may be j u s t before t h e breakdown by t h e v o r t e x -
s t r e t c h i n g , t h e cross s e c t i o n o f i t s v o r t e x tube w i l l be extremely
distorted. Consequently, assuming e « l , (6.3) and ( 6 . l 6 ) give 2

• -."'«V-r'^r . Therefore, from (6.9),

-93-
n
 £„(*)«(«/"'to"*)*"', £ ' „ ( * ) - ( < r ~ V V 0 , («/•"'O* ( -2i)
6

(6.21) i n d i c a t e s t h a t E_(k) s a t i s f i e s t h e - 1 power law i n t h e produ-

c t i v e subrange (k <_kn), whose r e s u l t a l s o c o i n c i d e s w i t h Tchen's
r e s u l t s and the experimental data o b t a i n e d i n Chapter k.
However, E„(k) and E ( k ) o b t a i n e d from (6.21) are i n c o r r e c t .
w This
i s probably due t o the f a c t t h a t the m o d e l l i n g o f the secondary
motion has been t o o s i m p l i f i e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , the incorrectness
i n E ( k ) may have been caused by an assumption t h a t the v o r t e x
w

s t r e t c h i n g a f f e c t s never t h e spanwise components.

6.2.4 Comparison of turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s with t h e experimental

data
I n order t o evaluate t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s u', v' and w'
from (6.20), t h e r a t i o e and t h e i n c l i n a t i o n angle 6 must be known.
F i r s t l y , s i n c e e i s constant i n any Il-eddy, i t w i l l be r e l a t e d t o
the mean eddy scales L x i n t h e x - d i r e c t i o n and L z i n the z - d i r e c t i o n .
Because L / L z x i s equal t o 0.5 i n an i s o t r o p i c t u r b u l e n c e o f e = 1 ,
i t may be e s t i m a t e d t h a t e - 2 ( L / L ) i n a shear t u r b u l e n c e .
Z X

According t o L a u f e r s ( 1 9 5 1 ) experiment f o r a two-dimensional

1
channel
f l o w , i t was shown t h a t t h e value o f L / L z x became about 0.3 indepen-
d e n t l y o f y/h. Consequently, we can here adopt e=0.6.
Next, i t i s more d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate t h e i n c l i n a t i o n angle 8
a c c u r a t e l y , because 0 may be d i f f e r e n t more o r l e s s f o r each eddy
size. Since t h e time-space c o r r e l a t i o n s may show the maximum i n an
i d e n t i c a l eddy, 0 w i l l be r o u g h l y estimated from these maximum c o r r -
elation distributions. F i g . 6.10 shows the data o f 0 f o r mean eddy
size summarized by Sternberg(1967)• According t o t h i s f i g u r e , 8
increases remarkably from about 20 degrees a t t h e edge o f the viscous
sublayer, and i t a t t a i n s about 40 degrees a t t h e edge o f the w a l l
r e g i o n (y=15 mm), and more i t becomes over 45 degrees i n t h e e q u i -
l i b r i u m region. This f a c t agrees very w e l l w i t h (6.lU) evaluated
by the Il-eddy model. However, the maximum i n c l i n a t i o n angle 6 m a x
 v h i c h a IT-eddy can h o l d i s q u i t e unknovn a t present.
W e l l , t h e a c t u a l t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n i s probably
c o n t r i b u t e d u n i f o r m l y from a l l eddies o f TT/U <_ 6 <_ 9 m a x . That i s
t o say, i t i s assumed here t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f (6.20) averaged u n i -
formly i n t h e range o f TTA < 6 <_ 0 m a x are observed a c t u a l l y .
For example, vhen 9 m a x i s chosen as t h e upper l i m i t value i n
t h e o r y , i . e . ö m a x ^ / 2 , t h e f o l l o v i n g s can be obtained:

E (*)= 2.295A' ' < ^ r ^ '

£,'_,(*) = 0.476A 'c ' k~ % /6

(6-22)
2 %
/•„,(*) = 2.774 f A" e k~

vhere, *• = [ ^ J*
?i y .

As mentioned i n Chapter 2, C E2.295K' i s a u n i v e r s a l constant v h i c h

i s n e a r l y equal t o 0.5 (see F i g . 2.10). Then, by using e=0.6,
K becomes equal t o 3.19- The t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s u', v ' and v'
are approximately evaluated from ( 6 . 2 2 ) , as f o l l o v s :

e S k m
' ' «'* = \ E u ( k U k = l c t ^ i ^ K - k ^ - * ) ( 6 . 2 3 )

By u s i n g e=0.6, t h e f o l l o v i n g r e l a t i o n s are obtained.

v' w'
= 0.46 , — = 0.66 (6-24)
li u

In t h e same manner as t h e above, t h e r e s u l t s c a l c u l a t e d by v a r y i n g

0 m a x as a parameter are shovn i n F i g . 6.11. W e l l , F i g . 6.12 replots
t h e experimental data o f v'/u' and v'/u' obtained i n Chapter h.
When 8 x m a
i s
chosen as 78 degrees, (6.20) o r F i g . 6.11 gives

- 7 = °-55 , 0.69 (6-25)

- U

I n t h e e q u i l i b r i u m r e g i o n ( 0.0&\ <_ y/h £ 0.6 f o r t h e h i g h e r - v e l o c i t y

group, and 0 . l 6 <_ y/h <_ 0.6 f o r t h e l o v e r - v e l o c i t y g r o u p ) , (6.25)
coincides very v e i l v i t h t h e experimental values, t h a t i s , ( H . 1 2 ) ,
A l s o , K becomes equal t o 2.73, vhose value i s c o n s i s t e n t v i t h K=o(l)
i n (6.16). Hovever, i n t h e v a i l r e g i o n y/h <_ 0.1 f o r t h e l o v e r -
v e l o c i t y group, (6.25) cannot e x p l a i n t h e experimental data.
Consequently, t h e Ti-eddy model i s not a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e r e g i o n o f
y +
< 50.
 To sum up, t h e Il-eddy model can e x p l a i n f a i r l y w e l l t h e macro
s t r u c t u r e o f turbulence i n the e q u i l i b r i u m region. Since t h i s
region i s s c a r c e l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e outer boundary c o n d i t i o n s and
consequently i t has a dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e o r s e l f - s i m i l a r i t y
, t h a t i s , a s e l f - c o n s i s t e n c y o f t u r b u l e n c e , t h e turbulence inten-
s i t i e s are given by t h e f o l l o w i n g s , as mentioned i n 4 . 3 .
( (
u7t/„ = fl,-<~ . f
y'/U =D . - , w'/Ut=D '*~
t 2 e 3 (6-26)

Thus, (6.26) may be considered t o be a conclusion obtained from a

IT-eddy model. The v o r t e x tube o f t h e Il-eddy has a cross s e c t i o n
d i s t o r t e d by about 60% i n t h e mean f l o w d i r e c t i o n , and keeps u n i -
formly an i n c l i n a t i o n angle developing up t o about 80 degrees.

6.3 Renewal model * )

6.3.1 F o r m u l a t i o n o f a r e n e w a l model
I n m o d e l l i n g t h e w a l l r e g i o n , we consider an i d e a l i z e d model o f
the b u r s t i n g process, which i s c a l l e d a renewal model, because i t
i s most e s s e n t i a l t o take account o f i t s p e r i o d i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
We can d i v i d e a p e r i o d T o f t h e b u r s t i n g phenomenon i n t o two
d u r a t i o n i n t e r v a l s : one i s t h e b u i l t - u p or developing d u r a t i o n T i ,
and t h e other i s t h e breakdown d u r a t i o n T 2 o f t h e coherent v o r t e x
motion, t h a t i s , T= T i + T • 2 The e j e c t i o n motion occurs i n t h e break-
down d u r a t i o n T , and b o t h t h e sweep and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n motions
2

occur i n t h e b u i l t - u p d u r a t i o n T i , since t h e former i s swept l i t e r a -

l l y by t h e l a t t e r and a new horseshoe v o r t e x i s born again. For
convenience, t h e beginning o f a sweep motion i s here denoted as t = 0 ,
and then a sequence o f t h e b u r s t i n g process i s considered t o be a
c y c l i c motion o f sweep-interaction-ejection-sweep.
Let Ui=(üi,v ) and U 1 2 E(U ,V ) 2 2 be t h e instantaneous v e l o c i t i e s
during Ti and T , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
2 The e d d y - v i s c o s i t y might be i n f i -
n i t e l y smaller i n t h e b u i l t - u p d u r a t i o n and i n f i n i t e l y l a r g e r i n t h e

*) Refer t o our paper {Bursting phenomenon near the wall in open

channel flow and its simple mathematical model) j u s t p u b l i s h e d
i n Memoirs of Faculty of Engineering, Kyoto University }

vol. 40, part 4, 1978.

 breakdown d u r a t i o n than the m o l e c u l a r - v i s c o s i t y since much o f the
Reynolds s t r e s s i s generated by the breakdown o f the horseshoe
v o r t e x , i . e . e j e c t i o n motion. Consequently, assuming t h a t the non-
l i n e a r c o u p l i n g e f f e c t and the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n e f f e c t are neg-
l i g i b l e d u r i n g the b u i l t - u p t i m e , the Navier-Stokes equation which
c o n t r o l s the coherent motion i n t h i s d u r a t i o n can be approximated
by using the boundary l a y e r t h e o r y since Xt < X3 < X{ (see 5.5.1),
as f o l l o w s : *, _ ^
j dt fly'

The boundary c o n d i t i o n s are

y=0 : u,= 0 , y-+oo : ü, = £/ 0 (6-28)

where U 0 i s the main stream v e l o c i t y outside the w a l l r e g i o n .

Since the d i s t o r t e d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f an e j e c t i o n motion
may be swept due t o the s t r e s s - r e l i e v e d mechanism and r e s t o r e d t o
a u n i f o r m l y accelerated v e l o c i t y , as observed i n Figs. 2.20 & 5.1*0,
the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n can be i d e a l i z e d by
t = 0 : »,= {/„ ( y> 0 ) (6.29)
Then, the s o l u t i o n o f (6.27) w i t h the c o n d i t i o n s o f (6.28) and
(6.29) reads _ 2U f& 0 2

"» = —ZT / dxsu0 erf Ö (6'30)

</rt u

H where, e=,/(2v T7) /

a n d e r f 0 i s the e r r o r - f u n c t i o n o f 0.
(6.30) was f i r s t l y obtained by E i n s t e i n & Li(1956), and i t forms the
p o r i g i n o f the present model. On the other hand, Black(l968) adopted
Coles' l o g a r i t h m i c law, i . e . Ü,=(/,
+
! NY +5.1) as the i n i t i a l condi-
t i o n o f (6.27), and then he obtained a more complicated s o l u t i o n
than (6.30). Though t h i s i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n seems t o be more s u i -
t a b l e f o r the a c t u a l phenomenon than (6.29), as seen from F i g s . 2.20
& 5-40, we do not adopt the Black s o l u t i o n here because i t i s too
i n t r i c a t e t o go on c a l c u l a t i n g f u r t h e r .
Now, making the axis t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o 8/3t=-U 8/Sx (Taylor's c

frozen turbulence hypothesis, see (U.37)) where Up i s the convection

v e l o c i t y o f a horseshoe v o r t e x , and using the equation o f c o n t i n u i t y
, we can o b t a i n

-97-

3
 a
;i=
1
.r Ji -idy= /-ï{i-exp(-e )} !
(6-31)
J dx a 4 "t

where, a ETJ /Uo i s equal t o (0.7 - 0.8) according t o t h e p r e v i o u s

c

experiments (see Hinze's hook 1975)-

Next, because t h e mechanism o f t h e vortex-breakdown i s n o t s u f f i -
c i e n t l y e v i d e n t , U = ( ü , v ) i s e v a l u a t e d here by i n t r o d u c i n g a sim-
2 2 2

p l i f i e d idea. I t i s considered t h a t 3 =T /Ti 2 i sinfinitesimal, i.e.

B«l, since t h e vortex-breakdown or t h e e j e c t i o n motion occurs i n
very s h o r t t i m e , as shown i n F i g . 5-26. Then, u i ( t = T x ) i s renewed
i n t o üi (t=T) = ui (t=0) i n a v e r y s h o r t t i m e . Consequently, t h e
average o f b o t h üi(t=Ti) and ui (t=T) can be r e p r e s e n t e d as
u (Ti<t<T).
2 We can a l s o o b t a i n f =-7Jfi
t s i n c e t h e average verti-
c a l v e l o c i t y V = ~= ( T r . + r , m u s t a i w a y s b e zero i n an open cha-
nnel flow. Furthermore, v 2 may be c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h v f o r 2

6«1. Then, 7 -~j

tH fl (6-32)

From t h e above s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s can be

o b t a i n e d by u s i n g 3 « 1 .

(6-33)

y=v = o

11 dt-U*
(6-34)
'T

u„= {G -c/)-7,+p'(Z -u)-~ }/(i +s)

l i i /
(6.35)

The second term o f (6.35) i s t h e Reynolds s t r e s s which i s generated

by an e j e c t i o n m o t i o n , and i s g i v e n by • Tr, = (»,(< = r,) - u, (t = T)) • »,
because t h i s Reynolds s t r e s s i s equal t o t h e momentum change o f ü
which i s t r a n s f e r r e d by v >0 d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f breakdown.
2

Then,
(6-35)'

-98-
 Since u*= f(3Z/d ) . y y 0 , we can also o b t a i n from (6.30)

• 'Mf^-^jï
6.3.2 F u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f renewal model by t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f
the p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u r s t i n g period
The above r e s u l t s represent t h e t u r b u l e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s during
-

one b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T. However, i n order t o o b t a i n t h e a c t u a l

t u r b u l e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as compared w i t h t h e experiments, t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f T should be t a k e n i n t o account.
Then, t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y (6.36) by u s i n g (5-l6)-(5.18)
becomes as f o l l o w s :

Also, by doing t h e v a r i a b l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f * = fo (Tfr )/<i ,

g Q 0

( 6 . 3 3 ) becomes j« n
0
+ +
U^U a>(y )=U - j^GU)dsJ t(9)dr 0
i
oer (6-38)

where, o f r ) . i ^ - ( t W , a n d 0 reads <>= -L-^>-'« y* 1

2 v t 4 u +
< ° Ao "o'.r '

In t h e same manner, we can o b t a i n from (6.3*0 and ( 6 . 3 5 ) ' :

l t 1
^J^j" Gls)dsj (eril0)) dT-U*
t t (6-39)

(^) = T
^—r-l\~ — " f ' ^ ' ^ + l w / ) ] •• (6-40)
K
U T
J
{\+/3){2aU'a
*Y 0
L
J - - io°o' Jo * jf

I I
+
+ ^(y ) - { l - e r f ( ^ r ' i ^ l ) } ] (6-41)
4
iV
where, f " g^jg expf-a'))^

v
L a s t l y , t h e b u r s t i n g p e r i o d T-g i s obtained from (6.37),
as f o l l o w s : T „ 2 . -J-s
1 giM _ 4r u +1
0
+ J
(6-42)

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PART 2 Turbulent s t r u c t u r e over permeable bed
Chapter 7 Introduction
In Part 1 we have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y and experimen-
t a l l y the problems ( l ) - ( 5 ) mentioned p r e v i o u s l y (see page 1 ) , which
are very basic and important i n t u r b u l e n c e research o f two-dimen-
s i o n a l s o l i d open-channel f l o w s . However, v a r i o u s t u r b u l e n t
phenomena which o f t e n appear i n h y d r a u l i c engineering and environ-
mental sciences are very complicated, and then even i n two-dimensi-
onal open-channel flows the f o l l o w i n g boundary c o n d i t i o n s are
furthermore added t o the f l o w d e a l t w i t h i n Part 1.
(1) A seepage f l o w e x i s t s under t h e porous bed. Consequently, an
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h main and seepage flows cannot be n e g l e c t e d
i n open-channel f l o w .
(2) Suction or i n j e c t i o n e x i s t s s t e a d i l y through t h e porous bed.
Consequently,the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e may be v a r i e d e s s e n t i a l l y .
( 3 ) The bed surface i s d i s c o n t i n o u s , uneven or wavy.
(4) The bed i s moving sand surface. Consequently, an i n t e r a c t i o n
between f l o w and moving bed should be considered ( Sediment
t r a n s p o r t by t u r b u l e n t f l o w ) .
(5) Suspended m a t e r i a l s e x i s t i n open-channel f l o w . Consequently,
the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e may be v a r i e d e s s e n t i a l l y .

In t h i s p a r t , we i n v e s t i g a t e the t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e s w i t h
boundary c o n d i t i o n s o f (1) and (2) i n Chapter 8 and Chapter 9,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , and we consider the fundamental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f turbulence over a permeable bed, by comparing w i t h t h e r e s u l t s
obtained over a s o l i d bed (Part 1 ) .

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Chapter 8 I n t e r a c t i o n between main a n d s e e p a g e f l o w s * )

8.1 Introduction
When t h e bed p e r m e a b i l i t y i s small enough t o n e g l e c t t h e
e f f e c t o f seepage f l o w under the bed, t h e main f l o w shows t h e chara-
c t e r i s t i c s over a s o l i d rough bed, which have been already discussed
i n Part 1. When the e f f e c t o f seepage f l o w on the main f l o w
cannot be n e g l e c t e d , t h e r e e x i s t s a hydrodynamic i n t e r a c t i o n b e t -
ween them through t h e porous bed. Compared w i t h s o l i d rough bed,
the momentum exchange becomes more a c t i v e , and consequently an
a d d i t i o n a l shear s t r e s s w i l l be produced by t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n .
For example, Lovera e t al.(1969) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n - f a c t o r
o f f l a t permeable bed i n a n a t u r a l r i v e r was much l a r g e r than t h a t
o f rough bed given by Nikuradse. A l s o , Monin e t al.(1971)
p o i n t e d out t h a t s i m i l a r phenomenon was observed i n the wind f l o w
over a vegetated ground. These a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s may be caused
by an i n t e r a c t i o n between main and seepage f l o w s .
The seepage f l o w near t h e pore surface i s e x c i t e d t o be
t u r b u l e n t by t h e pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s o f main f l o w . Otherwise,
the seepage f l o w becomes laminar and Darcy law i s a p p l i c a b l e .
Then, there i s an analogy between smooth and permeable f l o w f i e l d s ,
as shown i n Fig.8.1. That i s , t h e viscous sublayer i s also
d i s t u r b e d by the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s o f main f l o w , as have been
mentioned i n 4 . 7 . 3 . Consequently, an a d d i t i o n a l shear s t r e s s i s
probably induced i n the main f l o w by t h e d i s t u r b e d seepage f l o w .
To sum up, t h e r e e x i s t s a hydrodynamic i n t e r a c t i o n mechanism
between main and seepage f l o w s , as shown i n F i g . 8.2. This
chapter deals w i t h these feed-back systems, i n order.

*) Refer t o our paper p u b l i s h e d i n Proc. of JSCE, No.244, pp.81-90,

1975 (in Japanese), or Trans, of JSCE, vol.7, pp.201-204, 1976
(in English).

-110-
8.2 Theoretical consideration
8.2.1 Basic equations o f seepage flow
The l o c a l v e l o c i t y Vp i n the porous media must obey the f o l l o -
wing Navier-Stokes equation.

J > = F - f(-J-) + i/f* v -(v 'V) v p p p (8-1)

where, F i s the volume f o r c e , p = p + p i s the instantaneous pressure.

But, as shown i n F i g . 8.3, i t i s impossible t o evaluate the l o c a l

v e l o c i t y Vp, and moreover i n p r a c t i c e i t i s b e t t e r t o s u b s t i t u t e
a nominal v e l o c i t y , i . e . seepage v e l o c i t y q f o r t h i s l o c a l v e l o c i t y .
That i s , i f . > \ (R'2)

where, n i s the p o r o s i t y o f the medium. < > denotes the s e c t i o n a l

average on s.
W e l l , the f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s are assumed t o be
valid. The viscous f r i c t i o n i s a l i n e a r term, as f o l l o w s :
*<r' » > = -^-9p (.) 8 3

The i n e r t i a l f r i c t i o n i s a n o n l i n e a r term, as f o l l o w s :

((»,'D» ) 5 - | , | , -(8-4)
vA
where, K i s the i n t r i n s i c p e r m e a b i l i t y o f the medium, and C i s a
experimental constant.
D e f i n i n g the Reynolds number « = T l l / x o f seepage f l o w as the A v 9

ratio o f (8.4) t o ( 8 . 3 ) , Eq.(8.1) i s approximated as f o l l o w s :

F r x CR
kl\-- - ^-jt + ^ (8-5)

(8.5) i s a p p l i e d t o a permeable open-channel f l o w f i e l d , as shown

i n F i g . 8.4. Then, denoting one-dimensional seepage f l o w
= +c q z w h e r e i s t h e m e a n v e l o c i t a n d q a n d q
q (qm ix> v ^' % y v y z
are the f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s , the basic equations o f mean v e l o c i t y
are given by

-111-
 ( 8 6 )
y-component : f = "9 i* ~ y > '
x-component : (1 +cit )q K H =(K /»
9 ) /, (8-7)

I i s the h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t o f porous media and i t c o i n c i d e s w i t h

the energy g r a d i e n t o f main f l o w (see page 6 ) . R K i s nearly
equal t o R =*v"iïq /* •
K m

When *r«i/c } (8-8)

When ( ^(vTc-,/,)"' (8-9)

(8.8) i s Darcy law, which i s a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e laminar r e g i o n .

On the other hand, (8.9) i s a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e t u r b u l e n t r e g i o n .
Thus, C i s a measure o f n o n l i n e a r term. According t o t h e expe-
r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s by Arbhabhirama e t a l . ( 1 9 7 3 ) , C i s approximately
2 0 /
given by c = 1 0 0 U . V " 7 1 0 < ^»v ^7T< so) (g-io)

where, d i s t h e p a r t i c l e mean diameter o f porous media,

m
Next, i n t h e same manner as 2 . 2 , t h e b a s i c equations o f
f l u c t u a t i n g components are given from ( 8 . 5 ) - ( 8 . 7 ) , as f o l l o w s :

*JL- _ = *(£-)-„„,
v
dt dx fi
(8-11)
8
lr=- l(l)-a„,
v
dt dy fi '

where, a,s( /jC)(l BV + 2CR ) K , a, = ( v/K) (1 +CR )

n K .

From the equation o f c o n t i n u i t y ,

„„ . __£ï-?ï*
v (8-12)

On the other hand, t h e primary terms o f pressure equation o f t h e

main flow i s a l s o given by

(8-13)
a y ox ,

(8.12) i s very s i m i l a r t o (8.13). I n other words, t h e e x t e r n a l

f o r c e term o f pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e main f l o w i s (du/d )(dv/dx)
y

, w h i l e i t s term i n t h e seepage f l o w i s (q /VT) m (.d q / d x )

x t These
e x t e r n a l terms are both very s i m i l a r .

-112-
 8.2.2 A n a l y s i s o f t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s o f seepage flow
We consider the t u r b u l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s o f seepage f l o w e x c i t e d
by the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n p 0 on t h e boundary (y=0) o f main f l o w
(see Fig. 8.1 ( b ) ) . That i s , the boundary c o n d i t i o n s o f seepage
flow are assumed as f o l l o w s :

P-R.W2 Po'expiCkx+tot)} = p o y =o (8'14)

h
, at y— p (8-i5)
!
where, Re{ } denotes t h e r e a l p a r t o f { }. ?o'(=v^ö ) i s t h e r.m.s.
value o f pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e main f l o w . h i s the
P
thickness o f porous media, a t which t h e t u r b u l e n t f l o w i s attenuated
and becomes laminar, as mentioned p r e v i o u s l y . Then, on these
boundary c o n d i t i o n s , (8.11)-(8.12) are e a s i l y solved, as f o l l o w s :
C-h < y < 0)
p

P {
' «h(^/ )J (8-16)

. - D f . "* .•/2(?o /^)cosh ?(A + v)

/
/ n •

9 { X m i ( i j r + < u < ) } ( 8 , 1 7 )
'^' (7^717) c^vv
. nk* /^(po'/^sinh^U.+y) .
?
>-*'t-(^V' coshC^) * exp.(^)} (8-18)

where,
1
By using t h e r e l a t i o n o f ,» = 1 [?,?,•+«,{ J, }] =-J- ö^V
(q x and q* are complex conjugates), t h e f o l l o w i n g approximations
are obtained i n t h e r e g i o n very close t o the porous boundary, i . e .
0 ~ |y| « h . — n'k*
P d = f - T T T \ ( p ^ y (8-19)
1
n k*
l
ll = 7 = = = f = = T = = = . ( ? ^ ) - ( 8 - 2 0 )

(8.19) and (8.20) are also derived by Chu e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) , on t h e

d i f f e r e n t boundary c o n d i t i o n from (8.15).
Next, since (8.19) and (8.20) are a c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a d i s t u r b e d
eddy w i t h scale (k, w ) , the c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f a l l eddies are here
considered by i n t r o d u c i n g two-side normalized s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
$p(k, w) o f the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s , i n t h e same manner as 6.2.3.

-113-
 ( 8 2
That i s , ?0 * . « ) = ^ V * . « ) and
(4 J'J^V*' » ' °

Then, t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t i e s q' and q' near t h e porous boundary

x y
are given by
*<>• '•»»- <••»>

Also, t h e normalized s p e c t r a l functions $ v and $ v o f q^ and q , y

respectively, are given by

y :
" 9 , V ( a , W ) ( a ^ + of )

Consequently, i f $ ( k , to) i s known, t h e s p e c t r a o f seepage

p

f l u c t u a t i o n s are e a s i l y o b t a i n e d . However, i t i s a t present

d i f f i c u l t t o d i r e c t l y e v a l u a t e $p over a permeable rough bed.
Thus, we here estimate t h e f u n c t i o n o f $p from t h e r e s u l t s o f s o l i d -
w a l l t u r b u l e n c e obtained by W i l l m a r t h e t a l . ( 1 9 6 2 ) and Corcos(1964) .
According t o Corcos, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s are s a t i s f i e d .

<J> (k, ü>)=;^-ci(aO£; (/i + l ) u (8-26)

r
\a>\

E (M+O
0 = -\ /»U)COS <(/i+t )dt (8-27)

where, t=«>t/u , c u=kU U

e , ? i s the lag distance. A ( t ) i s the

r a t i o o f amplitude d e f i n e d as A ( t ) = |r(£, w)|/4>(w), w) i s t h e

cross-spectrum, and <|>(ÜJ) i s t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n spectrum.
Of course, i f t h e f r o z e n t u r b u l e n c e hypothesis o f T a y l o r i s e x a c t l y
v a l i d , A ( t ) becomes equal t o u n i t y . Then, (8.26) and (8.27)
become 0 (k, = *<»a( \ Wit/,)
p « W ^ the delta
s function.

QA-w/U , ft))-0(<») (8-28)

or C

That i s t o say, t h e disturbances o f (8.14) are p e r f e c t l y c o h e r e n t l y

convected w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y U =-co/k. c

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 Now, assuming t h a t t h e a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n has an exponential

t y p e , we o b t a i n j r - 1tI/i)< -,„ d r = ? ( 8 . 2 9 )

where, 2 i s t h e i n t e g r a l time scale.

Next, F i g . 8.5 shows t h e experimental values o f A ( t ) obtained
by W i l l m a r t h e t a l . and Corcos. I n t h e same manner as ( 8 . 2 9 ) ,
the f i t t i n g f u n c t i o n o f A ( t ) i s f i r s t l y assumed t o be an e x p o n e n t i a l
type. That i s , , , ( , ) « ( J b i i s an experimental constant)- (8-30)

T h e n > { 8 < 3 1 )
' ' ^ ^ T i . ^ . ) '
However, t h e c a l c u l a t e d values o f q« and q' u s i n g (8.22), (8.23) and
(8.31) are d i v e r g e n t , because t h e higher wave number components o f
(8.31) are t o o l a r g e . (Same example appears i n (2.43) by using
(4.47).) Hence, i t may be b e t t e r t o use t h e f o l l o w i n g f i t t i n g
f u n c t i o n which s a t i s f i e s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f A'(0)=0, since (8.28) o f
the f r o z e n turbulence i s probably v a l i d when t i s very s m a l l .
)= i s a n
^' T+7J777 (^2 experimental constant) -(8-32)

Then, 1 , 1 v
£ o U + D = — e x p ( - — l / i + l l ) - (8'33)

From (8.29) and (8.33), (8.26) becomes

( i ,„ ) = + -(8.34)

Consequently, from (8.22) and (8.23), we can o b t a i n

1
„/i */ Po' \» 2 A
i +l 1

I ( , , ) ] (8 36)
' - - ^ ^ ) ^ T 7 i 7 V r T T ^ ^ ' - ^ '

where, e / 3 t t | ï t a / m a , z . Kj and K 3 are t h e e l l i p t i c functions of

Legendre-Jacobi t y p e , which are d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
d x
d x _n
1 1
and ^"jW-^Vo-^Xi-* * )

0 J
where, =«/VC«,"-D> • * =i-W°.>°

-115-
 If (8.30) i s used i n s t e a d o f (8.32), 2b 2 i n t h e denominator o f (8.45)
i s replaced o n l y by TTbj .
Where, _ <n
w n i c n
~Jo V(.a "l + t ) { a 7 " + t ) U + t ) ' i s easily integrated
as follows:

f
( i ) «/S«! >l ( When \ > a ( > a { , t h e lower s i g n i s used)

(f) « , ' > ! > a,'

/ = J = j , a n - ( ; a
- L ^ ) A
7 v
Ian (8'46)

( i ) a,'è ' = i ( When i

ai , otf i s r e p l a c e d by a£.)
/ = 2/(a,' + ] )

where, ^,= 0 7 * - , , A S A /«-| .

F i g . 8.9 shows t h e c o e f f i c i e n t I as a f u n c t i o n o f a/ w i t h parameter

of y = a M . 2 Of course, t h e l a r g e r t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y K becomes
(or the s m a l l e r ctf becomes), t h e l a r g e r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t I becomes,
and consequently t h e l a r g e r induced s t r e s s i s generated.
Well, t h e mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e main f l o w i s g i v e n
by t h e v e l o c i t y defect law, as f o l l o w s :

where, 6 i s t h e experimental constant which corresponds t o t h e

•displacement h e i g h t ' o f roughness elements ( I t has been discussed
i n 2.5.) Assuming t h a t ( 8 . 4 7 ) i s v a l i d up t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f y=0,
we can o b t a i n {dV/d =u./*t
y)y= (8-48) .

Next, according t o many p r e v i o u s experimental r e s u l t s , t h e

wall-pressure i n t e n s i t y p j i s proportional t o t h e w a l l shear
stress T . 0 That i s , , /R*AQ\

where, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e w a l l roughness k*
and t h e Reynolds number Re, i. e. ; a= G(Re, kg ) from (4.34).

-118-
 The i n t e g r a l time s c a l e Z can be approximately given by
ï~o.4h/u 0 , since v Z e i s n e a r l y equal to the m a c r o s c a l e L x i n the
main flow * J .
From the above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , we can o b t a i n the f o l l o w i n g
formula which e s t i m a t e s the induced s t r e s s T j .

r
- ^ ^ ^ . - ( (8-50)
r 0 »(2A,) *Co Wo

where, .
F i g . 8.5 g i v e s t h a t 2>i=0.12 or b =0.16, and thus Trbi=0.38 or
2

2b =0.32, which a r e not q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from each o t h e r .

2

F i g . 8.10 shows the observed v a l u e s of the c o e f f i c i e n t a by Corcos,

as a f u n c t i o n o f Re f o r the c a s e o f smooth bed. According to
the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s by W i l l m a r t h e t a l . , the v a l u e o f a f o r
the rough bed i s by (1.2 - 1.4) times as l a r g e as t h a t f o r the smooth
bed. S i n c e our porous roughness i s s t i l l l a r g e r than the rough-
n e s s of W i l l m a r t h e t a l . , we t e n t a t i v e l y adopt the v a l u e s o f a f o r
the smooth bed (Corcos) m u l t i p l i e d by 1.4 t i m e s , which a r e shown
by a curve i n F i g . 8.10.
When the v a l u e s of a, 2>i or b z are reasonably determined,
the v a l i d i t y o f the e s t i m a t e d formula o f (8.50) can be investigated
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by measuring the v e l o c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f main
and seepage f l o w s .

*) L i n the p o r o u s - w a l l t u r b u l e n c e may be the n e a r l y same as t h a t

x

i n the rough-wall t u r b u l e n c e . Then, s i n c e Ljk-o.e^ from F i g . 4.31,

the m a c r o s c a l e i n the main flow i s _given as f o l l o w s :
l
Ljksf LjhdS-0.4
a .*. % * ~Z,-0.4* .

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8.3 Experimental consideration
8.3.1 Experimental set-up and procedure
As shown i n F i g . 8.11, t h e glass beads o f diameter d =1.25 cm m

were set homogeneously on t h e smooth bed o f our open-channel

(see F i g . 4.1) f o r about 10 m distances between t h e t e s t s e c t i o n .
The i n t e r v a l o f 1 m long downstream from t h e t e s t s e c t i o n was
covered w i t h a very t h i n r o u g h - p l a t e ( C i n F i g . 8.11), by which
the main and seepage flows were p e r f e c t l y separated. Hence,
the q u a n t i t i e s o f main and seepage flows were s e p a r a t e l y measured
by a t r i a n g u l a r weir and a f l o w bucket, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
channel slope and t h e v a l v e (A) were adjusted so t h a t t h e main
f l o w might become f u l l y developed and normal. Next, the v a l v e (B)
was adjusted so t h a t t h e r e might n o t e x i s t any s u c t i o n o r i n j e c t i o n
through the porous boundary, t h a t i s , (8.7) might be s a t i s f i e d .
The experiments o f t h r e e groups have been performed. First
group was a s o l i d rough bed, which was made by densely s e t t i n g t h e
roughness elements by one stratum ( C a s e D, cf. Table 4.1 ( c ) ) .
Second group was a dense porous bed, which was made by f a i r l y dense-
l y s e t t i n g t h e roughness elements by three s t r a t a ( C a s e E ) . Then,
the thickness hp o f t h i s porous media was n e a r l y equal t o 3.4 cm.
L a s t l y , t h i r d group was a loose porous bed, which was made by loose-
l y s e t t i n g t h e porous elements by f i v e s t r a t a ( C a s e F ) . Then,
hp was also n e a r l y equal t o 3.4 cm.

8.3.2 Mean f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f seepage flow

The p o r o s i t y n o f t h e media was e a s i l y determined by t h e
number d e n s i t y o f porous elements, i n r e s u l t n=0.39 (Case E) and
n=0.54 (Case F ) .
Next, F i g . 8.12 shows t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e seepage
v e l o c i t y qjn and the h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t I which was determined by
17 manometers. Then, t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y K and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t C
were determined so t h a t (8.7) might c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
values. These data are shown i n Table 8.1. S u r e l y , a good
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agreement between the e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s and (8.7) i s confirmed

i n F i g . 8.12.
Now, d e f i n i n g the f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f K o f seepage flow as
,
follows: /. /A: (2/VT)-(^/2 ,)
S
j ( Darcy-Weisbach type, c f . ( 2 . 7 ) ) ,

(8.7) becomes j =R ~'+c

K K 03-51)

Fig. 8.13 shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between R K and f . K Of c o u r s e ,

1
(8.8) becomes f = R^ K ( l a m i n a r r e g i o n , Darcy l a w ) , w h i l e (8.9)
becomes f = C ( t u r b u l e n t r e g i o n ) .
K As seen i n F i g . 8.13,

our experiments correspond to t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n where (8.51)

is applicable.

8.3.3 Mean f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f main f l o w

In order t o e v a l u a t e o n l y t h e e f f e c t o f t h e induced stress
which i s generated on t h e porous boundary, t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d i -
t i o n s should be given t h a t the Reynolds number Re and t h e Froude
number F r a r e kept to be c o n s t a n t ( c f . 4 . 2 ) . In this study,
we have c a r r i e d out the experiments of three d i f f e r e n t kinds of
Re and F r f o r each Case, i . e . Run 1, Run 2 and Run 3. These
h y d r a u l i c data f o r experiments a r e shown i n T a b l e 8.2.

W e l l , the w a l l s h e a r s t r e s s x 0 or the f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U #

should be e v a l u a t e d as a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s i b l e , s i n c e t h e induced
s t r e s s i s probably not so l a r g e . Although t h e e v a l u a t i o n
method of U # has been a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n 4.3.1, (2) log-law
method should not be adopted h e r e . I t ' s because t h e Karman
constant K i s not n e c e s s a r i l y equal to K=0.4. A c t u a l l y , Chu
et a l . ( 1 9 7 3 ) have o b t a i n e d K=0.27 i n a permeable a i r p i p e flow.
T h e r e f o r e , we have e v a l u a t e d the v a l u e s o f from (3)
R e y n o l d s - s t r e s s method. F i g . 8.14 shows an example o f the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Reynolds s t r e s s which was measured over the
permeable porous bed by the d u a l - s e n s o r h o t - f i l m anemometer.
Although t h e r e i s some s c a t t e r i n g o f t h e measured data n e a r t h e
bed because of t h e l o c a l e f f e c t o f t h e roughness elements, these
2
values o f -üv/U . agree f a i r l y w e l l w i t h (4.20). Consequently,
we can conclude t h a t t h e Reynolds-stress method adopted here i s
reasonably v a l i d .
Next, F i g . 8.15 shows t h e v e l o c i t y d e f e c t law o f the main
flow. A good agreement between the observed values and (8.47)
i s s u r e l y recognized. Consequently, the values o f U 0 and (8.48)
are reasonably e v a l u a t e d from (8.47).
I n Table 8.2 which summarizes the above r e s u l t s , i t should be
n o t i c e d t h a t the Karman constant K tends t o decrease as the porous
bed becomes l o o s e r . W e l l , i t i s well-known t h a t the Karman
constant can be v a r i e d by t h e o u t e r c o n d i t i o n s . For example,
these phenomena have been observed i n f l o w s w i t h suspended m a t e r i -
als, w i t h s u c t i o n o r i n j e c t i o n (see next c h a p t e r ) or w i t h loose
boundaries. Ippen(1971) p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e Karman constant
i s v a r i e d by the boundary c o n d i t i o n s near t h e bed. That i s t o
say, the Karman constant may decrease as t h e momentum exchange o f
t u r b u l e n c e becomes more a c t i v e near t h e bed, and v i c e versa.

8.3.4 Examination o f induced s t r e s s

The induced s t r e s s can be evaluated e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by t h e
f o l l o w i n g method. I n t h e Case D where t h e seepage f l o w i s
n e g l i g i b l e , the induced s t r e s s i s equal t o zero, and hence o n l y
the w a l l shear s t r e s s To occurs over the s o l i d rough bed.
Next, i n the Case E and F where the e f f e c t o f seepage flow i s
expected t o appear s u f f i c i e n t l y , the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the induced
s t r e s s Ts i s contained i n t h e t o t a l w a l l shear s t r e s s To which i s
a c t u a l l y observed. Consequently, i t i s considered t h a t t h e t o t a l
w a l l shear s t r e s s To can be composed o f the a d d i t i o n o f t h e w a l l
shear s t r e s s i j generated by the w a l l roughness and the induced
s t r e s s T4 generated by the seepage d i s t u r b a n c e s .
 The e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s o f t h e induced s t r e s s T-[ e v a l u a t e d from
(8.52) a r e shown i n T a b l e 8.3. The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e induced
s t r e s s i s equal t o (5 - 7 ) % (dense boundary: Case E ) and (12 - 1 4 ) %
( l o o s e boundary: Case F ) o f t h e t o t a l w a l l s h e a r s t r e s s .
We can here e v a l u a t e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t A m o f (8.50) from t h e
above e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s and ( 8 . 5 0 ) . These c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s
o f An, a r e a l s o shown i n T a b l e 8.3. Although t h e r e i s some s c a t t e -
r i n g i n these data, i s n e a r l y equal t o c o n s t a n t , t h a t i s : i t s
average v a l u e i s A =0.15 (from bi=0.12) or ^ = 0 . 1 3 (from b = 0 . 1 6 ) .
m 2

By t h e way, P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 6 7 ) h a s e v a l u a t e d A =0.12 w i t h d e v i -
m

a t i o n o f 5% from t h e j e t experiments performed by Townsend, and

then he has p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e same order v a l u e a s Am=0.12 c o u l d
be o b t a i n e d even i f P h i l l i p s t h e o r y o f (8.41) were a p p l i e d t o t h e
other kinds o f shear flows.
Consequently, so f a r a s our e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e concerned,
the p r e d i c t i o n o f P h i l l i p s i s v a l i d even i n t h e flow over permeable
porous bed. I n o t h e r words, we can e x p l a i n f a i r l y successfully
the hydrodynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between main and seepage f l o w s by
a p p l i c a t i o n of P h i l l i p s theory. However, s i n c e t h e e s t i m a t i o n
formula o f (8.50) has some assumptions and e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s t a n t s ,
the u n i v e r s a l c o n c l u s i o n on t h e induced s t r e s s cannot be o b t a i n e d
at present. F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u l d be c a r r i e d out i n a
v e g e t a t e d open-channel flow, a mountainous r i v e r w i t h l a r g e rela-
t i v e roughness k / h and o t h e r s , where t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between main
s

and seepage flows may o c c u r s t r o n g l y .

References ( Chapter 8 )
6) Arbhabhirama, A. & Dinoy, A. A. : Friction factors
1) Lovera, F. & Kennedy, J. F. : Friction-factors for
and Reynolds number in porous media flow,
flat-bed flows in sand channels, Proc. of ASCE, Proc. of ASCLVHY-6,pp.901-911, 1973.
pp. 1227-1234, 1969. 7) Corcos, G. M. : The structure of turbulent pres-
v u
2) Monin, A. S. & Yaglom, A. M. : Statistical fluid " ' 1.' . . . , n r l l l i H M p r h
w,T n ., ->C7 i n 10-71 sure field m boundary layer flows, J. Fluid Mech.,
mechanics, MIT Press, vol.1, pp.257-327, 1971.
•>v w . . «, #\ i_ r r vol. 18, pp.353-378, 1964.
3) Mi es, J. W. : On the generation of surface waves n x " .,, „, , ,„ , . . , « . . . ,,„„,„.
' ' „ , ,. ,, , o t 8) Willmarth, W. W. & Wooldridge, C. t. : Measure-
by shear flows, J. Fluid Mech., vol.3, pp.185-
r r
~ , , „,„ .„„ M
' ments of the fluctuating pressure at the wall
204, 1957.
beneath a thick turbulent boundary layer, J.
4) Phillips, O. M. : The maintenance of Reynolds
Fluid Mech., vol. 14, pp. 187-210, 1962.
stress in turbulent shear flow, J. Fluid Mech.,
9) Lighthill, M. J. : Physical interpretation of the
vol.27, pp. 131-144, 1967.
mathematics theory of wave generation by wind,
5) Chu, Y. & Gelhar, L. W. : Turbulent pipe now
J. Fluid Mech., vol.14, pp.385-398, 1962.
with granular permeable boundaries, Ralph M.
nParsons Labo.,
i u MIT, n . vNo.
U I T Report i 148,
u o 1972.
ion ' ° ) Ippen, A. T. : A new look at sedimentation in
r r

turbulent streams. Jour, of BSCC, vol.58, pp. 131

163 1971
-123- ~ ' '
 Chapter 9 Turbulent structure with transpiration*)
9.1 Introduction
In t h e l a s t t h i r t y years i n t e n s i v e t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental
research on t h e t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e w i t h s u c t i o n o r i n j e c t i o n
( ' T r a n s p i r a t i o n ' i s a general term f o r them) has been performed
mainly i n t h e f i e l d s o f a e r o n a u t i c a l , mechanical or chemical engi-
neering, i n order t o e s t a b l i s h a p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e c o n t r o l
of t u r b u l e n t flows by s u c t i o n o r i n j e c t i o n . For example, t h e
c o n t r o l o f f l o w s e p a r a t i o n by s u c t i o n has i n t e r e s t e d i n boundary
layer f l o w s , i . e . i n f l u e n c e o f t r a n s p i r a t i o n on f r i c t i o n f a c t o r .
Also, t h e thermal p r o t e c t i o n by i n j e c t i o n has i n t e r e s t e d i n p i p e
flow, i . e . i n f l u e n c e o f t r a n s p i r a t i o n on heat-mass t r a n s f e r .
In t h e 1950's, Rubesin(1954), Dorrance e t a l . ( 1 9 5 4 ) , Clarke
et a l . ( 1 9 5 5 ) , Black e t a l . ( 1 9 5 8 ) , Dutton(1958) and others proposed
the law o f t h e w a l l , i . e . ' b i l o g - l a w ' o f mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
i n a t r a n s p i r e d boundary l a y e r , although t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l and
experimental research was s t i l l insufficient. I n t h e e a r l y 1960's
Stevenson(1964), Tennekes(1965), T o r i i e t a l . ( 1 9 6 5 ) , Mickley e t a l .
(1965) and others t r i e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e v e l o c i t y d e f e c t law and t h e
s i m i l a r i t y law w i t h t r a n s p i r a t i o n . I n t h e l a t e r 1960's, Kays'
group o f Simpson e t al.(1969) and J u l i e n e t al.(1971) and other
groups i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e accelerated t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r w i t h
uniform o r d i s t r i b u t e d t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
All t h e above research i s concerned mainly w i t h t h e mean v e l o -
c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r or pipe f l o w w i t h

*) We have j u s t r e c e n t l y published two papers which deal w i t h

these t o p i c s i n more d e t a i l . P a p e r ( I ) : 'Turbulent s t r u c t u r e i n
permeable open-channel flows w i t h t r a n s p i r a t i o n ' , Proa, of JSCE,
No.285, pp.45-56, 1979 (in Japanese) or to be published in
Trans, of JSCE, 1979 (in English). P a p e r ( I I ) : 'Structure o f
instantaneous Reynolds s t r e s s over a permeable open-channel
w i t h s u c t i o n o r i n j e c t i o n ' , Memoirs of Faculty of Engineering,
Kyoto University, vol.41, part 3, 1979. We supplement t h i s
chapter by these papers, i f necessary. S-symbol i s denoted
here f o r supplement.

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transpiration. However, the r e c e n t r e s e a r c h o r new intention
is probably concerned w i t h the t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h
t r a n s p i r a t i o n and the i n f l u e n c e of t r a n s p i r a t i o n on the w a l l - t u r b u -
lence mechanism or b u r s t i n g phenomenon. For example, r e f e r to
the papers by Andersen e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) ( b o u n d a r y l a y e r ) , Schildknecht
et a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) ( p i p e flow) and p r e s e n t a u t h o r s ( 1 9 7 5 ) ( o p e n - c h a n n e l ) .
In order to examine the e f f e c t of s u c t i o n o r i n j e c t i o n on the
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i n open-channel flow, t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r
f i r s t l y e s t a b l i s h e s the e v a l u a t i o n method o f the f r i c t i o n velocity
and makes c l e a r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y the mean v e l o c i t y distribution,
i n c l u d i n g even the c a s e o f s t r o n g s u c t i o n or i n j e c t i o n a t which
r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n or s e p a r a t i o n phenomenon may occur, respectively.
Next, the t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as t u r b u l e n c e intensities
, s p e c t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , t u r b u l e n t energy budget and so on a r e
investigated.

9.2 Theoretical consideration

9.2.1 B a s i c e q u a t i o n s o v e r p e r m e a b l e smooth b e d
As shown i n F i g . S I , we c o n s i d e r f o r
simplification, (1) f u l l y developed, two-
dimensional flow (WEO), (2) the t r a n s p i r a t i o n
velocity v 0 i s given u n i f o r m l y through the
porous smooth bed and i t i s v e r y s m a l l Fig.SI ^^HZSd
than the main v e l o c i t y ( U » V ~ v ) , and 0 (3)
when v =0, the flow i s normal, w h i l e even when Vo^O,
o the flow i s
quasi-normal. Then, on the boundary c o n d i t i o n t h a t V=v G at y=0,
the equation of c o n t i n u i t y becomes as f o l l o w s :

"-*-£(•£)* <»•»
Since (2.4) i s s t i l l v a l i d because of ( 2 ) , the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n
for the shear s t r e s s x ( y ) i s obtained from (2.1) by u s i n g (2.4)
and (9.1).

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 j = -j--gI.y+v,U+r(y) (9.2)

where, w^^^'u'dy-U^'udy (9.3)

On t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n t h a t T=0 a t y=h, (9.2) becomes

Tl/>=Usa-(j+v,(U-(U „) +{r(yj-eroo) n (9.4)

US = TJ =gl,h—!L-^u>dy
P (9.5)
and t = y/h .
The second and t h i r d terms o f (9.4) are t h e a d d i t i o n a l ones caused
by t r a n s p i r a t i o n v . 0 Of course, when v = 0 ( s o l i d bed), these o

terms become equal t o zero, and then (9.4) c o i n c i d e s w i t h (2.5).

In order t o evaluate t h e a d v e c t i o n term ^ ( y ) , we assume t h a t
t h e r e may e x i s t a s i m i l a r i t y law o f t h e mean v e l o c i t y , t h a t i s :
U/U =vCyih)
mtx (9.6)
Now, denoting t h a t
U L
^ max -
Q,=-r^—r-j-CU ^h m }

Ummx aX I (9.7)

e,ao=j%'d(
(9.3) becomes v( )= { Q . e . c o - O . ^ o e i C O J f / m . x ( 9 . 8 ) .
y

From (9.1) and ( 9 . 7 ) , Q & Q 1 = 2 Q I _ J » L (9.9).

Vm*x&i(l) ax
By u s i n g ( 9 . 9 ) , (9.5) can be w r i t t e n as f o l l o w s :
dh _ sin 9-([/»» jgh) - 2 a{v,UJgh) ,Q , m
dx~ cosd-aFr* ly.xuj,
s
where, asse.m/ce.a))» i t h e momentum c o r r e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , which
becomes equal t o ot=1.016 when t h e 1/7-power v e l o c i t y law i s
applicable, i . e . * = . F = U„/Vgh i
r st h e Froude number.
(9.10) i s t h e equation f o r back-water curves ( f l o w depth p r o f i l e )
i n a t r a n s p i r e d open-channel flow. When v = 0 ( s o l i d bed), (9.10)
o

2
becomes U+ =gh , sin 9
t t t since t h e normal f l o w depth h 0 i s formed
(where, U^o i s t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y when v = 0 . ) . o

-126-
Substituting (9.9) and (9.10) f o r ( 9 . 8 ) , we can obtain
+ +
r + = _ L _ = ( l - 0 + V ( ^ - ^ m . x ) +*(« (9.11).

+
The c o r r e c t i o n term • t f ) « r * « W - r a ) i s c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s : *)

C 9 1 2 )
;-e,m -
flss
where, ([/*/t7*.)*=r/r( .=0)| .
w (= and the ( + ) - s u f f i x denote the
dimensionless q u a n t i t y by U * and v, as mentioned p r e v i o u s l y .
Consequently, when t h e mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n nCO i s known,
the c o r r e c t i o n term * ( Q can be e a s i l y e v a l u a t e d . For example,
when t h e 1/7-power v e l o c i t y law i s a p p l i c a b l e , (9.12) becomes
+
for Fr« 1, as f o l l o w s : (7/9)|t>. £/ . +f(f"-i) 1^0.072v,*U +
m x mmx y

which i s f a i r l y small * J .
(9.15)
Then, r/ = P (l - f ) + v ( u- f l/oux )
0

Hence, i t i s suggested from (9.15) t h a t when i n j e c t i o n is given

through the permeable bed (v >0), o the f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U. decreases

and i n an extreme c a s e i t will show s e p a r a t i o n o f the flow (U*=0) .

However, when s u c t i o n i s g i v e n , the f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U* increases

and a l s o the v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t , i . e . the s h e a r s t r e s s n e a r the wall

increases.

0 I f

shear
w e notice
s t r e s s a t the f r e e s u r t a c e \y n j
f„ÏÏ^A
moderate r a t e o f t r a n s p i r a t i o n , i . e . (9.13) ,
</tl«-l"
t h e n we can obtain
( f ) e c o ( 9 1 4 )
i_e,ci)) -iv{ ( - i V W h - ^ ' - ' '
+
y (f)= (

ro i 9 i a n d (9 14*1 i s n e g l i g i b l e i n the
The d i f f e r e n c e between (9.12) and ( . y . i ^ j
s u b c r i t i c a l flow ( F r « l ) •

-127-
fi becomes n e a r l y equal t o zero a t 3- 0.3, where a s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
f l o w may appear. On t h e o t h e r hand, fi increases f o r s u c t i o n , and
thus t h e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t dU/ dy\, .=US/v = a i s o increases. The
curves o f vt=&/vfï vs.$ show t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t V o i n c r e a s e s
r a p i d l y f o r i n j e c t i o n , w h i l e i t approaches about -0.1 f o r suction,
where a r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n may occur.
F i g . 9.5 shows t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between f = f f i and Re, as a 0

parameter o f t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e 6=v /U^ . 0 0 Of course, when

3=0 ( s o l i d bed), t h e curve o f f vs. Re c o i n c i d e s w i t h F i g . 2.4.
f increases f o r s u c t i o n , w h i l e f decreases r a p i d l y f o r i n j e c t i o n ,
and such a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s very s i m i l a r t o t h e f r i c t i o n factor
C£ i n boundary l a y e r .
W e l l , we have a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d the evaluation method o f t h e
f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U^ 0 f o r a s o l i d bed, as described i n 4.3.1.
Therefore, when U AO i s known, t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y V^=Jïï U + 0 can
be e a s i l y determined by (9.37) f o r any t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e 3 = v / U ^ . o 0

We c a l l i t t h e 3 - f i method.

9.2.6 Some t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(1) Reynolds s t r e s s distribution
When t h e c o r r e c t i o n term 0(£) i n (9.11) i s n e g l i g i b l e , t h e
Reynolds s t r e s s i s given by

— ^ +
= ( i - f ) + ^ ( i / - f i / ™ x )-~r (9.39).

Fig. 9.6 shows t h e curves o f t h e Reynolds s t r e s s -üv/U* which were

calculated from (9.18) and (9.39) w i t h t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e o f
vt=-0.1 ~ 0.1, f o r t h e case o f R =500 and 2000. + The curves o f
-uv/U* f o r i n j e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s i m i l a r l y as compared w i t h s o l i d bed
( v = 0 ) , w h i l e they decrease s i m i l a r l y f o r
o suction.
However, i n order t o examine t h e a b s o l u t e e f f e c t o f t r a n s p i r a -
t i o n on t h e Reynolds s t r e s s , should be r e p l a c e d by U^ 0 as a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e l o c i t y s c a l e , since U A i t s e l f i s v a r i e d by v . 0

-134-
Hence, as a parameter o f $=v /U* o 0 f o r any Re, fi i s c a l c u l a t e d from
( 9 . 3 7 ) , and then -ïïv/U^o i s c a l c u l a t e d from (9.39) w i t h R^=/f72 Re
and Vo = 3/>^- An example o f t h e s e r e s u l t s i s p l o t t e d f o r Re=5xl0 l1

in F i g . 9.7. The a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of the Reynolds s t r e s s i n c r e a s e

w i t h an enlargement o f i n j e c t i o n , w h i l e they d e c r e a s e w i t h an en-
largement of s u c t i o n . I t s h o u l d be n o t i c e d t h a t t h e s e v a r i a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are c o n t r a r y to those o f u\ = ( - u~« + * av /a ) y y = 0 •
In o t h e r words, i n c r e a s e s f o r s u c t i o n because the i n c r e a s e of
the v i s c o u s s t r e s s i s l a r g e r than the d e c r e a s e o f the Reynolds
s t r e s s , and v i c e v e r s a f o r i n j e c t i o n .
S u r e l y , as seen i n F i g . 9.6 or 9.7, the Reynolds s t r e s s i n the
main r e g i o n shows n e a r l y a l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n , which confirms the
v a l i d i t y of (9.31). Now, d e f i n i n g y = - W / ( - ü v j , we
0 can o b t a i n

from 9.2.5, as f o l l o w s : r= ci+ *= n + p (25 + /F7/ )

0 (9.40).

In c o n t r a s t w i t h the r a t i o fi of t h e w a l l shear s t r e s s , y i n c r e a s e s
for i n j e c t i o n , while y decreases f o r suction. At B = -0.1 (v - 0

- 0 . 0 8 ) , Y becomes equal to zero, which means t h a t the p r o d u c t i o n of

Reynolds s t r e s s i n the main r e g i o n i s almost suppressed to change
i n t o i n s u f f i c i e n t t u r b u l e n t s t a t e , i . e . r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n , as p o i n t e d
out p r e v i o u s l y .
By the way, the more a c c u r a t e examination so t h a t the c o r r e c t i o n
term $ ( ? ) was taken i n t o account, i s g i v e n i n Paper ( I ) and (II).
However, i t s b a s i c r e s u l t s are the same as the above.

( 2 ) T u r b u l e n t e n e r g y budget
The t u r b u l e n t energy p r o d u c t i o n P i s given by

t 9 4 1 )
i-*(=§)(£) - -
Fig. 9.9 shows the a b s o l u t e v a r i a t i o n s of P which were c a l c u l a t e d
from (9.41) by u s i n g (9.18) and (9.39). Except f o r near the w a l l ,
the t u r b u l e n t p r o d u c t i o n P a l s o i n c r e a s e s w i t h an enlargement of
i n j e c t i o n , w h i l e i t d e c r e a s e s with an enlargement of s u c t i o n .

-135-
On t h e o t h e r hand, the opposite v a r i a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s appear
near t h e w a l l . I t ' s because t h e Reynolds s t r e s s increases f o r
i n j e c t i o n , w h i l e t h e viscous s t r e s s increases f o r s u c t i o n , as
compared w i t h n o - t r a n s p i r a t i o n ( v = 0 ) . o

Well, i n t h e same manner as (2.27), t h e equation o f t u r b u l e n t

energy w i t h t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s given by

+£ « ? ^ - ' £ < ? > l .... (9.42).

Since the advection term (the 4 - t h and 5-th terms) i s t h e same

order as v d/d (J /2)
0 y
2
} (9.42) can be approximated when R* i s l a r g e ,
as f o l l o w s : — j —
/ > = 6 + ( + V o ) + : }
^ { i " 7 (9.43).

By newly d e f i n i n g t h e t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n T r as T r H ( „ + «.)O72 0 ,
(9.43) coincides w i t h (2.30). Although (9.42) o r (9.43) i s n o t
d i r e c t l y examined i n t h i s chapter, i t i s suggested t h a t T /U* r 0

may be t h e same order as (1+43), since q /2Ul &4 2

0 and 9
2
«/2t/^ 0 <l
(see Chapter 4 ) . Consequently, t h e d i s s i p a t i o n e may be m a i n l y
balanced by t h e p r o d u c t i o n P, although t h e d i f f u s i o n 8T /3y may r

increases w i t h an enlargement o f i n j e c t i o n because o f ( dq /a ) 2

y v0 <o .
and v i c e versa f o r s u c t i o n ( c f . F i g . 4.38). This suggests
s t r o n g l y t h a t except f o r very near t h e w a l l , there may n o t be a
d r a s t i c change i n t h e t r a n s p i r e d t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e , as compared
w i t h the s o l i d - t u r b u l e n c e .
I n t h e same manner as 2.2.1, t h e absolute v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e
p r o d u c t i o n P and t h e d i r e c t - d i s s i p a t i o n E are given by
+
p = p»/vi = p* • n*
0 o

+ !
E =
0 £«-/fJ = E* • fl
0 (9.44),
!/o = y f t > yVvfi"

F i g . 9.10 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f (9.44) near t h e w a l l . The t o t a l

energy loss cS o f mean f l o w i s given from (9.22) and (9.39),
as f o l l o w s : , h

<£«) + </ +^{^-(^/] B (9.45).

-136-
(9.45) corresponds t o (2.8) or ( 2 . 9 ) . Defining % = & / £ „ (where
to i s the value a t v = 0 ) ,o (9.45) becomes

< = ^ / ¥ ( (9.46)

where, =2.5 ( 1 + 9.2fitSÏÏ )

The v a l u e s o f X, a r e shown i n F i g . 9.8. F o r t h e moderate
t r a n s p i r a t i o n o f |@| < 0.1, X, i s n e a r l y equal t o c o n s t a n t , irres-
pective of v 0 and Re.
From F i g . 9.10 and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f X, - 1, i t i s c o n s i d e r e d
t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f i n j e c t i o n t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e t u r b u l e n t produ-
c t i o n i s n e a r l y b a l a n c e d by t h e d e c r e a s e o f t h e d i r e c t - d i s s i p a t i o n ,
and v i c e v e r s a i n t h e c a s e o f s u c t i o n . A l s o , i t s h o u l d be n o t i c e d
t h a t such a r e l a t i o n s h i p between P and E changes i n v e r s e l y a t t h e
edge o f v i s c o u s s u b l a y e r , i . e . yt - 10.

9.3 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
9.3.1 E x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p and p r o c e d u r e
Fig. 9.11 ( a ) shows t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t - u p i n which t h e
r e c i r c u l a t i n g t i l t i n g flume i s 15 m long, 50 cm wide and 30 cm deep.
About 9 m downstream from t h e channel e n t r a n c e , an apparatus o f
t r a n s p i r a t i o n flow was s e t up ( s e e F i g . 9.11 ( b ) ) , whose porous
p l a t e made o f s i n t e r e d p l a s t i c s o f 0.65 mm diameter was 104 cm long,
49 cm wide and 1.5 cm t h i c k . I n order t o u n i f o r m l y g i v e any
t r a n s p i r a t i o n v e l o c i t y v , a b u f f e r zone made o f g l a s s beads and
0

e i g h t o r i f i c e s o f 25 mm diameter were s e t i n t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n tank,

as shown i n F i g . 9.11 ( b ) . Through t h e p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i m e n t s ,
i t was r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a f u l l y developed t u r b u l e n t flow was o b t a i n e d
at t h e t e s t s e c t i o n 84 cm downstream from t h e upstream edge o f t h e
porous p l a t e .

-137-
 The mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s were measured i n d e t a i l by a
s i n g l e - s e n s o r h o t - f i l m anemometer (DISA 55A83, s e e F i g . 3 . 3 ) .
Four kinds o f experiments were performed (Case H-1, H-2, H-3
and H-4), a s d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 9.1. Case H-1 and H-4 were t h e
most important experiments, which correspond t o Case A-1 and G-1
in Table 4.1, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n the case o f H-1, H-2 and H-3,
two i n j e c t i o n s and two s u c t i o n s were g i v e n . I n t h e c a s e o f H-4,
t h r e e i n j e c t i o n s and t h r e e s u c t i o n s were g i v e n . The maximum
quantity Q t of these t r a n s p i r a t i o n s was l e s s than t h e 10% o f t h e

main flOW quantity Q. xkfctoM Hydraulic data for experiments with suction or injection

By the Way, V.«0 ( Without t r a n s p i r a t i o n flow * * * * Run 1 )

Case h Urn R,o Re Fr S Q
(on) (cm/sec) (cm/sec) "U«oh/v -Umh/v •Um//gn slope
we ( P a p e r ( I ) ) have 0/set)
H-1 8.02 15.1 0.804 609 1.15x10* 0.17 0.08xl0 - 4
6.05
recently carried H-2 4.25 26.3 1.369 564 1 .16 0.44 . 5.71 6.00
H-3 3.40 35.4 1.907 614 1.14 0.61 12.84 6.02
out t h e r e - e x p e r i -
Vo/O ( With t r a n s p i r a t i o n flow )
ments i n which t h e Case H-1
Run 15 14 13 9 8 1 10 11 12
more transpiration
U, 1.760 1.585 1.316 1.146 0.980 0.804 0.641 0.523 0.373 0.271 0.193

r a t e s were g i v e n , P •0.243 -0.202 -0.137 -0.094 -0.050 0.0 0.049 0.089 0.148 0.198 0.249
v: •0.111 -0.102 -0.084 -0.066 -0.041 0.0 0.062 0.136 0.319 0.589 1.036
as d e s c r i b e d i n •12.6Ï -10.5 -7.1 -4.9 -2.6 0.0 2.5 4.6 7.7 10.2 12.9
Q /Q
t
Case H-2 Case H-3
Table S I . This 9 8 1 4 5 8 7 1 4 5
Run
2.066 1.684 1.369 1.062 0.799 2.307 2.166 1.907 1.509 1.147
chapter i s s u p p l e - B
-0.111 -0.052 0.0 0.056 0.111 -0.047 -0.031 0.0 0.051 0.104
+
-0.074 -0.042 0.0 0.072 0.189 -0.039 -0.027 0.0 0.065 0.172
mented by t h e s e q ° / Q
-9.9" -4.6 0.0 5.0 9.9 -5.BZ -3.8 0.0 6.3 12.8

r e s u l t s of Table S I ,
i f necessary, i n the following sections,

9.3.2 Wall s h e a r s t r e s s o r f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y
1.0

F i g . 9.12 and F i g . S3 show an y/h

* i o.o o.o
> . o.or? o.ow
vi o.ioo o.m
example o f t h e measured v a l u e s öf mean t o
t
-0.01? .o.ou
-O.0M -0.111 „ fi

v e l o c i t y , U/U
3
vs. y/h. For i n j e -
max
c t i o n , t h e lower v e l o c i t y r e g i o n i s
l i f t e d up from t h e w a l l , w h i l e f o r » • ...
suction the higher v e l o c i t y region i s
attracted toward t h e w a l l . Surely,
1.0
«/>Wx
the e f f e c t o f t r a n s p i r a t i o n on t h e Fig. S3 Mean velocity distribution with
suction or injection
-138-
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e i s recognized remarkably near t h e w a l l , even
when 3= v /U\ 0 o i s below ±0.1.
Well, i n our previous research( t h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
1977), the f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y U + could be evaluated by t h e extended
methods o f (2) and (3) i n 4.3.1. I n t h e (2) log-law method,
the friction velocity was determined by (9.22), where t h e Karman
constant < was given by (9.24). On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t h e (3)
Reynolds-stress method, t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y was determined by
comparing (9.39) w i t h t h e measured Reynolds s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
Fig. 9.13 shows t h e r e s u l t s evaluated by both these methods.
In t h i s experiments, they agree w i t h each o t h e r w i t h i n t h e e r r o r o f
1
— 1 5 % . F i g . 9.14 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f U* vs. 3,
together w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves o f (9.37). Also, a good
agreement between t h e experimental and t h e o r e t i c a l values i s
recognized i n F i g . 9.14.
In t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e above, we could conclude i n Paper
( I ) t h a t the 3-ft method described i n 9.2.5 i s t h e most reasonable
and the e a s i e s t f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f U^, because (9.37) i s r e a l l y v a l i d .
The values o f U A described i n Table S I were determined by t h i s
3-ft method.

9.3.3 Mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
Fig. 9.15 shows t h e dimensionless mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
+
U =U/U i n the case o f H-1 and H-4 ( o l d d a t a ) .
+ These experimen-
tal values agree f a i r l y w e l l w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves o f (9.18)
or the b i l o g - l a w o f (9.21).
Now, F i g . S5 shows t h e dimensionless mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u -
t i o n w i t h i n j e c t i o n i n t h e case o f H-1 (new d a t a ) . Run 1 i s a
case w i t h o u t t r a n s p i r a t i o n , i . e . v = 0 , whose data c o i n c i d e very
o

w e l l w i t h t h e well-known law o f t h e w a l l proposed by van D r i e s t or

the Prandtl-Karman log-law. The experimental values w i t h i n j e c t i o n
also show a good agreement w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves o f (9.18)

-139-
throughout t h e whole r e g i o n from the bed up t o t h e f r e e s u r f a c e .
That i s t o say, i t i s confirmed t h a t t h e m i x i n g - l e n g t h model o f
(9.17) i s v a l i d even i n t h e case o f an open-channel f l o w w i t h
injection. Above a l l , even i n t h e case o f t h e l a r g e i n j e c t i o n
r a t e v£ =1 where s e p a r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may appear, a good
agreement i s recognized. A l s o , an examination o f v a l i d i t y o f
(9.32) i s shown i n F i g . 9.16. S u r e l y , (9.32) agrees f a i r l y w e l l
w i t h the observed values. Then, i t i s o b t a i n e d t h a t K =0.33,
0

whose value i s less than K =O.4. 0 The value o f D* shows a decrease

w i t h an enlargement o f i n j e c t i o n , as p r e d i c t e d from (9.33).
On t h e o t h e r hand, F i g . S6 shows t h e mean v e l o c i t y distribu-
+
tion U w i t h s u c t i o n o b t a i n e d a t t h e same h y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n as
Fig. S5. I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t , although t h e agreement b e t -
ween t h e observed and t h e c a l c u l a t e d values i s s t i l l good a t t h e
moderate s u c t i o n r a t e , t h e disagreement between them appears i n
l a r g e r s u c t i o n r a t e s such as Run 14 and Run 15.
I n t h e same manner, F i g . S7 shows t h e mean v e l o c i t y distribu-
t i o n f o r Case H-2 (new d a t a ) . The experimental values a l s o show
a very good agreement w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves o f (9.18) t h r o u g h -
out t h e whole r e g i o n . For Case H-3, a good agreement between them
was recognized, t o o .
-140-
 H-2)
F i g . 9.17 shows the b i l o g - l a w f o r Case H-1 (old data).
F i g . S8 a l s o shows i t f o r Case H-1 (new data). I n Run 14(v|--0.102)
and Run 15 (yt--0. I l l ) , the experimental v a l u e s o f <}> c a n ' t be cal-
+
c u l a t e d because (t»„[/++i)<o . The data i n Run 13(vt=-0.084) don't
a l s o agree w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s d e r i v e d from the m i x i n g -
length model, i . e . the b i l o g - l a w . On the o t h e r hand, the e x p e r i -
mental v a l u e s i n a l l runs of i n j e c t i o n and some runs of the moderate
s u c t i o n of IVo j £ -0.08 agree v e r y w e l l w i t h the bilog-law.
+
Above a l l , i t should be n o t i c e d t h a t tf) vs. y i s a u n i v e r s a l curve
+
i n the r e g i o n o f y >_ 30 i r r e s p e c t i v e of t r a n s p i r a t i o n , as
d e s c r i b e d by (9.21).
+
L a s t l y , we examine the e x p r e s s i o n of | v t u | vs. \vty | which
was proposed by Tennekes(1965), on the b a s i s of a s i m i l a r i t y law.
+
F i g . 9.18 shows the v a l u e s of |voU | f o r s u c t i o n , by a semi-log
plot. The s o l i d curve i n F i g . 9.18 i s the curve of (9.20).
+ +
As |voy | becomes s m a l l e r , the v a l u e s o f |vo"U | approach the curve
of (9.20), which confirms the e x i s t e n c e of the v i s c o u s s u b l a y e r
with s u c t i o n . Tennekes proposed the f o l l o w i n g formula f o r the
'moderate' s u c t i o n r a t e of -0.1 < v j < -0.04.

+ + + + +
U „ t / l = C, In U „ y l + C , U 0 l • (-0.K ^<~0.04 ) .. (9 . 47)

-141-
He obtained Ci=0.06 and C = l l i n a t r a n s p i r e d boundary l a y e r .
2

As seen i n F i g . 9.18, (9.47) a l s o shows a good agreement w i t h our

experimental v a l u e s , from which Ci=0.05 and C2=12 are o b t a i n e d .
I t i s a l s o confirmed t h a t (9.47) agrees f a i r l y w e l l w i t h (9.22)
a t the 'moderate' s u c t i o n r a t e , and then K becomes equal t o K=-VO/CI.

On the o t h e r hand, although the Tennekes expression is s t i l l

unknown f o r i n j e c t i o n , F i g . 9.19 shows the values o f VoU +
for injec-
tion, tentatively by a l o g - l o g p l o t . Then, the f o l l o w i n g
r e l a t i o n may be satisfied.
+ +
»fU+ = c v ( „ +)«
0 y („ >o) 0 (9.48)

From F i g 9.19, n=l/7 and C =15.7 are o b t a i n e d .

3 Hence, i t i s
understood t h a t the 1/7-power v e l o c i t y law i s v a l i d f o r i n j e c t i o n .

9.3.4 Examination o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f flow depth i n t h e streamwise

d i r e c t i o n ( backwater curve)
In order t o conclude more
c l e a r l y the v a l i d i t y o f b i - l o g
law when vt >-0.084 which was
shown i n the previous s e c t i o n ,
the f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y should
be evaluated independently o f
the &-Q method, since the
-0*1 I I I I I I I I I L
0
*> «(CM) '°
method i t s e l f was d e r i v e d from
Fitr.SB Variation of now depth with suction
the b i l o g - l a w . This examina- or injection

t i o n can be done by (1) the v a r i a t i o n o f dh/dx and (2) the Reynolds

stress d i s t r i b u t i o n . Of course, these (1) and (2) correspond t o
the methods o f (1) and (3) i n 4.3.1, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The Reynolds
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be described l a t e r .
Now, F i g . S9 shows the experimental values o f AhE(h-h ) f o r 0

each run o f Case H-1. As mentioned f r e q u e n t l y , i t may be impo-

s s i b l e t o determine a c c u r a t e l y from these data o f Ah by u s i n g
(9.10). On the c o n t r a r y , we here c a l c u l a t e the values o f 9Ah/8x

-142-
from (9.10) by using evaluated by t h e 3-fi method. These c a l -
c u l a t e d values are shown by s o l i d l i n e i n F i g . S9.
Although there i s some s c a t t e r i n g i n t h e observed data, they
agree f a i r l y w e l l w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d curves o f (9.10). Consequ-
e n t l y , we can s u r e l y conclude t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e 8-fi method and
the b i l o g - l a w .

9.3.5 R e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n by t h e s t r o n g s u c t i o n
From t h e above c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t has been c l a r i f i e d t h a t t h e
mean v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n an open channel w i t h t r a n s p i r a t i o n
except f o r t h e s t r o n g s u c t i o n s a t i s f i e s t h e b i l o g - l a w o r t h e mixing
l e n g t h model f a i r l y w e l l throughout t h e f l o w depth. On t h e contra-
ry, as t h e s u c t i o n r a t e becomes s t r o n g e r , t h e main f l o w cannot keep
the f u l l y developed t u r b u l e n t s t a t e any longer and consequently
a r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n may occur, as mentioned p r e v i o u s l y . I t i s well
known t h a t such a r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n also occurs i n a boundary l a y e r
w i t h a s t r o n g l y favourable pressure g r a d i e n t (dp/dx <0, F i g . 9.3).
Hence, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o e x p l a i n these r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n phenomena
systematically.
By t h e way, Huffman e t al.(1972) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e o u t e r
boundary c o n d i t i o n s such as t r a n s p i r a t i o n and pressure g r a d i e n t ,
a f f e c t e d t h e i n n e r l a y e r p r i m a r i l y v i a t h e shear s t r e s s gradient
3 /9y i n t h e inner l a y e r .
T I n t h e same manner as they d i d , t h e
+
average value o f Sr/Sy over t h e w a l l r e g i o n o f 0 < y < 6 =100
i s now d e f i n e d by Ox/3y>. Then, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n i s
obtained from (9.11). nt-MbUV 1
[ c m H-1)

" KtlulMrlutton

3+
'\»W
<Z>(3) +
» : (1»»il4, )/R.
(9.49) 1 : Fr-0.17
x

2 : Ft-0.60
3 : Fr'O.eo,
« : Fr-1.20
Fig. S10 shows t h e curves o f (9.49) 5
O
: Fr-1.50
: Q /Q-0.1
t

f o r v a r i o u s Froude numbers.
Although the d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n i s Fijr.SIO Average gradient of the shear stress
S10
o m i t t e d here (see P a p e r ( I ) ) , t h e
-143-
c r i t i c a l value vt =-0.085 f o r r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n corresponds to
+ +
<3i /3y > =-0.009 i n the case o f small Froude number.
On the o t h e r hand, Patel e t al.(1968) also discovered t h a t the
r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n o f a c c e l e r a t e d t u r b u l e n t f l o w occurred a t a c r i t i c a l
value o f shear s t r e s s g r a d i e n t , independently o f o v e r a l l Reynolds
number. That i s , when the shear s t r e s s could be described by
r = W y ••• (9-50), Two-d1»enslonal Flows
tuil Jet

then i t s c r i t i c a l value was given 0 D r a d s h a « I . Gee (1962)

C l o s e d Channel
A P a t e l 1 Head ( 1 9 6 9 )
by a parameter o f d^va/pUS =-0.009 A Laufer (1950)
Boundary L a y e r
• J u l l e n et *1.(1970)
+ +
This value i s equal t o < 3 x / 8 y > c
• Narayanan et al.(1969)

Open C h a n n e l
— • Authors
-0.009, which i s very remarkable. 1 : Re-SCOO
2 : Re'5000
3 : Re-11600(Case H-1)

Next, F i g . S l l shows the r e l a 4 : Re-50000

A*-27
+
t i o n o f the damping f a c t o r A again- Fr-0.2
Fr-0.8

st -<9T /8y > i n an open channel, I I I I III I I ' ' ' LU

10* 10" '0 ,*C\
which was c a l c u l a t e d by (9.18), (9.19)
+
FigSV Relation of A* vs. -<3r /3j-*>
and (9.49) f o r f o u r kinds o f Reynolds
£11
numbers. F i g . S l l also shows the
observed values i n w a l l j e t , closed
channel and boundary l a y e r , which
were c i t e d by Huffman e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) .
+
I t should be n o t i c e d t h a t A increa-
ses r a p i d l y a t the c r i t i c a l value o f
+ +
O T / 3 y > =-0.009. Thus, the v i s -
cous e f f e c t becomes very remarkably,
t h a t i s , the r e l a m i n a r i z a t i o n may Flsr.Sl 2 Variation of A* against v,*
£11
occur. When v = 0 ( s o l i d bed),
o

(9.49) becomes - <a^/ay > = i/R* _ Hence, i f <8r+/ay> ~_0.009 , c

R* c becomes equal t o 111 or R e , = l l l ( U / U ) =2000, whose value

c m A

corresponds t o the c r i t i c a l Reynolds number f o r the s o l i d bed.

+
L a s t l y , F i g . S12 shows the r e l a t i o n o f A vs, vt, t o g e t h e r w i t h
the experimental curves obtained i n a t r a n s p i r e d boundary l a y e r .
+
The damping f a c t o r A decreases w i t h an enlargement of i n j e c t i o n , ,

-144-
w h i l e i t i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y w i t h an enlargement ofsuction.
The e x p e r i m e n t a l curve o f ( T ) f o r an open channel i s n e a r l y g i v e n by
+
f=27/(l+4.1 V ) Cf. < 0 ) | (9.51).
+
1=27/(1+2.71-.+) ( v , > 0 ) J

9.4 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on t u r b u l e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

9.4.1 Reynolds s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n » r ""«TtT"

t «
S
-©- (
0.062
0.151
.0,040
Fig. 9.20 shows t h e d i s t r i b u ¬ 0) < -O.OU
F "^x fcictersm •flfttnai ii tt «1.(1975)
«1.(1975)
^ 4K<i>\ toundir, L«y«r wit* Adverse
t i o n s o f t h e Reynolds stress for K |V»
9K • IK ..
Ö Pressure Gradient
A S »}• 0.O4S

Case H-1 and H-4 ( o l d d a t a ) , which

were measured by d u a l - s e n s o r hot-
f i l m anemometers i n t h e same manner
as P a r t 1. Although t h e r e i s com- °o ï
.o zo 3.0
paratively large scattering i n the Fig.S13 Reynolds stress distribution
measured data, they show a f a i r l y
good agreement w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s o f ( 9 . 1 5 ) . F i g . S13
a l s o shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Reynolds s t r e s s f o r Case H-1
(new d a t a ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s o f ( 9 . 1 1 ) , w h i c h
i s more e x a c t than (9.15). Surely, t h e experimental v a l u e s agree
f a i r l y w e l l w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s , though t h e r e i s some d e v i -
a t i o n near t h e w a l l f o r s u c t i o n . T h i s d e v i a t i o n may have been
caused by t h e p a r t i a l l y suppressed t u r b u l e n c e and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
error. A c t u a l l y , t h e more d e t a i l e d examination of the Reynolds
s t r e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s given i n Paper ( I I ) .

9.4.2 Turbulence intensities

Fig. 9.21 shows the t u r b u l e n c e i n t e n s i t y u'/U* f o r C a s e H-1
and H-4 ( o l d d a t a ) . F i g . 9.22 and 9.23 show t h e t u r b u l e n c e inten¬
s i t i e s v'/U* and w'/U*, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r Case H-1 ( o l d d a t a ) .
A l s o , F i g . S14 ( a ) , (b) and ( c ) show t h e v a l u e s o f u'/U*, v ' / U *
and w'/U*, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r Case H-1 (new data and r e p l o t t i n g o f
old data). Since these turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s are v a r i e d n e a r l y

-145-
Acknowledgements

The author wishes to e x p r e s s h i s foremost acknowledgement to

Dr. H i r o j i Nakagawa, H y d r a u l i c s P r o f e s s o r o f C i v i l Engineering,
Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y , whose i n v a l u a b l e guidance, p a t i e n c e and encou-
ragement made t h i s work p o s s i b l e . Thanks a r e a l s o extended to
some graduate s t u d e n t s i n our h y d r a u l i c s l a b o r a t o r y f o r t h e i r a i d
i n the performance o f the experiments

Academic c a r e e r

During 1967-1971, I s t u d i e d C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g i n Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y .

During 1971-1976, I r e s e a r c h e d H y d r a u l i c s i n t h e m a s t e r and doctor
courses o f graduate s c h o o l i n Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y .
On January 23, 1978, I obtained Doctor of E n g i n e e r i n g i n Kyoto
University.
At the p r e s e n t ( J u l y , 1979), I am a l e c t u r e r i n C i v i l Engineering
o f Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y .

On J u l y 30, 1979 Iehisa NEZU

Kyoto, JAPAN

-156-
 CONTENTS

( FIGURES AND T A B L E S )
Page
PART 1 TURBULENT STRUCTURE OVER SOLID BED
1
1 2
^ " c l r c o n s . a e r a t l o n on t u r b u i e n t s t r u c t u r e
Chapter 2 8
Method o f t u r b u l e n c e measurement and i t s a n a l y s e
Chapter 3
F x D e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on 13
Chapter 4 t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e and e n e r g y b u d g e t
F x n e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on 30
Chapter 5 S a n i s m of t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c o n t l

43
P h y s i c a l model o f w a l l turbulence
Chapter 6

PART 2 TURBULENT STRUCTURE OVER PERMEABLE BED

rhavter 7 Introduction 50
cZL s i n t e r a c t i o n between main and s e e p a g e f l o w s 54
cwter 9 Turbulent s t r u c t u r e with transpiratmn
 8m£

Ch.1
Applled Physic fluid Experimental
M e t h o t
& Hl thematlct Dynamics Hydraulics
Ch.2 Theoretical Approach Ch 3 ' °' Turbulence
Measurements
Boundary L a y e r Theory O
tr DJ
GOttlnqen-school
DJ h
•school
rt.
„
t n
i
* »
Measurements o f
Basic Quantities
Turbulence
of
Ch ^ S t r u c t u r e of

Reynolds-stress
Fluctuating
art
H
* Turbulence I n t e n s i t y 0 Probability Density Function Mot-wire Anemoaetcr Amerlkan-school rn
9 Reynolds S t r e s s 0 C o n t r i b u t i o n s of Etch Event z:
% A c t i v e and I n a c t i v e M o t i o n s • F r i c t i o n o f Time by E t c h E v e n t
Theory of Isotropic H
Turbulence
cr
r . / Turbulent E n t i t y
\ C h g Hech«n1sa of
Cawbrldoe-school _
3
r+
~S (TJ
oo
H
X)
C h
- *• Budget
Tu rbuIence-produc11on O n
Locally

Turbulence
Isotropic
Q- R+ n
P Spectral Function
•> T u r b u l e n t P r o d u c t i o n ,
0 B e h a v i o r of Con*rent Notions
• P e r i o d o f B u r s t i n g Phenomenon O H
D i s s i p a t i o n and D i f f u s i o n 1 T M O - f a c e d n « s s of T u r b u l e n t Run lan-school
r+ r+ C
Structure —I. ~J
Experiments of o C
Free-turbulence 3 O

Experiments of r+
C Flow V l s u a l l i a t l o n of
Ch. 6 Hodel of T u r b u l e n t Flow Turbulence Wall-turbulence -j
Boundary-layer
t> n-eddy Model % Instantaneous Velocity P r o f i l e t Pipe flow o
? Renewal Model ft l o w - and H i g h - s p e e d S t r e a k Transpiration
< if
* Combined Model
HACA-school
Flov
fD
1 z
Hot-wire. Pressure-transducer etc. T u r b u l e n t Open- i/i
I
c h a n n e l Flow
Nean-
o r
veloctty >
Ch. 7 Introduction Profile
z
cr m
Q_
Interaction between Turbulent Structure -n
ch.8 Main and S e e p a g e Flows
cK.g with Trintpfrattoft
r
o
ft Model of Seepage Flow « Effect of Suction Flow
p> E v a l u a t i o n o f Induced Stress « E f f e c t of Injection Flov

F i g . A I n t e n t i o n of t h i s paper Fig. 1.1 H i s t o r y of researches of turbulence.

and i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n .
chapter 3 Method o f t u r b u l e n c e m e a s u r e m e n t and i t s a n a l y s i s

M.

SERVO AMPLIFW
G

Outjjxrt to incfiesbng n

Fig. 3.1 (a)constant-current and (b)constant-temperature anemometers

2 timet actual so*.

DISA 55A83

3.2 Heat t r a n s f e r from Fig. 3.3 Single-sensor h o t - f i l m

c y l i n d r i c a l hot-film sensor. probe (DISA-made).

IJUAI.-SKNSOK H O T - F I L M P K O B E S DISA 55A89

Ihmrnsutru in ntiltiini'ttrrs

5 ttmrs auuiil \n*.

Fig. 3.4 Dual-sensor hot-film probe (DISA-made)

8
 Fig. 3.9 Output voltages of anemometers in s t i l l water.
(b)
o

F i g 3 J 0 C a l i b r a
Fig. 3.11 Temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - tion curves of dual-sensor.
of c a l i b r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t A (TW).
 6

•U0SU8S ipea j.o s o u e ^ s L S B J

 O 10 20 Twl-c) 30 4o

Fig. 3.9 Output voltages of anemometers in s t i l l water

O

Fig. 3 . 1 1 Temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Fig. 3 . 1 0 Calibration curves of dual-sensor.

of c a l i b r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t A(TW).

1- in-, f-3 m
 CO
Sensibility Factor ol 1-st Sensor
ro

O O
-h 01

I C
t/> —«
r-l- cv
r+
l/i rt>
(Tj O .

l/l O
O tJJ
-! —'

60 80 cr
-S
U icrry )
s
CD
O

Fig 3.14 S e n s i t i v i t y factor c of 1-st sensor.

n
"5
<

ro
on

DISA 55005
Hot-Film Anemometer Mufti-Channel
Analog 5k.
Data 5 F.H. Data Recorder

DISA 55D05
H o t - F i l m Anemometer / •

Low-Pass Filter
Digital Data

\ <
FAC0M
A-0
U-200
Converter
1 '
FAC0H 230-75
Large Computer

60
CI
U( TM>i
F i g . 3.13 Data processing system
of point-measurements.
Fig. 3.15 Temperature s e n s i t i v i t y of hot-film sensors.
Fig. 3.16 Flow v i s u a l i z a t i o n system (orientation of H -bubble wires
2

and camera views).

(b)
Pulse Generator Reference
Ajtis

Sequence of
Kot i o n Picture
IS™ Film

Digital Projector
Coordinator

y(U-a
Data Card FACOM 230-75
Urge Computer

3.17 Data processing system Fig. 3.18

of hydrogen-bubble method. Analysis method of instantaneous
velocity p r o f i l e .

12
 chapter 4 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on
t u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e and e n e r g y budget
Head tank
\f
15 m -
•9.5 I B -
ValvSI Test section
[Screen

Jack Hinge Jack

1
Ground pool Rectangular
Pump weir

Fig. 4.1 15m r e c i r c u l a t i n g t i l t i n g experimental flume.

( a ) H y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e Froude number i s n e a r l y c o n s t a n t ( S m o o t h b e d ) .

Slope
h U Urn Re Fr Q Tw
Case max
(cm) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) xlO 3
xlO 4
xlO" 4
(1/s) PC)
A-3 3.14 46.1 40.7 2.206 2.152 2.132 0.643 1.18 0.733 14.8 6.4 17.18

fl-S 5 . 9 9 60.0 53.8 2.485 2.485 2.507 1.33 2.89 0.703 10.7 16.1 15.75

A-6 8.00 67.0 60.1 2.638 2.638 2.732 2.03 4.62 0.689 9.5 24.1 18.60

(b) H y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t the R e y n o l d s number i s n e a r l y c o n s t a n t (Smooth b e d ) .

G-1 8.01 48.3 40.1 2.152 2.468 1.896 1.63 3.03 0.455 4.58 16.1 17.78

G-2 5.49 73.2 58.5 3.138 3.808 3.177 1.76 3.23 0.7S8 18.8 16.1 20.51

G-3 4.14 101.8 77.2 3.748 4.954 3.856 1.59 3.27 1.21 36.6 16.0 21.27

C-4 3.15 118.6 101.2 4.711 5.462 5.180 1.49 3.19 1.82 86.9 15.9 20.35

G-5 2.20 169.4 144.8 6.162 9.066 7.950 1.39 3.27 3.12 293.0 15.9 • 21.43

U*= by Reynolds s t r e s s , U* = by L o g - l a w , =/ghS

(c) H y d r a u l i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e R e y n o l d s and the Froude numbers a r e n e a r l y c o n s t a n t .

Case h Umax Urn U* U, Re Fr S Q Tw k

(cm) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) xlO 2
xlO 4
xlO" 4
(l/s) CO
A-1 7.77 16.8 14.8 0.810 0.810 0.790 5.98 1.09 0.170 0.80 5.8 18.35 ~0

B-l 7.94 17.7 15.5 0.895 0.895 0.938 5.66 0.98 0.175 1.13 6.1 11.35 9

C-l 7.83 15.7 13.2 0.989 0.989 0.999 7.37 0.98 0.150 1.23 5.2 17.95 48

B-l 7.63 17.2 13.9 1.267 1.336 1.416 8.32 0.86 0.160 2.77 5.3 12.30 136

Table 4.1 Summary of hydraulic data for experiments.

13
 3.0
Case Re U'/U, v ' / U . l a u f e r ( 19541 Pioe flow

A-3 K & w J O • r p — P,e=2.2xl0?

3
A-5 2.9x10, 05 O Q — R e ^ . ' x l O

A-6 4.6x10 0 0 f j = 0-exp(-5)

Fig. 4.2 E f f e c t of the Reynolds number on turbulence intensities.

Fig. 4.3 E f f e c t of the Froude number on turbulence intensities.

14
 Case Re Fr R. Laufe. (1954) Pipe flow
4
• A-1 l . l x l O 0.17 600 — R.=10O0
O G-1 3 . Ox 0.45 1600
— R,=8700
A G-2 3.2x 0.80 1800
-9- G-3 3.3x 21 1600 © =2.3exo(-y*/R,)
$ G-4 3.2x 1.82 1500 4
© • A . f y ^ *
0 G-S 3.3x 3.12 1400

Fig. 4.4 E f f e c t of the Froude number on turbulence intensities

near the w a l l .

Grass(1971)
Re-6700 Ff=0.20

- 0
21
85

T) u'/U.=2.30exp(-5)
5 w7U."1.63exp(-l)
v7U.=l.Z7exp(-5)

©
i©
m

0.0
0.0 0.5 .0
=y/h

Fig. 4.5 E f f e c t of the roughness on turbulence intensities.

15
 Author Grass (1971)

Fig. 4.6 E f f e c t of the roughness on turbulence intensities

in the wall region.

0.0 L
0
50 y 100

Fig. 4.7 Universal distribution of ( W / u j (u fV*

+
in the wall region.

16
 Case Re

A-1 1.1x10' 0.17

A-3 1.2x - 0.73
A-5 2.9x . 0.70
A-6 4.6x - 0.69

Laufer(1951| Channel flov

Re'l.lxlO?
Be"2.8xl0:
Be-5.5xlO

B l i n c o e t a 1 . < 1 9 7 1 ) Open c n d n n e l
Re-0.9xlrf
Re-2.4xl0
T h e o r e t i c a l curve
R ; - 6 0 O frtxn u ' / U . - 2 . 3 e x o ( - § | and
R.-2OO0 U/U.=2.Sln(|).A(R.)

0.01 0.1 % =y/h

Fig. 4.8 Relative turbulence intensity u'/u (effect of Re)

u'/U

0.0
0.01 0.1 | 1.0 o.oi |=y/h
= y / h

Fig. 4.9 E f f e c t of Fr on u'/u. F i g . 4.10 E f f e c t of roughness on u'/u.

17
 (a)
Fr=0.7i
Case U.vcm/s)
(a) frta.7i
Case Re
4
O A-3 1.18xl0
0> A-5 2 . 8 9 x ••

0.5 • A-6 4.62x .

-Bremhorst et al.(1973) Pipe flow, Re*(2.3-9.0)xl0 4

0.0 J L
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0
y/h

5
^A-3 1.0
°- -«V/U?
(b)
10'
•V. 3-2

Case Fr Calculated
1.0 (b) G-1 0.46
R =1600
G-2 0.80
•So
4
.2 » 10
G-3 1.21
Case U.(cm/s) Fr G-4 1.82
G-1 2 152 0.46 O G-5 3.12
G-2 3. 138 0.80
y/h -Bremhorst et a l . (1973)
G-3 3. 743 1.21 0 4
R = (2.3 - 9.0) x 10 (Pipe)
G-4
G-S
4 . 711
£. 1 6 2
1.82 0 e

y/hs 3.12
'O - — Theore t i c a l curve 0.5

0.5

0.0
0.0
y/h, y/h.
o.o
0.0 0.5 .0
-uv/Uj;

(c) Smooth bound.

s
Re .1.0xl0\Fr-.0.16 Laufer;195:,
Case k U.(tWs) Re=l.! IC'Cnarnel)
s Case x-
o A-1 - 0 0.310 R .2.2xl
e
O A-1
3-1 9 0.895

•
0
§
C-l
0-1
48
136
0.989
1.267
•
0
O
B-l
C-l
3-1
B r e m h o r s t e t a 1 . I. 1 9 7 3 )
Re"I 2 . 3 - 9 . 0 1 x 1 0 (Pipe)

Lu et al.(1973)
Theoretical curves Ca1culated :
X s
Re .4.0xl0 '8oundary 4
laver)
R '600

0.5

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 ! .0
0.5 1.0 y/h
-uv/uf

Fig. 4.11 Distribution of Fig. 4.12 Coefficient of correlation

Reynolds stress -uv/u\ R=-TTv/u ' v ' .

18
 (c)

Fig. 4.13 Ratio -üv/g of Reynolds stress to turbulent energy.

2

Group P : H a l l Pressure Fluctuations Group W : Surface Wave F l u c t u a t i o n s

Case 0 Re Fr Case h u; 1
Re Fr
"max Urn iC "max m U

(cm) (cm/sec) (cm/sec) (cm/sec) xlO 4

(cm) (cm/sec) (cm/s) (cm/s) x l O

P-l 8 .11 49.20 39 .64 1 .908 3.20 0. 445 H-1 7.92 51.82 40.95 1 .885 3.13 0 465

P-2 7,02 57.04 45 .76 2 ,303 3.18 0. 552 H-2 7.22 55.47 45.12 2 .336 3.13 0. 536

P-3 6 .16 63.16 52 .09 2,.558 3.17 0. 670 H-3 6.37 68.80 50.20 2 .601 3.11 0, 635

P-4 5 .35 66.78 54 .72 2 ,913 3.14 0, 723 H-4 5.57 72.68 57.57 2 .842 3.08 0, 779

P-5 5,. 73 76.81 55 96 3 ,246 3.09 0. 747 H-5 5.29 69.15 59.71 3 .119 3.04 0. 829

P-6 5 .21 81.69 61 .33 3. 444 3.12 0, 858 H-6 5.28 80.48 60.89 3..786 3.19 0, 846

P-7 4 .58 85.79 69. 89 3. 525 3.16 1. 043 W-7 4.24 97.80 75.16 3 .902 3.16 1. 166

P-8 4, 02 96.34 79. 91 3. 560 3.11 1. 273 H-8 3.43 107.49 91.57 4 .590 3.24 1. 568

P-9 3. 82 100.91 83. 94 3..704 3.17 1. 372 W-9 2.98 117.05 107.32 5 .038 3.28 1. 986

P-10 3..39 111.47 94. 09 4. 530 3.13 1. 632

P-ll 3 .06 122.20 103. 93 5. 107 3.06 1. 898

P-12 2. 51 154.03 127. 61 6.837 3.13 2. 573

Table 4.2 Summary of hydraulic data for Group-P and -W

i 1.99;
i it"!
O : vV« IP/h
2
• .fl'33.3 (f.'fr)

Subcritical Flow Supercritical Flow -HO. 2

F i g . 4.14
9/ Intensity of
surface wave
CI 8, —4*3.0
f1uctuations.
0.5 2.0

19
Spectra of Surface Wave
 Data F i l e
Spectra" of Wall Pressure fluctuations u(I) and v(I) ,1 = 1 ,s|
B**J.LIIO*
N=4Q96
0.W5Ï

0.733 Spectral Analysis

o.asa J by F . F . T . Method
S(k)

Lx= — Su(0)

if
Lx (Lx)
Normalized by
Lx (Lx)old

S(k) Printing,
for k-Lx
Lx X-Y plotting
by X-Y p l o t t e r or f i 1 i n g on MT

Read
Vt-T^-Xk-Lx)-

Lx modified by
H
Lx/Lx=(Y / t Y l n )

4.19 Frequency spectra of F i g . 4.21 Flow chart of

wall pressure fluctuations. spectral a n a l y s i s .

21
for smooth bed (Case A-1).
Fig. 4.24 Spectral distributions normalized by Lx
(higher-velocity group).

F i g . 4.25 Relations between K and R .

L

23
Fig. 4.27 Normalized spectra s (k)/Lx of v.
v

24
•I II L 1 11
 Observed Data by Dual-hot-film Probe •
(a) Case Fr
Observed Data by Single-hot-film Probe 1.0 G-1 0.46
C a s e F r X Raichlen(1967), Fr=0.25 G-2 0.80
G-3 1.21
O G-1 0.46 A HcOuivey et al.(1969), Fr=0.36
G-4 1.82
-e-G-2 0.80
G-5 3.12
• G-3 1.21
0) G-4 1.82
-ft- G-5

1.0

1.0

Distributions of macro-scale Lx Distributions of corrected

before and after correction. macro-scale Lx.

26
Fig. 4.35 Distributions of turbulent energy dissipation eh/ul

27
Fig. 4.37 Turbulent energy diffusion Tr=q v/2i)\.
2

28
 30.0
3
pn/u;
Rough Bed (Case 0 - 1 )
Smooth Bed (Case A - 1 )
£h/u2 O : f (Production)
P (Production)
• .' 6 (Dissipation)
£ (dissipation)
X : T (Diffusion)
T (Diffusion)
: R'-P-e-T
R'-P-e-T

Fig. 4.40 Turbulent energy budget

over rough bed.

Fig. 4.38 Turbulent energy budget

over smooth bed.

Q. a,
•r—
- C c
3
A5 ° * ' CO O
C •!-
O +->
^ ••' - •r- u
ƒ* o +-> 3
03 ~ d
\ R— O
lb* = CU 5 ¬
0 £ CL
i 5 \

0 0 -* tr * -
J y °*
O

II
a / L«E- —

+ 8> °
1 * ! ! • | O
'

1 '1"-** r' 111-'

29
 chapter 5 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n on
mechanism o f t u r b u l e n c e - p r o d u c t i o n

1 ] 1 I 11 It 1 1 I I 1 1 III 1 ! M U M
PROÓAT-HTTJ OMIT- FUNCTIONS of U AND * FLUCTUÜ'ONS AUTNORS GUOT* 1 XJOLIN(L972}
» o A
• A
OPEN CRIINNEL SOU^DA-F LAYER
a
RE.l.TÏLU' R**'l. ilo'
A
i.
A

A «SI * A , . • M • \*
(GAUSS•IN)
^~^—ia. 0 0% 0 A
O ° 0°°A 0%
A
A
A

A
KREP]INF197]] OI1 CMRTNTL
: £ÏP<RI[R«NT| 1 CURVES OF $^ ANRJ F —
A RTV-t.800 m<3 7,100
A
A
A
A *

(GAUSSIAN) A ^RV(

1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 II 1 1 I I I ! ! !
+ 2 3
'1 10 y 10 10

1
0=u/u and v=v/v 1

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2

Probability density distributions Distributions of skewness and flatness
of u and v (smooth bed). factors of u and v.

"40 S--O6'E1LIT/ OFIÏITY FUNCTION OF

'4.0 6E«NOLAI STRESS
"04 ok. o f
i S*OOTH BRT
3j ^VJL^C-!..—',— —^—ï-V —I T É
Y/H I F L
O 0.«* 0.35! 5OO0
• 0.'*3 M2C 5OC0
05 Q.-72 Q.2&Ï SCOO
["2.0 4. ^>^N[ [FTAFEU FACTOR)
TH

AUTHORS LI^I(1971}
SROCT* {A, BOUAF- [01 S-MTN PICK
1

0
(-1.0 ! * *
1.0
+
(GAUSS IAN)
0.0
C.o or r A , 2
_ 1
ou 0.6 0.
V \ AJ A y/h
-2.0

v
-4.QH t v v: . ,
5-:» TO**)
-6.0
OOSER.-C A
CALCSTUF:
-3.0

Fig. 5.4
P r o b a b i l i t y density d i s t r i b u t i o n s
Fig. 5.3 D i s t r i b u t i o n s of the 4 - t h of Reynolds-stress f l u c t u a t i o n s .
and 5-th order moments.

30
 """>"" " " toom

. 5.5 Distributions of skewness

and flatness factors of uv. Fig. 5.6 Distributions of s and D.

Fig. 5.7 Distributions of

+ +
S, S~, D and D~.

31
 PROFCIHL I MY DUTRLHULTON OF REYNOLD. STRAIT
Smóotfi Ilril ( A - 1 ) WÏOIH LAD
0.1 |
WIL IFLFRI.ON/• JL. : CALEULATFD CURVAI (Y/TT>0.LT))
Qj) ILNIR F R.IT T («LI IL» T T«II.'(L BY . ,11 F. | VW.T KvlPtvvj •WNUL CURVTI
© ©
HRRNELAS SLR*>\\ OR(U|H«'D LIY UIL. (VRNT )-/N-0 JJO (*•.»,•,)
(J*<T1ON IMERECT ION
L-RNL
IVANT
0.05 ©LNTR<*((( ION ®
(IN-.RJI)
LAAOL

Fig. 5.9 An example o f the c a l c u l a t e d c o n d i t i o n a l

p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f Reynolds s t r e s s
(C) FREE SURFACE REGION
(t)) Equilibrium Region

5~.>H »* L*-LL R„, SO,,.,. ,„„,„„ „ . „ „,

i?><3> CUIIULRT CUR,, S;.|, | L64
/H

0 --0 01S
- 0 3 - 1 l l .. 1 I I I | L _ l 1 I 1 I I l lI Q
1 N • ».?9
' 5 10 H 15 20 1
" N /I,
•0.5 l—_1 1 L _ L _
- I — I — I — J 1 1 I L_L L_ I L__J _ J I
10 H 15 "lo
Fig. 5.10 Fractional contributions to Reynolds stress and
fraction of time occupied by each event (smooth bed)

an am
 ! il L I'

F i g . 5.11
F r a c t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s to Reynolds s t r e s s and
f r a c t i o n of time occupied by each event (rough bed).
AUTHOR,(<X*N CHANNEL) ORODKO, 1| «I.(1»H.)
Obitrvcd Calculaud ( O i l Chanavel)

(B) U4 (CALL D)

.0

©.
©
i ,i i ii
0.0 0.1 0.2 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 y/h 1.0

Fig. 5.14 D i s t r i b u t i o n s of f r a c t i o n of time

Fig. 5.13 Contributions to Reynolds s t r e s s occupied by each event with H-o.
from d i f f e r e n t events with H=O.
 AUTHORS BRODIEV R' AL ( | WILL-URCA
U

pi/si (I9'J)
RJFCTITM(?L O O A
S«EED (•! • •
r CALCULATED CURVES

\~ 0.2

0.0
J I Mil I I I II I u J I1 111II
1
10 IO- 10 J

Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16

Distributions of turbulent Distributions of RSi and ï\. of
energy production (smooth bed) ejection and sweep in the wall
region {y <loo).
+

CO
C
0=0000 O o O
•R-
+J
//// !! | If
1 -O CD
/'/// 1 •R—

////
s-
+J
1 C
j O 4-

fi I
O
1—
RO
A
O
C
O

t ƒ
1 O
*R—
L/V
CO
i 4->
<J
CO
O)
s_
-t->
CO

S- TO
<4-
"O V) CD

-a
r—
+->O
RO SZ
>> O
tu
u
F—- cc
RA
RA O
c_>
CO

LD
LN

CD
•I—
U_

34
 OI

N s-
OPEN CHANNEL (BE.L.ULO*) SMOOTH OH L.HANNE L( HE* - LOW) P(v|w>H) CONDT TTONAL PROBDBK 11
P(Qlw>H)
CASE t[ CALCULATED ^7:
ET «1. (19/?) VOOU. UCD ( C*V» A )
1.6 O 0 /\ : B.ODKEY ET AL.[19M)
O
0 SMOOTH BOUNDARY LAYER(RE-I4.fi 10*)
(ü 1)6.2 ^: TU 1 WLLTMERTH( 1973)
RS4/RS2 . / 1'
\ \ 1 JF?CTLOC.
[VENT /
1.2 - \H-0 \
H^ — \

1.0
ip a a

1
1 '1
o.a 1
v/v'

0.6
Fig. 5.21 Conditional probability distributions of u and v .
I I Uliffi I 1 I I I Mil I 1 I I II
10 i<y 10 J

Fig. 5.19 The rate RSi,/RS2 with H=O

On as a function of y . +

to

en
0.5 1.0

\ <
c n>
- -s
DJ
D J ua
r + ro

H at
^ —•
• c 1 n 11 1 1 111111
fD
t/i o-°sQ;fCt. y/h
0.5 1.0
0.5 1.0
O

Fig. 5.20 Effects of roughness expressed

in terms of s~, D~ and Tr.
 5.23 & 5 24 Behavior of ejection or sweep motions at the
trigger level u in the wall and equilibrium r e g i o n s
L

•C^T' '1*

52 c •

i!
—
- o c
•r- O
+J •«-

> O en

2
Ii -• c
— - > O u
•r- O
+-> rO
(_> M—
OJ t-
•r-J 3
O) to
I
4_ OJ
O OJ
t-
S-
O

• r - aj
> -c
(O +->
jCNJ
=
CD C
CO •<-

i i;
cv
f

\
ji
1
•
1i
1 1 1 < '

36
 Fig. 5.29
Fig. 5.27 Mean period f of
e Mean period (fe-fi ) of
n

ejection event with u. ejection event where interaction

event is subtracted.

37
 AUTOCORRELATION OF

ID
O SMOOTH BED (C.IE A->)
• HOUUH BED (CASE 0-1)

He Ru(T)

° »* S • O o. o • •

o, I I I I I I I I I I oI I I I I I I I I I
0.0 0. 1 0.2 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 ,. 1.0
!• n
y/h ?.S 1.0

Fig. 5.33 Trigger level tfe(ejection)

and Hs(sweep). Fig. 5.31 Autocorrelation R (T) of u. U

oo
EN
C-L 0.4& O
~i—I—i—i—I—r i—i—i—r ~ i — i — i — r
J>
cP
1 u2 I
DJ —1
=S
CL
-s
—I.
o" ƒ t> O p. h
IN % IÏ
% 8
In fB
-s
£ —1
ro
ro<
ro
ro
' — 1

C> •TAIN P.FIOJ OF STTP L.I

KV-.N FFT-LOD OF {JTTCLON L-«NT
CD
N> 01 J I I I I I I I I _!_ I I I I l I l
t_i.
0.0 Oil 02 0.5 y/ 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 y 1.0
h /
ro
n
h

r+
—<-
O Fig. 5.32 Mean period of bursting phenomenon
13 (higher-velocity group).
—-

n 3 J nn
 ^^(Noniialued)
0.0 O? (.o 2 0

99. 'J T—i—i—i—r 99.0

T—r
m PERIOD O, [JEU ION
<
SMOOIH BED (C*,E A-1) HE'L.UH) -95.0
99.0 »/»
O O.UB'FV-LIL) — 90.0
• 0.1V1
95.0 + 0.1S0
X 0. II? — ÏO.O
QJ
en R*O ET EL. (1971) -70.0
A H.-6?u
S 90.0 «I» EL .1. 119/11 (VI,„,L mltul4> — 50.0
V RI-6O6. RE'S.6» IT] 1 iO.O
g UO.O • RE* 1100. RE- I WILL* NONNEL LIED PERIOD OF BURST LOG —10.0
• j 70.0 EJECTION SWEEP Y/H -po.o.
OJ 60.0 ° «> 0.061(/.JE>
•ï 50.0 • 0.193 to.o
t "«O
« 40.0
| 30.0 KL ET .1. (1971) (VI, ,1 „IHOOL
" RE-666. RE-S.6ELO
••'» L
3
—ho.o
" 20.0 •FTO-LLOÓ,AE.I.1,10' —\ 5.0

10.0
J I I I I I I ' I
1.0
5.0 2
- -0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2 0
L T / T )
°9< - (NorroaUzed)
1.0

°-° LogfT/ï) °- 5
Fig. 5.36 Normalized probability distributions of period T
Fig. 5.35 Probability distributions of 99.99 1 1 1 1 1 1 99.99
period of bursting phenomenon I I I'I I I I 1 1
I I I I I I I J 1 1 1 1 1

99.9 99.9 R»*7«00

R».4<.00
o y*-4.1 oy*.*.<
O : SMOOTH BED (CI,E A-1) 99 • y ' I 9.9 a y*«10.l
• : ROUGH BED (c*,E O-L) e y . 25.64 .V 99 ey-25.9
• y . 59.6+ • y*.60.7
90
O O O 90
Qi-
9"^ O O O
50 50

f
4
1.0
101 10
KIM ET EL. (1971) (VI,UIL METHOD)
R»-
1

o /

J I I I I I I I I 0.1 0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2
I I I I ?
, k 1 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 0.01
I i!i Ii I i I .2.0
IiI Q0 1
I I ' I I II I I I I I I I I
y/ti •3.0 -2.0 -,JD 0 1.0 3.0 -30 -2 0 1.0 O 1.0 2.0 3.0
L o g f j i / X«)
Fig. 5.37 Coefficient of variation o»/T of
period of bursting phenomenon. Fig. 5.38 Probability distributions of X 3

of bursting phenomenon.
 1
(il) Instantaneous Velocity P r o f i l e ü and v Case A-1 R e ^ l . O x l O ' . F r = 0 . 1 5
t 23 4 8 Ss e c t - 23 670 t 23 853 , t 24 03 7,

10 ' O Fig. 5.39 Some typical photographic i l l u s t r a t i o n s of

ejection or sweep motion (Case D - 1 ) .

Fig. 5.40 Instantaneous velocity p r o f i l e s ü and v over smooth bed.

 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0
u
u/max, v/U max

Fig. 5.41 Conditionally averaged instantaneous velocity p r o f i l e s

at instants when u i s minimum.
1.0

Fig. 5.42 Conditionally averaged instantaneous velocity p r o f i l e s

at instants when ü i s maximum.

41
 I hu. Conditions, Ki»bl00. li,*300

y*-?l(l, y/h-0.7

s. 5.43 & 5.44 Some typical photos of instantaneous v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s

on the horizontal plane(Re=340, leoo and 5100).

42
 i i : Li-

Vortex line,
a v e r s e mode.

3
DJ
•a
rt

ON
Pressure
measured at 0

Fig. 6.3 'Turbulent shear s t r e s s ' mechanism

-1.
Fig. 6.1 An average model of vortex by horseshoe vortex (after T.J.Black)
n
l i n e near the wall OJ.
(after Willmarth et al.).
3
O
HOVIXG-AXtS S T S T U i . U - U - t j y ) D.
O)
f i n a l Flo*. Condition
I n i t i a l Condition ' P r i o r to lr«ak*own
for H u t Cycle I n i t i a l Flow
Conditio*

O!
Flow R a p i d l y
A c c t l a n t f d to
I n i t i a l Condition
du« t o t n a rrjy and
HotMntuM T r a m f a r
fro* VorUx Syltti
-J'
tr
e
ro
n
Subitantlal Portion of
(nargy T r a n i f t r r c d to
Slow H o l t c u l a r T r a m f a r o f Cnaroy and
Homantin (and M a i l o r H a a t . I f A p p l l c a b f i ) ro
V o r t u S v i t a * D*g<narat«i f r o a 'Mowing' W i l l t o S y b t a y t r , MHARA I t
to T u r b g i a n c t dut to Accuvulatai u n t i l lr*akdown
Vortaa I r a a k - u p naar
WIL), and l l U H t a w i U l y
01sslooted t h a n by
VUeotHy

Fig. 6.4 Cyclic development and breakdown

Fig. 6.2 Mechanics of streak breakup
of primary motion (after T.J. Black).
(after Kline et al.).
 Free Surface
Region Equilibrium \
State
. Equilibrium (Steady Motion) .Il-eddy
Region Model 1
' J
Combined
Wall Region Non-equilibrium Renewal [ Model
State
Viscous Sublayer ^Model
, (Cyclic Motion)

Fig. 6.7 Explanation of eddy model in this chapter.

Fig. 6.5 n-shaped vortex over r i v e r bed
(after S. Yokoshi).

x-ut

Fig. 6.6 Conceptual model of the turbulence near the wall Fig. 6.8 A n-eddy model in the moving-axes.
during a ' c y c l i c ' process (after J.O. Hinze).

— : r m
 L+AL n-eddy Model ( e=0.6 )

t
uJ + AtO
UJLIU „ O r ,

70.0 80.0
~fir y //•//////////////> X

Fig. 6.9 Secondary motion of a IT-eddy Fig. 6.11 Relative turbulence intensity predicted
(vortex-stretching). by n-eddy model.

L .i \t 7(T »'/u' Case kj v'/u'

I 0.45 O A-1 0 O
O • 34 MIMI
?
J
0.80
l.?l
0>
-O-
5 0- 1 9
C I 48
25 i. fl? (a b 1- 1 IJ6

1.0 3.1? 0 (j

w'/u'
Sneepluck u u i e j i f >
d|iproachini| itirtau'
v'/u' . :„ ^ . B a B
y llliinl ~V~ 0" 0
0.5 is
_ B
oo
n - E d d y Hodel ( e-0.6 J

» : 45*s6s78"
[dge ol sublayer ~» /.'LLLRIJLLLL t LLJ

/ 1 : 45-S8190-

0.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
30 0.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 1.0
J WETJL y/h 0.5 y/h
Fig. 6.10 Angle of eddy inclination Fig. 6.12 Comparison between n-eddy model and
to the wall (after J. Sternberg)
experimental r e s u l t s .
 0=0.7, 3=0.01

% R.
E c k e t , T i a n n
21o)
A2A G r a s s
1.000 Laufer

30 y AO 50

Fig. 6 . 1 3 Mean velocity distributions when u ; is varied. F i g > 6 1 5 Turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s when [it is varied.

30 y AO

Fig. 6.16 Turbulence intensity and Reynolds stress

Fig. 6 . 1 4 Mean velocity distributions when i s varied. when a is varied.

~n r
II I

Fig. 6.19 Reynolds stress when \\i i s varied.

Fig. 6.17 Turbulence i n t e n s i t i e s when UJ is varied.

R.= 500
Eckelmann -renewal modet(o(=0.7 0=0.01 LC=15)
1.0 -°>tC R R> - v a n Driest
a=0.7, 6=0.01 o a 142
• A 210

Fig. 6.20 Reynolds stress evaluated from

+
3^t/9y by renewal model.
Fig. 6.18 Reynolds stress when U is varied.
0
 LC = 15. o( = 0.7. 0 = 0.01

20 -uv/. 30

Fig. 6.22 Instantaneous Reynolds stress - u v

in a bursting cycle.
12.6
One period of bursting
(r=4f
301 U*.= 15. c< = 0.7 0=0.01
25.7
(30)

y*=A0
403
(20),
y*=30
201
Sweep Ejection^

y =20 Interaction
40.5
(10)

10 r=i5
26.5
(5)

y*=io
r=5
0.0 0.5 1.0
r='/ T

Fig. 6 . 2 3 Behaviour of Reynolds stress -uv

in a bursting cycle.
 ..] [i

3.0

'a

2.0

ECULI>«NN(L9H) 011 FLAW

GR*II(T971) UILTR FLOW
Uwt>r(L9S4] AIR FLOW
1.0 AULHORIOV'S) UTTER FLOW

0.0' 10 20 30 40 50

Fig. 6.24 Bursting period estimated Fig. 6.26 Turbulence intensity estimated by combined model
by renewal model.
Combined model
A = 10 B=0.3

Viscous Sublayer Viscous Superlayer

17.7-1
Height roughly y +
~ (10 - 15) y . ~ &

Quasi-laminar — Turbulent —
Interface Turbulent Nonturbulent

Phenomenon Bursting Intermittent

Characteristic Damping F a c t o r Intermitency Factor

Function r Y

Fig. 6.25 Comparison between viscous-sublayer

and superlayer. Fig. 6.27 Maximum c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of u'/u^
by combined model.
 part 2 T u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e o v e r permeable bed
chapter 8 I n t e r a c t i o n between main and seepage flows

(a] Hydraulically Smooth Bed (b) Permeable Bed

u u
Main Flow Main Flow Loa Profile
Log Profile

Diffusion of) Diffusion of

Pressure Energy
Pressure Energy
J_1_L.L
Viscous • Linear Profile
Sublayer
—n-r-7-r7i~m''////>//!'/ Permeable Layer Seepage Flow profile

Fig. 8.1 Analogy between smooth and permeable flow f i e l d s .

Real Seepage Velocity | Apparent Seepage

* Velocity

I n t e r a c t i o n F e e d b a c k S y s t e m >

1
I n d u c e d F l o w
Seepage
M a i n Flow
S t r e s s

- Fig. 8.3 Model of seepage flow.

1 v.
1
_ D i f f u s i o n o f P r e s s u r e E n e r g y _

E x c i t e D i s t u r b a n c e s

Fig. 8.2
Hydrodynamic interaction mechanism
between main and seepage flows.
Fig. 8.4 Turbulent permeable
open-channel flow f i e l d .
Willmarth et al.(196?)
«<SyU (Boundary Layer)
O 5.00
• 0.63

Corcos (1964)
J/0 (Pipe Flow)
e o.is
<D 0.20
O 0.75
0 11.2

Fig. 8.5 Amplitude of the cross-spectral function.

50
n

Streamlines of mean flow in the

neighbourhood of the matched layer
(Cat•s eye).

51
 'w
>> p
+J Ü
•1- (H
on 0
c o
01
+J <
C -5
•R— •
ö
0)
S- M
3 Q)
00 -u
on
0
S -) «s
s
-
O-
1 Q)
I — Si
1—
ro M-
3 O

01 C
on O
0) - r -
I — +->
C CJ
o e
•I- 3
on f-
cOJ ro
E _
•r- on
O ro

O
IT- ^3
.U
CO B
X
,
cn
•I—
U-

Fig. 8.12
Relationship between seepage velocity g m Fig. 8.13
and hydraulic gradient i .
e Relationship between RK and

52
 3
O

ro
E

3
ro

O
CU

CU

a LO

CO

C A S E A
R U N
' • A . a
f r o m b\ from b t

poroul
C A S E C n (cm) strata E - 1 0.0672 5.5 0.184 0.156
F - 1 0.1228 5.5 0.096
E 1.08x10-' 0.172 0.39 0.083
1.2S 3

E - 2 0.0586 3.8 0.149

F 3 . 7 0 x 1 0 - ' 0.130 0.54 1.25 5 0.126
F - 2 0.1408 3.8 0.190 0.161

E - 3 0.0491 3.1 0.140 0.119

F - 3 0.1410 3.1 0.138 0.117
Table 8.1
ATerage 0.150
Properties of porous media. 0.127

Table 8.3
Evaluated values of the induced s t r e s s .

C A S E h U'
hplh t.-ilh £ UJV. RK /
R U N (cm) V
(crn/sec)

D - 1 7.38 0.9x10* 0.16 3 . 3 9 x 1 0 - ' 1.243 0.352

E - 1 7.75 0.44 1.1x10* 0.17 4.03X10- 1
1.237 0.317 5.427 0.057 1.960 1.942 0.476
F - 1 7.58 0.45 1.2x10* 0.18 8.25x10-' 1.327 0.260 5.287 0.409 0.743 0.708 1.355

D - 2 7.38 2.6x10* 0.47 3.39x10-' 3.260 0.358

E - 2 7.59 0.45 3.0x10* 0.45 4.12x10"' 3.360 0.340 5.632 1.075 0.802 0.694 1.319
F - 2 7.45 0.46 3.1x10* 0.44 8.38x10-' 3.517 0.318 5.709 2.268 0.343 0.280 2.584

D - 3 7.42 4.1K 10* 0.68 3.23x10"' 5.024 0.342

E - 3 8.01 0.42 4.4x10* 0.63 3.90x10-' 5.152 0.334 5.768 0.942 0.567 0.497 1.761
F - 3 8.33 0.41 4.4x10' 0.58 7.50x10-' 5.421 0.270 4.479 4.900 0.541 0.389 1.958

Table 8.2 Hydraulic data for experiments.

53
chapter 9 T u r b u l e n t s t r u c t u r e w i t h transpiration

Fig. 9.2 Mean velocity distributions

calculated by using van Driest's
OJ damping factor F,
CLIX s-

© ffi

® ®
Fig. 9.4 E f f e c t s o f t r a n s p i r a t i o n
on the wall shear s t r e s s .

54
55
Fig. 9.9 Fig. 9.10
Absolute production of turbulent Absolute variations of d i r e c t - d i s s i p a t i o n
energy with transpiration. and production by transpiration 3.

Fig. 9.11 Recirculating t i l t i n g flume and apparatus of transpiration

56
 CO <— CTL CO
—• US CNJ R-.
L—O N CO UI CO

-—- CXJ CNJ O

co cm o o O
i— LO ID Uj CO

en ts
CO i — CO CO
O R- CN

Ull
• CNJ
O UD

ex er
CO UJ Cfi CN
•— ^ IN
o
a.

CM J- c
O
o o
M •4- -R-
4->
ro ro
4 - > S-
CN ra •!-
VO
i CD CO "O Q.
1/1
O O c
CN • i - ro
"1 t — S-

th t
drau
O ^ EG

O >vr-3
3=
•— C\J N

«5 i/l
CD CC CN -CR
u R** 00 -ER C~3

-Q
(O

<si
rO
i—
I
CNJ
I
m
I
Fig. 9.12 Mean velocity p r o f i l e
with t r a n s p i r a t i o n .

• (-0.092)

Fig. 9.13 Fig. 9.14

Comparison between v and Ü . Variation of wall shear s
by t r a n s p i r a t i o n .

57
 (a) (b)

U only
CASE H-1
RUN
1 o 0
4
4 0> 0. 0598
5 & 0. 1417
8 0 -0. 0410
9 •© -0. 0676

yu./y

F i g . 9.15 Mean velocity distributions u/u^ (Log-law)

CASE HR-1
u 8
RUN * . ' _ . .
30 ^.-i(yi.o.v.v-io)
MX .
10 0 0.616x10.148
11 • 0.802 • 0.198
12 A 0.973 • 0.249 *Jl
1 O 0
r.'

I • O.CHW
S « 0.1*17
a * -o.wio
9 » -0.0*76

1.0 10 100

Fig. 9.16 Fig. 9.17

Mean velocity distribution Mean velocity distributions (j>
with strong i n j e c t i o n . (Bilog-law).

58
Fig. 9.20 Distributions of Reynolds s t r e s s with t r a n s p i r a t i o n .

59
 CASE
CASE H-1 RUN » .
vi ! O 0.0
3 0 0.033
0.0 4 <j> 0.061
0.073
5 - O 0.158
-G- 0 . 1 7 6
7 • -0.022
E «JJ - 0 . 0 3 7
8 C> - 0 . 0 3 2
-Q- - 0 . 0 6 0
9 -«--0.050
Andersen(1975)
Andersen(1975)
• 0.049
• 0.049
A -0.083
A -0.033

u7U,'CVe>p(-*)

Fig.. 9.21 Turbulence intensity W / u ^ with transpiration.

CASE H-1 CASE H-1

5 J
^ 0.0
O 0.0
CP 0.073 0.073
-e- 0.177
0,= 3.0 0.177
V -0.036 è -0.036
-0.060 -O- - 0 . 0 6 0
Andersenf1975) Andersen(1975)
A -0.083 A -0.083

9.22 with t r a n s p i r a t i o n . F i g < 9 - 2 3 w'/u^ with t r a n s p i r a t i o n ,

60
 2.0

Fig. 9.24 Relationship between D and v+.

9.26 Relative turbulence intensity u'/u

Fig. 9.25 Absolute variation of
with transpiration.
turbulence intensity u'/u^ .
a
 (a) y/h*0.05 (b) y/h=0.30

k (cm") 10'
1

y/h=0.05

S
•# 5
I
*
0.0
0.060
0-1 «2
-V
<t> 8 -0.041 V
- » 9 -0.068
1
: TD RMANS
. fomjla
«
10

10
10' •0° k(cm') 10' 10 2

Lxk

Fig. 9.27 Fig. 9.28

Spectral distributions s ^ J c ; An example of spectra s (k)/Lx
u

with transpiration. normalized by LX.

62
 1.0 U (a) Macro-scale

V u
(b') Micro-scale
* 9

<Ü1
i 111 0.01J 1—I I I I 111 J : l l M I I
0.1
« 0.1 1.0
y/h
4 o
CASE H-1
RUN v+
• 1 0.0
0 4 0.060
-9- 5 0.142
0> 8 -0.041
-©•9 -0.068
0.01 r - j — i — i i i i 111 — i — i — i |
hO.OI 0.1

Fig. 9.29 Macro-scale Lx and micro-scale Xx with transpiration.

Fig. 9.30 Absolute variations of turbulent dissipation eh/u *3 o

63