COMPENDIUM OF

ENVIRONMENT
STATISTICS
NEPAL 2015

Government of Nepal
National Planning Commission Secretariat
Central Bureau of Statistics
ii  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015
COMPENDIUM OF

ENVIRONMENT
STATISTICS
NEPAL 2015

Government of Nepal
National Planning Commission Secretariat
Central Bureau of Statistics
Published by
Government of Nepal
Central Bureau of Statistics
P.O. Box: 11031
Ramshah Path, Thapathali
Kathmandu, Nepal

Phone: 4245946, 4245947, 4245948

Fax: 977-1-4227720
E-mail:[email protected]
Website: www.cbs.gov.np

ISBN: 978-9937-0-0443-5

Design and Processed: Print Communication Pvt. Ltd.

Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal

Printed in Nepal

January, 2016 (500 Copies)

Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect those of CBS

Financial support for this publication:

Asian Development Bank
Technical Assistance for Strengthening and Use of Country Safeguard Systems (TA 7566)
 Government of Nepal

National Planning Commission

Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal

Message
It is my pleasure to note that the Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015
has come out as per the guidelines of the United Nation Framework for the Develop-
ment of Environment Statistics having useful data sets and analysis. Indeed, the Report
is an intellectual contribution to the analysis of environment statistics of Nepal. As the
country is committed to the Post 2015 global development agenda, that is achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), this Compendium could be an important
source of information to the indicators related to some of the SDGs set.
Environmental data and information play a key role in the preparation and
implementation of plans, policies, programmes and projects in Nepal. This analytical re-
port provides a comprehensive picture of the environmental situation of the country and
provides an important instrument for policy integration and informed decision making.
On behalf of the National Planning Commission, I would like to extend my sin-
cere thanks to Central Bureau of Statistics and all those who have contributed directly
and indirectly in the preparation of this report.

January, 2016

Dr. Yuba Raj Khatiwada

Vice-Chairman

  | v
 Government of Nepal

National Planning Commission Secretariat

Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal

Foreword
Environment is a cross cutting issue and plays an integral role in achieving sustainable devel-
opment objectives. The Compendium of Environment Statistics aims to serve as reference
material for policy makers and professionals in the fields of environment to increase aware-
ness and knowledge of the environmental situation of the country. The need for improve-
ments in the field of data and statistics to monitor progress on the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) and the associated need for statistical capacity building in developing coun-
tries have been highly recognized.
The environmental problems in Nepal are as diverse as its geography and climate. Pri-
orities in addressing those problems in development planning have changed as new evidence
emerged over time. The Government of Nepal has accorded high priority to environmental
problems because they have profound impact on the livelihoods of millions of people who
depend on ecosystem services. The government has formulated policies, strategies and pro-
grammes in each of its periodic plan to see that environmental problems are addressed.
The Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015 provides a wealth of infor-
mation and analysis on environmental situation of Nepal. Nepal is committed to Post 2015
Development Agenda and the SDGs. This analytical report of the environment statistics
of Nepal can be used by the government and other development stakeholders to formulate
policies and programs.
I would like to thank the Central Bureau of Statistics, the authors as well as the mem-
bers of the Technical Committee and many others who in various ways contributed in the
preparation of the Report.

January, 2016

Suresh Man Shrestha

Secretary

vi  | 
Preface
Eradication of poverty and assurance of environmental sustainability are today’s greatest
challenges. The concept of sustainable development introduces concrete measures to bring
these ambitions into balance and intends to promote sustainable development for the benefit
of current and future generations.
The development of Environment Statistics is still at an infant stage in Nepal. The
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) first published a compendium on Environment Statis-
tics in 1994 which provided valuable insights into the importance and usefulness of the
subject matter. ‘A Compendium on Environment Statistics 1998 Nepal’ was brought as
the second publication with an attempt to analyze available data on various aspects of the
environment of Nepal.
This present publication “Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015” is
the third in the series of publication of the Environmental Compendium. It is not only the
updated version of the previous work but an enhanced effort to present available data and
textual description and analysis on various aspects of Environment as well. In this publica-
tion detailed analytical articles are contained as contributed by the experts of environment
related field. This publication, by and large has followed the presentation scheme of the
United Nations Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (UNFDES).
Hope, this type of presentation of environment statistics in a single compendium
may prove to be highly useful for environment management, planning, policy purposes
and research works.
I would like to express my gratitude to all the authors who have contributed chapters to
this compendium. I am grateful to Mr. Bikash Bista, the then Director General for his valuable
comments all through the program. I would like to thank Dr. Rudra Suwal, Deputy Director
General of the bureau for overall guidance to bring out this publication. Mr. Sushil Kumar
Sharma, Director, Environment Statistics Section deserves special thanks for shouldering the
responsibility to accomplish the whole task of compilation and bringing out this publication
in time. Similarly, I would like to thank Mr. Dhundi Raj Lamichhane, Director of the En-
vironment Statistics Section for his contribution on this publication. Statistical Officers Mr.
Manohar Ghimire and Mr. Tulsi Prasad Paudel and Statistical Assistant Mr. Govinda Dumre
also deserve thanks for their sincere involvement in the compilation of this publication.
Similarly, the Asian Development Bank deserves our special appreciation for provid-
ing funds for the printing of this publication.
Finally, I would like to request all users to provide invaluable suggestions and comments
that would be useful for further improvement in the future publications of this kind.

January, 2016
Suman Raj Aryal
Director General
Central Bureau of Statistics

  | vii
 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal 1

CHAPTER 2

Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural Settlement Plan in Nepal 13

CHAPTER 3

Social and Demographic Issues 25

CHAPTER 4

Climatic Extremities in Nepal 41

CHAPTER 5

Land and Soil 47

CHAPTER 6

Water 69

CHAPTER 7

Biological Resources 85

CHAPTER 8

Solid Waste Management: Status and Challenges in Nepal 101

CHAPTER 9

Human Settlement Situation in Nepal 111

CHAPTER 10

Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Action 145

Glossary 167

viii  | 
Abbreviation
ADB Asian Development Bank
AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
APF Armed Police Force
BCN Bird Conservation Nepal
CBD Convention on Biodiversity
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
CDAF Central Disaster Aid Fund
CDRC Central Disaster Relief Committee
CEA Classifications of Environmental Activities
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spices of Wild Fauna and Flora
CPC Central Product Classification
DDC District Development Committee
DDRC District Disaster Relief Committees
DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
DoF Department of Forest
DPSRF Driving –Force-Pressure-State-Response Framework
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ENPHO Environment & Public Health Organization
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FY Fiscal Year
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrollment Ratio
GHG Green House Gas
GLOF Glacial Lake Outburst Flood
GoN Government of Nepal
GTF Global Tiger Forum
HFA Hyogo Framework for Action
ICD International Classification of Diseases
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
IDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification Of All Activities
ITTA International Tropical Timber Agreement
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
LAPA Local Adaptation Programme of Action
LCCS Land Cover Classification System
LDMC Local Disaster Management Committee
LDRC Local Disaster Relief Committee
LRMP Land Resource Mapping Project
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MEAs Multilateral Environment Agreements
MFA Material Flow Accounts
MoEST Ministry of Environments Science and Technology

  | ix
 MoF Ministry of Finance
MoHa Ministry of Home Affairs
MoWR Ministry of Water Resources
NA Not Available
NA Nepal Army
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NAPDM National Action Plan on Disaster Management
NARC National Agriculture Research Council
NCDM National Centre for Disaster Management
NCIDNDR National Committee for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
NCP Nepal Civil Police
NCRA Natural Calamity Relief Act
NDMC National Disaster Management Council
NEOC National Emergency Operation Centre
NER Net Enrollment Ratio
NGOs Non- Governmental Organizations
NSO National Statistical Office
NPC National Planning Commission
NPWC National Park and Wildlife Conservation
NSDRMN National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management in Nepal
NTNC National Trust for Nature Conservation
NWP National Water Plan
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PMNCAF Prime Minister Natural Calamity Aid Fund
PSRF Pressure-State-Response Framework
RDRC Regional Disaster Relief Committee
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SAM Social Accounting Matrix
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SEEA System of Economic and Environment Accounting
SNA System of National Accounts
SSDS System of Social and Demographic Statistics
SWM Solid Waste Management
SWMRMC Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Center
TYP Three Year Plans
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNFDES United Nations Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics
UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific
UNSD United Nations Statistics Division
VDC Village Development Committee
WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat
WHO World Health Organization
WRS Water Resource Strategy
WTO World Trade Organization
WUAs Water Users Associations

x  | 
 CHAPTER 1

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal

Sushil Kumar Sharma*  l Manohar Ghimire**

Environment refers to the surroundings and is roughly divided into two types, Micro environment and Macro environment.
The Government of Nepal has addressed major environmental problems and issues in the periodic plans. Environment
statistics describe the state and trends of the environment. Currently the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) is producing and
compiling the environment statistics of Nepal in line with the United Nation Framework for the Development of Environment
Statistics (FDES), 1984 updated in 1995. Now, the United Nation Statistical Division (UNSD) has endorsed the FDES 2013.
The major challenge of CBS is to compile and produce Environment Statistics of Nepal within this guideline.

Background 1. According to P. Gisbert “Environment is any-

thing immediately surrounding an object and
The term “environment” has been derived from exerting a direct influence on it.”
a French word “Environia”, which means to sur- 2. According to E. J. Ross “Environment is an
round. It refers to both abiotic (physical or non- external force which influences us.”
living) and biotic (living) environment. The word Thus, environment refers to anything that
“environment” means surroundings, in which or- is immediately surrounding an object and exerting
ganisms live. Environment and the organisms are a direct influence on it. Our environment refers
two dynamic and complex components of nature. to those things or agencies which though distinct
Environment regulates the life of the organisms from us, affect our life or activity. The environ-
including human beings. Human beings interact ment by which human being is surrounded and
with the environment more vigorously than other affected by factors that may be natural, artificial,
living beings. Ordinarily environment refers to the social, biological and psychological.
materials and forces that surround the living organ- Environment mainly consists of atmo-
ism. sphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
Environment is the sum total of conditions But it can be roughly divided into two types such
that surrounds us at a given point of time and as Micro environment and Macro environment.
space. It is comprised of the interacting systems It can also be divided into two other types such as
of physical, biological and cultural elements which physical and biotic environment.
are interlinked both individually and collectively. (a) Micro environment refers to the immediate
Environment is the sum total of conditions in local surrounding of the organism.
which an organism has to survive or maintain its (b) Macro environment refers to all the physical
life process. It influences the growth and develop- and biotic conditions that surround the or-
ment of living forms. ganism externally.
In other words, environment refers to those (c) Physical environment refers to all abiotic fac-
surroundings that surrounds living beings from all tors or conditions like temperature, light, rain-
sides and affect their lives in total. It consists of fall, soil, minerals, etc. It comprises of atmo-
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and bio- sphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
sphere. Its chief components are soil, water, air, (d) Biotic environment includes all biotic factors or liv-
organisms and solar energy. It has provided us all ing forms like plants, animals, Micro-organisms.
the resources for leading a comfortable life. *(Meaning, Definition and Components of Environment By Puja Mondal, Environment)

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal  | 1

 Environmental Problems • Enhancing institutional capacity considering
the changing global scenario,
Environmental problems such as climate change, • Effective environmental governance.
global warming, melting of snow in the Himalayas,
decreasing productivity in agriculture despite tech-
nology development, etc. are not confined to any Environment Management in Periodic Plans
country or continent nor it is limited to the develop-
ing or the developed world. Therefore, the United In the context of Nepal, policies and programs on
Nations and other global institutions have been pay- environment management have been incorporated
ing attention towards environment management in the periodic plans. However, priorities varied and
since decades. It has been realized that sustainability immediate needs are reflected in the plans. Issues
of the development depends much upon the man- relating to environment have been addressed since
agement of the environment and hence, the expendi- the sixth Five-Year Periodic Plan. Policy regarding
ture on environmental management today is in fact, the environmental issues has been reflected in the
a reliable investment for the safe future. national and international treaties or general con-
The United Nations initiated actions to- ventions. It has become essential to incorporate
wards the environment by establishing United those policies followed and continued in the devel-
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in opment plans and programs realizing the problems
1972 that aims to coordinate the development of of climate change and environmental degradation.
environmental policy by keeping the global envi- In the early seventies, priorities were given to
ronment under review and bringing emerging is- address soil erosion, flood and landslides and con-
sues to the attention of the governments and the serve forest resources in the policies, strategies and
international communities for action. programs of the periodic plans. In the early eighties,
The major environmental problems of Ne- emphasis was given on the policy of reducing water
pal can be listed as: pollution generated by industries and urban areas.
• Degradation of air quality At the same time, efforts were made to manage re-
• Degradation of drinking water sources through people’s participation. Remarkable
• Degradation of natural resources achievements were gained in the community forestry
• Lack of solid waste management but problems started to emerge in urban areas and
• Degradation of surface water quality industrial estates particularly of pollution of solid
• Diminishing of water resources waste, air, water and noise. On the other hand, ru-
• Release of toxic pollutants ral areas continue to suffer from soil erosion, flood,
• Loss of biodiversity landslides and reduction in the sources of water. Nev-
• Impacts of climate change ertheless, various initiatives were taken by the govern-
• Improper land use ment, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs),
Due to the above mentioned environmen- and the private sector to address these problems.
tal problems, Nepal has been facing following The government formulated policies and enacted
challenges: Acts and Regulations such as Environment Protec-
• Sensitizing and building awareness among all tion Act, 1997, Environment Protection Rules,
layers of the people on environmental issues, 1997, National Environmental Impact Assessment
• Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Guidelines 1993 and Ozone Depleting Substances
Agreements (MEAs), Consumption Rules 2001, etc. Environment Impact
• Protecting natural resources- specially halting Assessment (EIA) of development works was institu-
deforestation, biodiversity conservation, and tionalized and the standard related to the industrial
pollution control, effluents air quality were implemented. But, the out-
• Environmental Standard formulation and en- come of these efforts was not achieved satisfactorily.
forcement, Nepal has been facing two types of environ-
• Adapting and mitigating climate change impacts, mental challenges: problems generated by the pres-

2  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

sure on natural resources and air as well as water pol- • To make new laws pertaining to environmen-
lution. The problems generated by climate change tal conservation will be drafted, and the en-
for which the country is not responsible but has to vironmental policy, existing laws, rules and
face it and it could even be dangerous in future. The mechanisms will be strengthened and updated
Three Year Interim Plan (TYP) of Nepal (2010/11 and institutional capacities will be enhanced,
- 2012/13) has mentioned the major problems of en- • Through the Local Adaption Program of Ac-
vironment management such as monitoring system tion, the National Adaption Program of Ac-
being not effective regarding the implementation of tion will be executed at the local level and ef-
approved standard including as mentioned in the re- forts to alleviate poverty will be expanded,
port on EIA, institutional capacity not strengthened • To make programs to spread public awareness
as expected, coordination mechanism not strength- about protecting and preserving the environ-
ened amongst the inter ministries, and environment ment will be carried out,
related policies and programs not adaptable with sec- • The Ministry of Science, Technology and En-
toral policies and programs. vironment will serve as a focal agency to ex-
In pursuing national development Three- ecute all the activities related to environmental
Year Plan TYP (2013/14 – 2015/16), Nepal in- conservation and climate change,
creasingly needs to keep in mind the goals of en- • By enforcing the treaties and conventions to
vironmental protection and adaptation to climate which Nepal is a party, and especially taking ad-
change. Nepal has ratified several national and in- vantage of the Clean Development Mechanism
ternational treaties and conventions regarding these under the Kyoto Protocol, the agencies concerned
issues and has arranged for the corresponding na- will be mobilized to derive maximum benefits,
tional policies and legislative and institutional infra- • Partnerships will be forged among the donor
structure to uphold its commitments. To minimise agencies, non-government organizations, lo-
stress on the environment and to mitigate the im- cal bodies, community institutions and other
pacts of climate change, Nepal has adopted the no- agencies in order to coordinate activities re-
tion of green development. With the participation lated to environment and climate change,
of the Nepal government and other governments • The development of environment-friendly, climate
national as well as international non-governmental change-adaptive infrastructure will be emphasized,
agencies, efforts have been made to frame strategic • Inter-agency coordination in the planning
program to promote national and local adaption, and implementation of environment-friendly
initiate carbon trading, and internalize and address development measures will be strengthened,
environment-sensitive issues. The lack of institu- • The concept of green economy will be inte-
tional capacity, the absence of inter-agency relation- grated into all economic programs,
ships to handle issues relating to climate change, • Pollution levels in the rivers in Kathmandu and
and the shortage of adequate means and resources other metropolises will be reduced and air, land,
are some of the problems faced by this sector. TYP water, and sound pollution will be controlled,
(FY 2013/14 – 2015/16) has mentioned the fol- • Actions regarding hazardous waste manage-
lowing major policies and operating policies to be ment will be taken in coordination with the
adopted in the environment sector: agencies concerned,
• To make environmental management an inte- • Additional environmental standards will be
gral component of development program, framed and implemented in the areas of air,
• To adapt climate change and sustainably con- land, water, and sound pollution,
serve and manage natural resources by pursu- • Special programs for reducing various types of
ing disaster risk mitigation, poverty alleviation pollution will be designed and implemented in
and environmental protection, order to keep urban pollution within a certain
• To make meteorological services reliable, limit and to preserve the beauty of rural areas,
trustworthy, regular and good-quality in order • Mechanisms for the enforcement of 'the polluter
to mobilize them in efforts to mitigate the im- pays’ and 'removing pollution is good' principles
pacts of climate change,
Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal  | 3
 will be developed and implemented; the use of able use of forests and biodiversity and for bio-
low-polluting means of transport and environ- diversity loss. As the climate change became an
ment-friendly fuel will be promoted. Advanced international issue, environmental protection and
technology will be employed to minimize the conservation has gained more attention in Nepal.
growing levels of pollution. To reconcile the The Government of Nepal has given importance
sometimes conflicting demands of environmen- to poverty alleviation, food security and climate
tal protection and poverty alleviation, poverty change by creating the employment opportunities
alleviation programs with an environmental di- through its three years’ periodic plans/programs.
mension will be effectively implemented, After climate change became an interna-
• The existing weather forecasting system will tional priority, meeting the needs of a growing
be made more reliable and trustworthy, population for sustainable energy is one of the big-
• Early warning systems for floods will be initi- gest challenges. Nepal has been facing especially
ated by utilizing appropriate technology, in light of the need to reduce poverty and address
• To improve the collection of data from the cur- climate change. Nepal must adopt improved and
rently existing water-and-weather centres, a te- affordable energy-efficient technology if it is to re-
lemetry system will be developed and expanded, duce poverty and sustain prosperity. Its demand for
• Provisions will be made for spending a certain energy should be increasingly met by renewable
portion of revenue generated from natural re- sources in order to limit the adverse impact on the
sources for the conservation of natural resources environment. It should replace out-dated infra-
and environmental research and development. structure and technologies gradually and invest in
efficient energy usage, renewable energy sources,
and minimally carbon-intensive technologies; all
Millennium Development Goals and Progress areas of investment which promise both finan-
Status in Achieving the Environment cial and environmental benefits. The government
Sustainability Goals in Nepal is committed to phasing out inefficient fossil fuel
subsidies. In embracing renewable-energy technol-
Nepal has made significant progress in achieving ogy, it should provide targeted support, perhaps in
its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). the nature of subsidies, to poor and marginalized
In fact, given the difficult context— a decade- communities and rural areas. Providing people with
long armed conflict and political instability— its access to modern and reliable energy to cook and
achievements should be considered remarkable. light their homes has enormous social, economic,
Its targets for the poverty and hunger, universal and environmental benefits. The government can
primary education, gender equality and women’s use a combination of taxation, subsidy, regulation
empowerment, child mortality, and maternal and partnership to encourage innovations in clean
health are likely to be achieved, while those for energy. Although access to safe drinking water is a
HIV/AIDs, malaria and other diseases, environ- basic human right, many Nepalese have access to
mental sustainability, and global partnership are only basic, not medium- or high quality water sup-
unlikely to be achieved in totality. ply services, and continuous access is rarely guaran-
Environmental sustainability is not being teed. The 2015 MDG targets focus on improving
addressed adequately, and will require much more the quality of the sources of water collection and on
effort and resources to achieve targets. Environ- reducing the amount of time spent collecting wa-
ment sustainability is directly related with the ter. Nepal must now ensure that safe drinking water
people’s livelihoods and economic development. is universally accessible nearby, or at schools and
Nepal is highly vulnerable to the risks of climate homes, especially those located in slums and squat-
change, although its contribution to green house ter settlements, and that tourists, too, are adequate-
gas (GHG) emissions is very low and negligible ly provisioned. Investments in safe drinking water
in global warming. Community based initiatives should complement investments in sanitation and
are essential for effective conservation and sustain- hygiene so that Nepal can reduce the currently high

4  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

incidence of diarrheal diseases. The nation must Environment Statistics is relatively a
expand sanitation infrastructure and offer more young branch and multi-disciplinary area in the
public services as well as establish, or strengthen, field of official statistics. The sources of envi-
national, sub-national and local policies regarding ronmental statistics are dispersed and variety of
the collection, recycling and usage of wastewater. methods are applied in their compilation. They
Monitoring and evaluation of the policies generally provide a synthesis of data from various
and programs are keys to the successful imple- subject areas and sources to help in the formula-
mentation of the plan. However, proper monitor- tion and evaluation of integrated socio-economic
ing and evaluation has been difficult due to data and environmental policies.
and information gaps.

Objective of Environment Statistics

Environment Statistics and Indicators
The objective of environment statistics is to
Principle 10 of the United Nations Declaration on provide information about the environment, its
Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, most important changes over time and across
June 1992), stated “………..each individual shall locations, and the main factors that influence
have appropriate access to information concerning them. Ultimately, environment statistics aim at
the environment that is held by public authorities providing high quality statistical information to
……. and the opportunity to participate in the improve knowledge of the environment, to sup-
decision making process. States shall facilitate and port evidence-based policy and decision making,
encourage public awareness and participation by and to provide information for the general pub-
making information widely available.” lic, as well as for specific user groups.
Environment statistics describe human
activities with a view to enumerate his/her inter-
actions with the environment. The scope of en- Scope of Environment Statistics
vironment statistics depends largely on the envi-
ronmental problems on the political agenda; the The scope of environment statistics covers bio-
geographic situation of a country, its state of de- physical aspects of the environment and those as-
velopment, and its political system taken together pects of the socio-economic system that directly
determine the bulk of this agenda. A tropical, influence and interact with the environment. The
densely populated country with much rain and scope of environment, social and economic statis-
situated on the coast envisages other problems tics overlap and it is not easy to draw a fine di-
than a sparsely populated landlocked country viding line between these statistical areas. Social
with a desert climate. Also, problems of sustain- and economic statistics describing processes or
able agriculture and forestry, of eco-tourism, or of activities that have a direct impact on, or inter-
biodiversity conservation or of climate change are act directly with, the environment are widely used
likely to be much more important to the biodi- in environment statistics and they are within the
versity-rich, resource-dependent economies of the scope of the FDES. Beyond 20 that, other relevant
developing world. The scope generally includes social and economic statistics are also required to
the media of the natural environment (air/climate, put environmental issues in context and to facili-
water, land/soil), the biota found within these me- tate the integrated analysis of environmental, so-
dia, and human settlements. It therefore, describes cial and economic processes. The use of consistent
the quality and availability of natural resources, definitions and classifications among these fields
human activities and natural events that effect the helps their integration. When properly integrated,
environment, the impacts of these activities and data and other inputs from these domains enrich
events and social responses to these impacts. the analysis of environment statistics.

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal  | 5

 Main Users and User Groups of the data used for the production of environment
Environment Statistics statistics are not only compiled by many different
collection techniques but also by many different
Environment statistics serve a variety of users, in- institutions. Source types include:
cluding but not restricted to: i. Statistical surveys (e.g., censuses or sample
i. Policy and decision makers at all levels; surveys of population, housing, agriculture,
ii. The general public, including media and civil enterprises, households, employment, and dif-
society; ferent aspects of environment management);
iii. Analysts, researchers and academia ii. Administrative records of government and non-
iv. International agencies. government agencies in charge of natural resourc-
Different users need environment statistics es as well as other ministries and authorities;
at different levels of aggregation and depths of infor- iii. Remote sensing (e.g., satellite imaging of land
mation. They may need cross-cutting environment use, water bodies or forest cover);
statistics data sets, for instance regarding climate iv. Monitoring systems (e.g., field-monitoring sta-
change. In other cases they may only be interested tions for water quality, air pollution or climate);
in particular topics and themes pertaining to specific v. Scientific research;
sectoral analysis and policy making. Policy and de- vi. Special projects undertaken to fulfill domestic
cision makers at the highest levels and the general or international demand.
public would tend to use environmental indicators
and more aggregated statistics. Environmental ad-
ministration, researchers, analysts and academia may Classifications, Categories and other
be more inclined to look at extensive and detailed Groupings relevant to Environment Statistics
environment statistics. International agencies typi-
cally have well articulated environmental data needs Statistical classifications are sets of discrete catego-
based on environmental agreements or international ries which may be assigned to a specific variable in
data collection processes. Environment statistics sup- a statistical survey or an administrative file and used
port evidence-based policy making by enabling the in the production and presentation of statistics.
identification of environmental policy issues and the The field of environment statistics has no single,
objective quantification of measures and impacts overarching, internationally agreed classification of
of policy initiatives. They strengthen assessments the environment for statistical purposes. Instead,
through quantitative metrics, making analysis more there are a number of coexisting and emerging
robust through the use of timely and comparable classifications and categorizations for specific sub-
data. The type, the level of thematic, spatial and ject areas. These include standardized statistical
temporal aggregation, and the format of environ- classifications as well as less formalized groupings
ment statistics depend on the type of the user and or categories. Some of the classifications and cat-
the intended purpose of use. The main products of egories that have been used in the environmental
environment statistics are detailed tabulated environ- field have not been developed specifically for sta-
ment statistics series and environmental indicators tistical purposes, and therefore have to be linked
stored in multipurpose databases and disseminated to statistical classifications. Standard economic
in the form of on-line databases as well as different and social-demographic statistical classifications,
types of publications such as compendia, yearbooks such as e.g., the International Standard Industrial
and state of the environment reports. Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC)
and the Central Product Classification (CPC), or
the International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
Sources of Environment Statistics among others, are relevant for and used in envi-
ronment statistics. The use of these classifications
Environment statistics synthesize data originating facilitates the integration of environment statistics
from a wide range of source types. This means that with economic and social demographic statistics.

6  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

More recent statistical classifications as well as less- vation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) and
formalized categorizations which pertain to specific the International Union for the Conservation of
sub-domains of environment statistics do exist and Nature (IUCN); the ecosystem reporting categories
are in use. They are UNSD, “Standard Statistical used by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment; or
Classifications: Basic Principles” Available from the source categories for greenhouse gas emissions
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/class/family/bestprac. (GHGs) from the Inter-governmental Panel on
pdf. International Standard Industrial Classifica- Climate Change (IPCC). These classifications have
tion of All Economic Activities, Rev. 4”. Available been widely used by the UN ECE, the Organiza-
from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/isic-4. tion for Economic Co-operation and Development
asp. “Central Product Classification, Ver. 2”. Avail- (OECD), Eurostat, United Nations Statistics Divi-
able from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/ sion (UNSD), and various regional and national
cpc-2.asp. World Health Organization (WHO), bodies for international data collection. Ensuring
“International Classification of Diseases”. Avail- harmonization of the different classifications and
able from http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/ building bridges among them are among the most
en. Classifications and categorizations developed important roles of environmental statisticians.
by different international organizations and special-
ized agencies, intergovernmental organizations or
non-governmental organizations. Examples are the Environment Statistics for Policymaking
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Land
Cover Classification System, the United Nations The demand for environment statistics is increas-
(UN) Framework Classification for Energy and ing in step with the continued environmental chal-
Mineral Resources, or the groupings and classifica- lenges faced by modern society. The recognition
tions developed for water statistics and for energy that human wellbeing depends on the environment
products in the relevant UN international recom- has led to an increasing emphasis on environmen-
mendations. Many of the aforementioned classifi- tal and sustainability concerns on which decisions
cations have been revised, adapted and used in the and actions need to be taken. Paramount to these
System of Environmental-Economic Accounting actions is the regular production of environment
(SEEA) Central Framework, including the Classi- statistics of the highest possible quality to sup-
fication of Environmental Activities (CEA) which port evidence-based policymaking by enabling
covers the classes of activities that are considered to the identification of environmental policy issues
be environment protection and resource manage- and allowing their objective quantification. Envi-
ment activities, mostly used for producing statistics ronment statistics portray key information about
of environmental protection and resource manage- the state of the environment and its most relevant
ment expenditure. Other examples are the catego- changes through space and time. They strengthen
ries of solid waste or the interim classifications of assessments through quantitative techniques, mak-
land use and land cover. More work on classifica- ing analysis more robust, timely and progressively
tions regarding ecosystems and ecosystem services harmonized at the international level. Environment
is being carried out as part of the development of statistics are necessary for producing environmental
the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounts. Ad- assessments, state of the environment reports, en-
ditionally, there are classifications and lists of cate- vironmental compendia, environmental indicators,
gories which do not originate in the statistical com- indicators of sustainable development, as well as
munity but are used in environment statistics, such to facilitate environmental-economic accounting.
as classifications of both natural and technological The member States of the United Nations have
disasters produced by the Centre for Research on addressed this challenging area during the Rio+20
the Epidemiology of Disasters Emergency Events Conference in June 2012. The outcome document,
Database (CRED – EM-DAT); classifications for “The Future We Want” contains various references
protected areas and threatened species by the Unit- that are relevant to the work of the UNSD in this
ed Nations Environment Program’s World Conser- regard. This document frequently mentions the im-

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal  | 7

 portance of data, in particular, environmental data, The FDES is a multi-purpose conceptual
as well as information and indicators. The Frame- and statistical framework that is comprehensive
work for the Development of Environment Statis- and integrative in nature and marks out the scope
tics (FDES 2013), including the Core Set of Envi- of environment statistics. It provides an organiz-
ronment Statistics, provides an appropriate means ing structure to guide the collection and compila-
for addressing these information needs as they relate tion of environment statistics at the national level.
to the environmental dimension of sustainable de- It brings together data from the various relevant
velopment. The FDES has been recognized by the subject areas and sources. It is broad and holistic
44th session of the Statistical Commission as a use- in nature, covering the issues and aspects of the
ful tool to adequately respond to the increasing de- environment that are relevant for policy analysis
mand for information in the follow-up to Rio+20 and decision making by applying it to cross-cut-
and the post-2015 development agenda (including ting issues such as climate change.
Sustainable Development Goals). The FDES was first published in 1984 by
UNSD. For almost three decades it has been a use-
ful framework for guiding countries in the develop-
The Challenge of Producing Environment ment of their environment statistics programmes.
Statistics However, the combination of lessons learned dur-
ing its application, along with improved scientific
Environment statistics cover a wide range of infor- knowledge and emerging environmental concerns
mation and are interdisciplinary in nature. Their over the intervening years, strongly suggested that
sources are dispersed over a variety of data pro- the FDES was ready for revision. The fourth meet-
ducers, and similarly numerous methods are ap- ing of the Working Group (Stockholm, 6 - 10 Feb-
plied in their compilation. To effectively produce ruary 1995) agreed on the List of environmental
environment statistics, specific statistical and envi- and related socioeconomic indicators given below.
ronmental expertise, scientific knowledge, institu- It provides a framework for the member countries
tional development capabilities, and adequate re- to compile and manage environmental statistics.
sources are equally necessary. Many countries still The Statistical Commission, at its twenty-eighth
require substantial technical assistance and capac- session (New York, 27 February - 3 March 1995),
ity building. Environment statistics therefore re- approved this list for international compilation by
quire a proper framework to guide their develop- UNSD. The indicators that are bolded in the list
ment, coordination and organization at all levels. were intended for short-term compilation directly
from national statistical services or from other inter-
national organizations or specialized agencies. Now,
Framework for Development of we are using this Framework for the production of
Environment Statistics Environment Statistics of Nepal (Table 1).
Again, the 44th (2013) session of Statistical
Development activities now have been linked to Commission of UNSD endorsed the FDES 2013
the environmental management and accordingly, and recognized it as a useful tool to adequately re-
the demand for environment related information spond to the increasing demand for environmental
has also increased day-by-day. Therefore, efforts information in the follow-up to Rio+20 and the
are being made for the development of environ- post-2015 development agenda. The FDES 2013
ment statistics. The UNSD developed United addresses the characteristics and challenges of envi-
Nations Framework for the Development of ronment statistics by providing a conceptual founda-
Environment Statistics (UNFDES) (a list of en- tion and organizing structure for environment statis-
vironmental indicators) in collaboration with the tics, identifying the scope of relevant statistics, and by
Inter-governmental Working Group on the Ad- indicating the availability of classifications, method-
vancement of Environment Statistics. ologies and the most common sources of data as well
as the most relevant institutional stakeholders.

8  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 1: Framework for Development of Environment Statistics (FDES) Information Categories
Agenda 21 Issues A. B. C. D.
(clusters) Socioeconomic activities, events (pres- Impacts and Effects events (part of Responses to impacts events Inventories, stocks, background
sure /driving force) state) (response) conditions events (part of state)
ECONOMIC Real GDP per capita growth rate Production EDP/EVA per capita Capital accumulation Environmental protection expenditure Produced capital stock
ISSUES and consumption patterns Investment share (environmentally adjusted) as % of GDP Environmental taxes and
in GDP subsidies as % of government revenue

SOCIAL/DEMO- GRAPHIC Population growth rate % of urban population exposed to Population living in
ISSUES concentrations of SO2, particulates, absolute poverty
Population density ozone, CO and Pb
Adult literacy rate
Urban/rural migration rate Infant mortality rate
Combined primary and secondary school
Calorie supply per capita Incidence of environmentally related diseases enrolment ratio, Life expectancy at birth

Females per 100 males in secondary

school
AIR/CLIMATE Emissions of CO2, SO2 and Ambient concentrations of CO, SO2, NOx Expenditure on air pollution abatement Weather and climate conditions
NOx O3 and TSP in urban areas
Reduction in consumption
Consumption of ozone Air quality index of substances and emissions
depleting substances
LAND/SOIL Land use change Area affected by soil erosion Protected area as % of Arable land
total land area per capita
Livestock per km2 of arid and Land affected by desertification
semi-arid lands
Area affected by stalinization and
Use of fertilizers water logging

Use of agricultural pesticides

WATER Industrial, agricultural and municipal Concentration of lead, cadmium, mercury and Waste water treatment, total and by type Groundwater
Fresh water discharges directly into freshwater pesticides in fresh water bodies of treatment (% of population served) reserves
resources bodies
Acidification of fresh water bodies Access to safe drinking water (% of
Annual withdrawals of ground and population served)
surface water BOD and COD in fresh water bodies

Domestic consumption of water per Water quality index by fresh water bodies
capita

Industrial, agricultural water use per GDP

Marine water Industrial, agricultural and municipal Deviation in stock from maximum sustainable
resources discharges directly into marine water yield of marine species
bodies
Loading of N and P in coastal waters
OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES
Biological resources Annual round wood production Deforestation rate Reforestation rate Forest inventory

Fuel wood consumption per capita Threatened, extinct species Ecosystems inventory
Protected forest area as % of total
Catches of marine species land area Fauna and flora inventory

Fish stocks

Mineral (including energy) Annual energy consumption per capita Depletion of mineral resources (% of proven Proven mineral reserves
resources reserves)
Extraction of other mineral resources
Lifetime of proven reserves Proven energy reserves

WASTE Municipal waste disposal Area of land contaminated by toxic waste Expenditure on waste collection and
treatment Waste recycling
Generation of hazardous waste

Imports and exports of hazardous wastes

HUMAN Rate of growth of urban population Area and population in marginal settlements Expenditure on low-cost housing Stock of shelter and infrastructure
SETTLEMENTS % of population in urban areas
Shelter index % of population with sanitary
Motor vehicles in use per 1000 habitants services
NATURAL Frequency of natural disasters Cost and number of injuries and fatalities Expenditure on disaster prevention and Human settlements vulnerable to
DISASTERS related to natural disasters mitigation natural disasters

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal  | 9

 The FDES 2013 Structure Links between the FDES and Social and
Economic Statistics
There are six components in FDES 2013. All
of the components are related to each other. At The FDES 2013 is structured in a way that al-
the centre of the FDES, it remains environmen- lows links to economic and social domains. It
tal conditions and quality. These components are seeks to be compatible with other frameworks and
multi-layered, flexible and adaptable. (Figure1) systems, both statistical and analytical, such as the
SEEA, the Driving force – Pressure – State – Im-
Figure 1: The FDES 2013 Structure
pact – Response (DPSIR) framework, or the Mil-
lennium Development Goals as well as the Sus-
6. ment ,
v iron tion and 2. Environmental
tainable Development Indicator frameworks. This
En rotec ment nt Resources and their Use
P ge me
na ge
compatibility allows that environment statistics
Ma Enga
from the FDES can feed into the SEEA or dif-
5.
Human 1. Environmental ferent indicator frameworks. It uses existing con-
Settlements and Conditions and Quality
Environmental 3. Residuals
cepts and relies on existing statistical classifications
Health (when applicable). As such, the FDES facilitates
4. Extreme Events and
data integration within environment statistics and
Disasters Extreme with economic and social statistics. (Figure 2)
Events

We are not able to collect and publish the environ-

Figure 2: Links between the FDES and Social and Economic Statistics
mental data in the FDES 2013 format but in near
future our effort will be to produce environment
Y P
M statistics of Nepal in this format.
OP
ECONO

ULATION

SNA SAM SSDS

DPSRF
SEEA
Existing Status of Environment Statistics
MFA
Formally, all statistical mechanisms were geared for
FDES (PSRF)
the production of socio economic statistics because
T

EN
EN

V IRO N M this was the demand of the day for planning, policy
Acronyms: purpose and decision making. The general thrust
DPSRF Driving-Force-Pressure-State-Response Framework
FDES Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics to develop and institutionalise environment statis-
MFA Material Flow Accounts
PSRF Pressure-State-Response Framework tics can be said to be of recent origin. As socio eco-
SAM Social Accounting Matrix
SEEA System for integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting nomic statistics has been developed to some extent
SNA System of National Accounts
SSDS System of Social and Demographic Statistics in different areas for the last few decades, the envi-
ronment statistics that can be compiled from the
Figure 3: Relationship of the FDES to other Frameworks, Systems and Indicator Sets
socio economic data sets are, more or less, available
Indicator Frameworks in many respects. And, side by side, various indica-
(environmental and related)
and other analytical/monitoring frameworks tors, rates and ratios can be computed from that
(DSPIR, MGD, SGD, SDI, issue-based)
available database. But, with regard to bio- physical
SEEA SNA
areas, the existing information system is not ade-
(Environment Statistics)
quate enough to meet the current data needs. There
are many data gaps in many respects. It was very
FDES
(Environment Statistics) recently i.e. starting from eighties or so, efforts were
initiated to develop information system on natural
Related Social Environmental Related Economic environment in the process of addressing the envi-
Statistics Data Statistics
ronmental issues or undertaking the line functions
SEEA= System of Environment-Economic Accounting
SNA = System of National Accounts of some agencies concerned with environmental as-
pects. Now, various agencies-governments as well as
10  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015
government owned autonomous institutions have dards, rules and guidelines,
been producing environment statistics as part of • Unclear national picture for international ne-
their activities. Now, the major environment data gotiations and processes,
producing agencies in Nepal are: • Community ignorance and negligence of en-
• Central Bureau of Statistics(CBS) vironmental issues.
• Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) To overcome these challenges we suggest
• Department of Forest (DoF) the following recommendation for the develop-
• Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) ment of environment statistics in Nepal:
• Department of Livestock Services (DoLS) • Designated statistical system,
• Department of National Park & Wildlife • Survey clearance system,
Conservation (DNPWC) • Inter-agency coordination mechanisms,
• Department of Plant Resources (DPR) • Define role and scope of government and
• National Agriculture Research Council (NARC) non-government organization,
• Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) • Need for compendium of environmental research,
• Line Ministries and affiliated Departments, • Establishment of data generation stations
Divisions, Units etc. across the country,
• Development community - I/NGOs, CBOS, • Environmental data sharing policy.
Clubs etc.
• Universities/Academia
• Private Sectors/Labs/Industries Role of Central Bureau of Statistics for the
• Others………. Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal
But there are so many challenges in the de-
velopment of environment statistics of Nepal, the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) first published
key challenges are: a compendium on Environment Statistics in
• We lack National Environmental Information 1994 which provided valuable insights into the
System, importance and usefulness of the subject matter.
• Very few data in environment sector, ‘A Compendium on Environment Statistics 1998
• Inadequate number of data generation/collec- Nepal’ was brought as second publication with an
tion centers, attempt to analyze available data on various aspect
• Coordination, of the environment of Nepal. However, database
• Culture of sharing data on public platforms/web, on the environment was limited. Therefore, CBS
• Organized data generation and validation mechanism, continued attempts to bring out the environment
• Accuracy, validity, reliability and timeliness, related statistics by compiling and publishing its
• Standard methodologies, publication ‘Environment Statistics of Nepal”
• Lack of timely disseminating mechanisms, since 2002. Up to now the Central Bureau of Sta-
• Data sharing policy. tistics has published the following series of publi-
The following affects are seen due to the cations related to environment statistics of Nepal:
above mentioned challenges and problems: • A Compendium on Environment Statistics, 1994
• Misleading information, • A Compendium on Environment Statistics, 1998
• Inappropriate decisions and missed targets/ • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2002 in the
problems/goals, form of environment database of Nepal
• No reliable baseline for research and actions, • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2003
• Monitoring and evaluation, • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2004
• Disintegration of environmental issues and • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2005
fragmented actions and approaches, • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2006
• Policy gaps and constraints in implementing • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2008
existing laws, policies and provisions, • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2011
• Lack in development of environmental stan- • Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013

Development of Environment Statistics in Nepal  | 11

 Present Data Collection System Nepal we are very weak in this matter. The major
problems of Environment Statistics in Nepal are:
Environment statistics synthesize data originating • Insufficient institutional development,
from a wide range of source types. This means that • Overlapping mandates and functions,
the data used for the production of environment • Inadequate interagency coordination,
statistics are compiled by many different collec- • Lack of skilled human resource,
tion techniques (i) Statistical surveys (e.g., cen- • Budgetary Constraints.
suses or sample surveys of population, housing, So, the Central Bureau of Statistics is not
agriculture, enterprises, households, employment, compiling and publishing the environment statis-
and different aspects of environment manage- tics in line with the Framework for the Develop-
ment) (ii) Administrative records of government ment of Environment Statistics (FDES) designed
and non-government agencies. by United Nation Statistical Division. We face
Now, the Central Bureau of Statistics com- data gaps in this sector.
piles most of the environmental indicators from the
secondary sources. There are several challenges to
adding questions to the existing surveys conducted Way Forward
by the Central Bureau of Statistics: (i) there can be
limited space available for additional questions in It is important for environment statistics section
the existing surveys (ii) the survey frame and strati- to have a capacity building program for their staff
fication of the population and sampling selection along with the financial resources to carry it out.
may not be ideal for environment statistics (iii) the Environment statistics cover several topics for
data may need to be reorganized or reclassified in which the data, whether in the form of adminis-
order to be used in environment statistics and (iv) trative records, remote sensing, scientific measure-
respondents may not be familiar with environmen- ments or survey results, are being generated by the
tal terms nor the information needed to answer en- NSOs, specialized agencies, ministries, provincial
vironment-related questions. So, Environment-spe- and municipal governments and scientific institu-
cific censuses or sample surveys are very essential. tions. That necessitates the collaboration of these
stakeholders, both at the strategic and technical
level.
Problem Finding

Environment statistics cuts across several disci- References

plines and draws data from a wide range of vari-
1. Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Central Bureau of Sta-
ous sources. To effectively produce environment
tistics, Nepal
statistics, statistical and environmental expertise, 2. Framework for Development of Environment Statistics
institutional development capabilities, and ad- (FDES), United Nation, Statistical Division
equate resources are equally necessary. Within this 3. 13th plan, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Nepal
4. Kendriya Tathyanka Bhivagko Karyabidhi, 2064
relatively new statistical domain, methodologi- 5. Handsouts/presentation of UNSD and UNESCAP
cal resources, tools and good practices are being 6. www.google.com
developed and systematized progressively but in

* Mr. Sharma is Director of Central Bureau of Statistics

** Mr. Ghimire is Statistical Officer of Central Bureau of Statistics

12  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 2

Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural

Settlement Plan in Nepal
Rudra Suwal, Ph.D.*

The chapter provides a conceptual framework for understanding sustainable development – the economic, ecological
and social perspectives. Among other different approaches for sustainable development, one move towards it could be
the development of integrated rural settlement in the country. The approach and practices adopted for the sustainable
development of Nepal has also been subject of discussion in this paper. The concept of sustainable development through
integrated rural settlement plan is introduced and elaborated using the settlement wise data collected in the latest
Population and Housing Census 2011 of Nepal. More than 80 percent of rural settlements are found to be small with less
than 10 households. It indicates unplanned and highly scattered settlement pattern of Nepali households, and an urgent need
for integrated rural settlement planning which could be a basis for sustainable development of the country.

Introduction clothing, shelter, jobs - are not being met, and

beyond their basic needs these people have le-
Sustainable Development stands for meeting the gitimate aspirations for an improved quality of
needs of present generations without jeopardiz- life. A world in which poverty and inequity are
ing the ability of future generations to meet their endemic will always be prone to ecological and
own needs – in other words, a better quality of other crises. Sustainable development requires
life for everyone, now and also for future genera- meeting the basic needs of all and extending to
tions. It offers a vision of progress that integrates all the opportunities to satisfy their aspirations
immediate and longer-term objectives, local and for a better life.
global action, and regards social, economic and Living standards that improved from the
environmental issues as inseparable and interde- basic minimum are sustainable only if consump-
pendent components of human progress. tion standards everywhere have regard for long-
Sustainable development may not be intro- term sustainability. Many needs are socially and
duced by policies only: it must be brought up by culturally determined, and sustainable develop-
society at large as a principle guiding many choices ment requires the promotion of values that en-
each citizen makes every day, as well as political courage consumption standards that are within
and economic decisions that have. This requires the ecological bounds. Essential needs depend
profound changes in thinking, in economic and on achieving full growth potential, and sustain-
social structures, living arrangements/patterns and able development clearly requires economic
in consumption and production behaviors. growth in places where such needs are not being
met. Elsewhere, it can be consistent with eco-
nomic growth, provided the content of growth
The Concept of Sustainable Development reflects the broad principles of sustainability and
non-exploitation of others. But growth by itself
The essential needs of a vast number of people is not enough. High levels of productive activ-
especially in developing countries for food, ity and widespread poverty can coexist, and can

CHAPTER 2  Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural Settlement Plan in Nepal  |  13

 endanger the environment. Hence, sustainable derived from consumption. While this may be
development requires that societies meet human criticized as an oversimplification, it certainly
needs both by increasing productive potential includes many important elements of human
and by ensuring equitable opportunities for all. welfare (food, clothing, housing, transportation,
A society may in many ways compromise its abil- health and education services, etc.) and it has the
ity to meet the essential needs of its people in the analytical advantage of reducing the problem to
future. The direction of technological develop- a measurable indicator or unit.
ments may solve some immediate problems but A formal economic analysis then raises
lead to even greater ones. the question of whether sustainability has any
Despite these complications, the three validity as an economic concept. According to
principles outlined above do have resonance at standard economic theory, efficient resource al-
a common-sense level. Thus, there is ample jus- location should have the effect of maximizing
tification for the elucidation of a theory of sus- utility from consumption. If we accept the use
tainable development, which must have an in- of time discounting as a method of comparing
terdisciplinary nature. Drawing on economic, the economic values of consumption in different
ecological, and social perspectives, we can iden- time periods, then sustainability appears to mean
tify some of the main themes that are integral to nothing more than efficient resource allocation –
the construction of a new paradigm: a concept already well established in economics.
Taken together, these observations sug- A related issue concerns the concept of
gest new guidelines for the development process. natural capital. Soils and atmospheric functions
They also require modifications to the goal of are aspects of natural capital, which consists of
economic growth. Economic growth in some all the natural resources and environmental ser-
form is required for those who lack essentials, vices of the planet. In the neo-classical view, there
but it must be subject to global limits and should is no special reason to conserve natural capital.
The direction of not be the prime objective for countries already The ‘Hartwick rule’, a well-known principle de-
technological at high levels of consumption (Daly, 1996). In rived from work by Hartwick (1977) and Solow
terms of sustainability, a moderate level of con- (1986), states that consumption may remain
developments sumption, together with strong social institu- constant, or increase, with declining non-renew-
may solve some tions and a healthy environment, represents a able resources provided that the rents from these
immediate better idea than ever-increasing consumption resources are reinvested in reproducible capital.
(Durning, 1992). It means that the choice of This rule does not require maintenance of any
problems but
goods and technologies must be oriented to the particular stock of natural capital.
lead to even requirements of ecosystem integrity and species The essential assumption involved in the
greater ones. diversity as well as to social goals. Elements of Hartwick/Solow approach is that of substitut-
all three perspectives – economic, ecological, and ability of different types of capital. If, for exam-
social – are essential for understanding the re- ple, we cut down forests but build factories, we
quirements for sustainability. are better off provided the economic value of the
new industrial plant exceeds the economic value
The Economic Aspect of the lost forests. Daly’s view is based on the op-
According to neo-classical economic theory, posite assumption, that ‘man-made and natural
sustainability can be defined in terms of the capital are fundamentally complements and only
maximization of welfare over time. (This is as- marginally substitutes’ (Daly, 1994, p. 25). If
sumed to be human welfare – the claims of the natural capital has a special and unique impor-
non-human world arise when it is considered tance, then neo-classical economic efficiency will
the ecological perspective.) Most economists not suffice for sustainability.
simplify further by identifying the maximiza- The issue may be posed in terms of weak
tion of welfare with the maximization of utility and strong sustainability. Even in the neo-classi-

14  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

cal perspective, the principle of weak sustainabil- stable level of human population (Daly 1991).
ity is appropriate. In this approach, sustainability Costanza and Daly suggested for natural
requires that the total value of manufactured plus capital conservation. Nicholas Georgescu-Roe-
natural capital remains constant over time. El Se- gen, whose path breaking work The Entropy
rafy has pointed out that in order to assess this Law and the Economic Process outlined the de-
value, there must be a full accounting for natural pendence of the economic system on biophysical
capital depletion (El Serafy, 1993, 1997). systems and argued that it is ultimately impos-
A strong sustainability approach is based sible to maintain a constant stock of natural capi-
on the idea that substitutability between natu- tal, since all planetary resources will eventually
ral and manufactured capital is limited. Rather, degrade or be used up according to the Second
the two are seen as complements - factors that Law of Thermodynamics (Georgescu-Roegen
must be used together to be productive. While it 1971). But at a more practical level he proposed
may be possible, for example, to compensate for an approach similar to Costanza and Daly’s, rea-
some water pollution with purification systems, soning that ‘the enormous disproportionality
life and economic activity is essentially impos- between the flow of solar energy and the much
sible without access to water. The strong sustain- more limited stock of terrestrial free energy sug-
ability approach implies that specific measures gests a bioeconomics program emphasizing
distinct from the ordinary market process are such factors as solar energy, organic agriculture,
necessary for the conservation of natural capital. population limitation, product durability, mod-
It also implies limits on macroeconomic scale. erate consumption, and international equity’
The economic system cannot grow beyond the (Georgescu-Roegen 1993; see also Cleveland and
limitations set by the regeneration and waste- Ruth 1997).
absorption capacities of the ecosystem. Toman (1992) proposes that the difficulty
The distinction between weak and strong in defining sustainability may be resolved by recog-
sustainability is discussed in Daly (1994). Strong nizing that some issues can be appropriately dealt
sustainability is defended by Daly (1995) and with neo-classical market efficiency, while oth-
criticized by Beckerman (1994, 1995), who re- ers require the application of Ciriancy-Wantrup’s
jects the concept of sustainability in general. A (1952) concept of a ‘safe minimum standard’ ap-
defense of weak sustainability is offered by El Se- proach to protect essential resources and environ-
rafy (1996), while Common (1996) argues that mental functions. This suggests that the criteria
the distinction between weak and strong sustain- of possible severity and irreversibility of ecological
ability is invalid. Limitations of the weak sus- damages should be used to decide which theoreti-
tainability concept are discussed by Gowdy and cal framework is more appropriate.
O’Hara (1997).
Costanza and Daly (1992) suggest that a The Ecology Aspect
minimum necessary condition for sustainability Common and Perrings (1992) have suggested
can be expressed in terms of the conservation of that the economic perspective of ‘Solow-sus-
natural capital. This policy goal leads to two de- tainability’ needs to be complemented by an
cision rules, one for renewable and the other for ecological approach of ‘Holling-sustainability’,
non-renewable resources. For renewable, the rule following the work of Holling (1973, 1986) on
is to limit resource consumption to sustainable the resilience and stability of ecosystems. Un-
yield levels; for non-renewable the rule is to re- like economists, whose models provide no up-
invest the proceeds from non-renewable resource per bound on economic growth, physical scien-
exploitation into renewable natural capital. Fol- tists and ecologists are accustomed to the idea
lowing these two rules will maintain a constant of limits. Natural systems must exist subject to
stock of natural capital. To maintain a constant the unyielding laws of thermodynamics, and the
per capita stock of natural capital also requires a science of population ecology has explored the

CHAPTER 2  Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural Settlement Plan in Nepal  |  15

 implications of these laws for living organisms. orists, and contrast the human development ap-
‘Two of the fundamental axioms of ecologi- proach to the wealth maximization approach that
cal and evolutionary biology are that organisms has dominance in development thought.
are exuberantly over-productive, and that limits The priority for basic needs and equity in
set by time, space, and energy is inevitably en- development has been the focus of the United
countered’ (Holling, 1994). In an ecological Nations Development Programme’s series of Hu-
perspective, sustainability must involve limits on man Development Reports. In addition to cal-
population and consumption levels. These limits culating the Human Development Index, which
apply to all biological systems. offers a different measure of development success
However, this simple assertion of limits from per capita GNP or GDP, the Human De-
does not fully capture the contribution of ecolo- velopment Reports focus each year on a different
gists to the discussion of sustainability. What aspect of social and economic development, such
Holling identifies as a third axiom of ecology has as democratic governance (1993), gender ineq-
even more significant implications. The third ax- uity (1995), and poverty (1997).
iom ‘concerns processes that generate variability HDI does not explicitly include any en-
and novelty’ – the generation of genetic diver- vironmental measures. However, the 1994 report
sity and the resultant processes of evolution and discussed the relationship between sustainability
change in species and ecosystems. and equity, arguing that ‘the concept of sustain-
For the ecologist, sustainability should able development raises the issue of whether pres-
be defined in terms of the maintenance of eco- ent life-styles are acceptable and whether there is
system resilience. This view of sustainability is any reason to pass them on to the next generation.
clearly different from the human-centered con- Because intergenerational equity must go hand
ceptions put forward by the World Commis- in hand with equity, a major restructuring of the
sion on Environment and Development and world’s income and consumption patterns may be
the consumption-based principles proposed by a necessary precondition for any viable strategy of
economic theorists. Common and Perrings sug- sustainable development’ (UNDP, 1994).
gest that ‘the concepts of Solow-sustainability The question of environmental sustain-
and Holling-sustainability are largely disjoint. ability is linked with that of poverty and inequity.
It implies that there may be no close relation- The causative relationship runs both ways – in-
ship between economic efficiency and ecological creased poverty and loss of rural livelihoods ac-
sustainability’ (1992). In order to achieve eco- celerates environmental degradation as displaced
logical sustainability, it is likely to be necessary people put greater pressure on forests, fisheries,
to modify current consumption preferences and and marginal lands. Lipton (1997) and Scherr
production techniques which, while efficient in (1997) emphasize the relationship between pop-
economic terms, threaten the ecological resil- ulation growth, social, conditions, and resource
ience of planetary systems. degradation. Reed (1997) notes that the social
component of sustainability includes issues of
The Social Aspect distributional equity, provision of social services,
As noted above, the thought of sustainable devel- gender equity, population stabilization, and po-
opment has regarded the social component as an litical accountability and participation.
essential part of the new paradigm. A ‘human de- The relationship of the human develop-
velopment’ approach emphasizing issues of basic ment paradigm to sustainability is discussed by
needs and equity is well grounded in the history of Haq (1995) and Chambers (1992). Interrelation-
economic theory. Anand and Sen (1996) point out ships between development, population growth,
that concerns for these dimensions of economic and environmental sustainability are prominent in
development start with the earliest economic the- the exposition of human development concepts.

16  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

A Synthesis of Three Dimensions
From the above discussion, sustainability covers:
The conservation of natural capital is es-
ENVIRONMENTAL
sential for sustainable economic production and
intergenerational equity. Market mechanisms do A Viable Natural Environment

not necessarily operate effectively to conserve natu-

ral capital, but may tend to deplete and degrade it.
Sustainable Sustainable
From an ecological perspective, both pop- Natural and Built Economic
Environment Development
ulation and total resource demand must be lim-
ited in scale and the integrity of ecosystems and
diversity of species must be maintained. SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Practices consistent with sustainable de- SOCIAL ECONOMIC
velopment must remedy social inequities and en-
Nurturing Sufficient
vironmental damage, while maintaining a sound Community
Equitable Social Economy
Environment
economic base.
Social equity, the fulfillment of basic
health and educational needs, and participatory
democracy are crucial elements of development, Source: https://www.iisd.org/sd/

and are interrelated with environmental sustain-

ability. changes on both the production and consump-
Taken together, these principles clearly tion sides. On the production side, current high-
suggest new guidelines for the development pro- input techniques which are leading to serious soil
cess. They also require a modification of the goals degradation and water pollution and overdraft
of economic growth (Arrow et al., 1995). The must be replaced by organic soil rebuilding, inte-
principles of sustainability imply new goals and grated pest management, and efficient irrigation.
policies in all major areas of economic develop- This in turn implies much greater reliance on lo-
ment, including: cal knowledge and participatory input into the
Population: Theorists of sustainable de- development of agricultural techniques (Pretty
velopment have generally rejected the concept and Chambers, 2000).
of unlimited growth, whether of population or Energy: A non-fossil energy system would
of economic production. Even if a specific car- be significantly more decentralized, adapted to
rying capacity for humans is difficult to identi- local conditions and taking advantage of op-
fy, resource and environmental constraints will portunities for wind, biomass, and off-grid solar
eventually be reached, if they have not been al- power systems. This is unlikely to occur without
ready. A sustainable society must ultimately im- a major mobilization of capital resources for re-
ply a stable level of population. Thus, population newable energy development in countries now
policy must become a central element of eco- rapidly expanding their energy systems (Johans-
nomic development. Scherr (1997) suggests that son and Goldemberg, 2002).
maintaining environmental integrity depends on Industry: As the scale of global industrial
slowing rates of population growth in the devel- production increases several-fold over current
oping world, and that policy to so require a fo- levels, which themselves represent a quadrupling
cus on social equity. over 1950 levels, it is apparent that ‘end-of-pipe’
Agriculture: The need to feed an expand- pollution control not be adequate. The concept
ing population at higher per-capita levels of of ‘industrial ecology’ implies the restructuring
consumption is straining global soil and water of whole industrial sectors based on a goal of
systems (Harris and Kennedy, 1999; Pinstrup- reducing emissions and reusingmaterials at all
Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, 1998). A transition stages of the production cycle (Frosch and Gal-
to more sustainable agricultural systems requires lopoulos, 1989; Frosch, 1992; Ayres and Ayres,

CHAPTER 2  Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural Settlement Plan in Nepal  |  17

 1996). Reform and ‘greening’, as well as a broad • The SDG framework would benefit from an
cooperative effort between corporations and gov- overall narrative articulating how the goals
ernments, will be needed to achieve goal. will lead to broader outcomes for people and
Renewable Resource Systems: Resources the planet. An overarching goal could be for-
of forests and water systems are severely over- mulated, for instance in the political decla-
stressed. With even greater demands on all sys- ration framing the Post-2015 Development
tems expected in the next century, all levels of Agenda, binding together the 17 goals, thus
institutional management must be urgently providing a clearer means-to-end continu-
reformed. Multilateral agreements and global um.
funding are needed to conserve global resources; • The current SDG framework does not iden-
national resource management systems must be tify the wide range of social groups that will
shifted from goals of exploitation to conservation need to be mobilized to deliver on the goals
and sustainable harvesting; and local communi- as agents of change alongside governments.
ties must be strongly involved in resource conser-
vation (UNEP, 2000, 2002; UNDP et al., 2000).
Matters mentioned above poses challeng- The Concept of Sustainable Development
es that fall under social and institutional as well and Integrated Rural Settlement
as economic. Institutions of all kinds, including
corporations, local and national government, Defining sustainable development for Nepal,
and transnational organizations, will have to National Planning Commission (NPC) stated
adapt to the requirements of sustainable devel- “ The over-arching goal of sustainable develop-
opment if all the problems which motivated the ment in Nepal is to expedite a process that re-
development of concept are not to grow worse. duces poverty and provided to its citizens and
Democratic governance, participation, and the successive generations not just the basic means
satisfaction of basic needs are thus an essential of livelihood, but also the broadest of oppor-
part of a new sustainable development synthesis. tunities in the social, economic, political, cul-
Realizing the fact and making the goal of tural, and ecological aspects of their lives” (NPC
sustainable development applicable throughout 2003). The concept of sustainable development
the world, the sustainable development goals has been mentioned in the later planning docu-
(SDGs) are a new, universal set of goals, targets ments-the 9th Plan, 10th Plan and millennium
and indicators that the United Nations (UN) development goals documents.
member states will be expected to use to frame A separate policy for land use has been
their agendas and political policies over the next promulgated in 2013 with the objectives- clas-
15 years. sification of land, protection and appropriate
management of land, promotion for urbaniza-
tion and management of land fragmentation,
Sustainable Development Goals Post 2015 balance between development and environment,
Agenda protection of the special areas of geographical,
cultural, religious historical and tourism, prepare
The proposed Sustainable Development Goals land use plan based on land use policy- , valua-
offer major improvements on the Millennium tion of land according to utility and implement
Development Goals (MDGs). The Sustainable land tax system, and oversee the management of
Development Goals (SDG) framework addresses unused land for their appropriate use.
key systemic barriers to sustainable development As mentioned in the earlier sections, the
such as inequality, unsustainable consumption essential components of sustainable development
patterns, weak institutional capacity, and envi- are the economic, ecological and social perspec-
ronmental degradation that the MDGs neglect- tives. Within these components of development,
ed. human is the core of those all elements. The

18  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

inter-linkage of development efforts come ulti-
BOX1: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
mately to human development. Considering the
POST 2015 AGENDA
fact, the argument of this paper has been the
focus of the management of population espe-
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
cially in their living conditions i.e., settlements.
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition
Hence, the analysis is primarily focused on the and promote sustainable agriculture
rural settlements of Nepal where more than 80
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
percent population resides. It has been a general ages
assumption that when the settlement pattern of 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and pro-
large portion of the people improves through sys- mote lifelong learning opportunities for all
tematic and integrated plan approach, country’s 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
sustainable development becomes likely and re- 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
alistic. and sanitation for all
Rural settlements are found to be the old- 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and mod-
est one in Nepal. Through history they have been ern energy for all
changing with different pace; some at a very fast 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic
rate and others at a slow rate. Life and work in growth, full and productive employment and decent work
them mainly depended on natural resources and for all
environmental conditions. Between the rural 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sus-
settlement (i.e. village, hamlet) on one hand and tainable industrialization and foster innovation
the countryside (i.e. rural area, rural landscape, 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
rural territory, hinterland, cadastral area) on the 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
other hand, there was always a close connection. and sustainable
That connection exists in the geographical loca- 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
tion of rural settlements, their morphology, eco- 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its im-
nomic life and types of houses. Through history, pacts
permanent rural settlements of different types 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
and different characteristics grew from periodi- resources for sustainable development
cal rural hamlets. In contrast to cities, towns and 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat deserti-
urban areas, rural communities have smaller
fication, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt
population densities. Different communal im- biodiversity loss
provements and utilities, such as sidewalks, 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
water supply, tree corridors, squares and plazas, development, provide access to justice for all and build
streetlights and power, and especially sewerage effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
and solid waste management system, etc., were 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize
always on a lower development level than in the global partnership for sustainable development
urban locations. Usually, village plots have resi- Source: United Nations Statistics Division
dential buildings, but also they host some other
economic functions (sties for animals, food stor-
age, storerooms for granary. This makes dwell- tion. Mostly, “urban settlements” are defined as
ing and work closely connected. Social and pub- such, while the rest are considered as “rural set-
lic services (i.e. schools, hospitals, and offices) are tlements”. Rural settlement is a “unique form of
unavailable and not well developed in most of social and economic organization of people, who
rural settlements. The definitions of “town” and are mostly engaged in agriculture production.
“village” are a result of combined historical, ad- Rural settlements in Nepal lack basic life-
ministrative, population, spatial, economic and sustaining services and economic opportunities
other criteria and it is often a subject of conven- resulting into massive migration of a large major-

CHAPTER 2  Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural Settlement Plan in Nepal  |  19

 Map1: Geographic Coordinates (GPS) of Settlements

A Viable Natural Environment A Selected settlement points-Jumla B Settlement( Badki Gaun) -Jumla C

ity of economically active population temporar- Natural disaster related loss of lives is an-
ily or permanently to other parts of the country other critical issue which needs to be addressed
or outside the country. seriously. There could be a need for relocation of
The above observations are very much the whole or partial settlements from the disaster
supported by the findings of the field surveys in prone areas.
the four squatter settlements – ‘Kohalpur Infor- Nepal Population and Housing Census
mal Settlements’ - at the proximity of Kohalpur 2011(PHC) for the first time provides basic
Town in Banke District of the Mid-Western Re- data on settlement. Settlements as reported in
gion of Nepal. The survey findings have depicted the PHC was again recoded while processing
five major categories as the basic reasons for mi- the census results. Settlements (Gaunbasti Tole)
gration to the Kohalpur area. These are: search were linked with the data contained in the cen-
for better employment opportunities; natural sus questionnaire and captured geographic coor-
disasters like flood and landslides; looking out dinates (GPS) later on (Map 1).
for better educational opportunities; political in- The table shows a high level of dispersed
surgency and armed conflict within the country; settlements throughout the country. More than
the other several factors lumped into ‘others’ cat- 80 percent settlements have less than 10 house-
egory e.g. poverty, landless situation, inability to holds. Such a dispersed human settlements have
pay rent, search for better facilities and services, hindered the access of services and facilities from
and socio-cultural factors (Lumanti, 2011). the government to the public in general and
made the service delivery inaccessible and inef-
ficient. Hence, it indicates an urgent need for the
Table 1: Settlement Size by Number of Households identification and development of planned ‘In-
Size of settlements  Urban Rural Total Percentage tegrated Rural Settlements (IRS)’ merging those
less than 10 HH 20826 129047 149873 80.6 isolated and small settlements of the vicinity.
In the above satellite image maps of
10-20 HH 2683 17734 20417 10.98
Jumla district, the total settlements as reported
21-30 HH 1381 6788 8169 4.39 in PHC 2011 is shown in Map ‘A’ and selected
31-50 HH 633 2135 2768 1.49 settlements in ‘B’ and description of particular
settlement in ‘C’. The population and related
51-100 HH 329 1077 1406 0.76
data contained in the census questionnaire can
101-200 HH 115 490 605 0.33 be obtained by settlements as reported in the
More than 200 HH 58 237 295 0.16 PHC 2011. The information derived from the
census results could be a basis for initiating the
Not reported 475 1938 2413 1.3
work. Further delineation and regrouping/ merg-
  26500 159446 185946 100 ing of settlements could be the next step towards
Source: Population and Housing Census 2011 formulating IRS.

20  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 This provides an ample justification for an integrated approach for the development of
developing compact rural settlements (CRSs) rural settlements, including all three ingredients
through the integration of scattered settlements i.e. economic, ecological, and social needs to be
in the country. This not only helps towards applied and implemented.
maximization of the benefits of investments on
infrastructural facilities, but also helps to check
environmental degradation and to minimize di- The Scope and Process of Integrated Rural
saster risks, but also contributes towards poverty Settlement Planning
reduction and sustainable development of the
country optimizing resources through scientific The scope and process of integrated rural plan
integrated rural settlement planning. preparation can be defined through the develop-
ment of specific technical guidelines and hand- Classic urban
books. These documents should come out of the
planning within a
Proposed New Approach to Rural Planning newest initiative for changing the existing Act. At
and Development the same time, it is necessary to co-ordinate them rural settlement/
with similar documents from Ministries and De- village contents
Most rural settlements in Nepal depend directly partments. Ministry of Land Reform and Min- aims to stimulate
on natural resources for their sustainability. In istry of Federal Affairs and Local Development
the last decades there is a tendency of shifting of have key role in formulating appropriate Act and infrastructure
population to areas in search of better resources. to implement them effectively. The procedure and social
Under utilization of natural resources has been for integrated rural plan preparation can keep on services
found in some cases as well as over exploita- developing in three phases:
development.
tion due to unplanned and uncontrolled mobil- • Data collection and Base Line Studies invest-
ity of population from one place to another. To ments in existing villages. It is therefore very
manage this issue, “Integrated Rural Settlement important that the country has an efficient
Plan”, can be introduced through scientific plan- and appropriate approach concerning re-
ning following the principles of sustainable de- source exploitation. The land use policy may
velopment of rural settlements. be an appropriate basis for working towards
In practice, this plan can have structural integrated rural settlement planning
land use development proposals for the whole Between the mentioned phases, time and
rural community (settlements) and detailed land opportunities for public and professional consul-
use and standard regulatory building proposals tations are to be included, so that plan solutions
for rural settlements, hamlets and other manmade can have wide community input and professional
and ecological territory. This allows applications support and fulfill numerous, most often differ-
of methods and techniques from disciplines such
Table 2: Illustration of Basic Model of Integrated Rural Settlement Planning
as agronomy, forestry, geodesy, geography, geol-
ogy, biology, meteorology, hydrology, etc., in environment economy
protecting cultivated attracting outer equity
improving
order to match rural development interests with land & natural investment, more
rural living
3 Basic Goals resources, reducing physical spaces for rural
the overall development. Applying methods and pollutions..... development... conditions...

technique from the urban planning and design,

architecture, landscape design, infrastructure land use infrastructure public services housing community
5 Major Works
planning and design, etc is as important. Classic planning control improving improving design renewal
urban planning within a rural settlement/village
contents aims to stimulate infrastructure and so- government officer academic+ planner architect+ engineer
policy making, fiscal making field survey & interview, providing relevant
cial services development. However, if manmade 3 Task Force support, administration building a theoretical model & a detail designs &
areas are constructed it can destroy natural bal- & coordination comprehensive plan as the basis professional services
of whole project
ance and the rural image can be lost. Therefore,

CHAPTER 2  Sustainable Development through Integrated Rural Settlement Plan in Nepal  |  21

 form the basis upon which the future research on
BOX2: AREAS OF STUDY FOR PROPOSED INTEGRATED
the new Integrated Rural Plan document is go-
RURAL SETTLEMENTS
ing to be directed. Thus, this is seen as the most
important task and must be allowed to take place
• Settlement location, size and boundaries
so that problems can be solved as they arise.
• The form and structure of settlements and built-up areas
For conducting feasibility research, fur-
• Natural potential, resources and physical constraints
ther data collection; analysis and identification of
• Urban environmental impacts and environmental quality
issues are essential. This should be a distillation
• Settlement population of the information gathered from various sources
• Settlement economy (i.e. maps, aerial photographs, satellite imagery,
• Existing land use, tenure and ownership available digital GIS/LIS data, questionnaires,
• Settlement social and community services various project documentation, field surveys,
• Settlement infrastructure and utilities meetings, etc.), and it might be published as a
• Settlement natural, scenic and cultural landmarks standalone project document, and is therefore an
• Environmental and other protection aspects important milestone in the integrated rural plan-
ning process. For the planning of the develop-
ment of rural settlements, detail study on the box
ent interest and expectations reconciling all those 2 is essential.
inputs received from different quarters. Through this phase the rural community
shall find that a major ingredient leading to a
sound land use plan is an inventory of different
Data Collection and Base Line Studies natural, physical, environmental and manmade
resources. Such an inventory provides people
This phase incorporates collecting, selecting and with information which allows better under-
systematizing different information about natu- standing of ongoing natural and man-made
ral and built-up environment, population data, processes that occur within their rural area and
as well as planning, statistical and development settlement, economic opportunities for land use
indicators and projections. This stage is crucial development, forces that might constrain better
to the success of the rural integrated plan, and land utilization, and the problems that might re-
the planning team carrying out such a study has sult from resource use, new land use and devel-
to review information such as: structural and opment programmes. The survey report should
detailed land use and development topics, sur- describe the information collected and be made
vey detailing methodology, data collection and available for each of the development compo-
processing, identification of information gaps nents in further planning phases. It is envisaged
ensuring key contacts with resource people, and that the time scale of the report of the survey
resource information from different government phase always has to provide for meetings with
departments, local authorities, and private orga- public groups and local government authorities
nizations, reviewing specific details of the rural sharing similar interdisciplinary interest. Inven-
planning project and identifying factors which tories and assessments of natural and physical
might have changed after the data collection re- conditions needs to be combined with invento-
port was presented for evaluation and approval ries and studies of economic, social, legal, man-
by government authorities and the rural com- made and built environment aspects and condi-
munity. tions, and will be analyzed to serve as the basis
The data collection phase is a critical ori- for the evaluation of future development poten-
entation task that should, from the onset, bring tials on the base of existing constraints.
the rural community aspiration into the desired The figure shows the general process of
action-path. The findings from this phase will integrated rural settlement planning. The basic

22  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

components for sustainable development – eco- necessary geological conditions and appropri-
nomic, ecology and social (the upper portion) ate infrastructure development of settlements.
are fundamental. Considering the basic norms, An integrated approach needs to be adopted
major works ( manmade ) needs to be developed for relating the human settlement (manmade)
in a planned way utilizing the expertise of the area with other relevant areas which are most
task forces. essential components for sustainable develop-
ment i.e., ecological and social. It could be an
appropriate basis for the development of human
Conclusion settlements and ultimately a foundation for sus-
tainable development of the nation.
The integrated approach to planning rural com-
munities means a combination of a general plan
for rural areas and a detailed plan for rural settle- References
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* Dr. Suwal is Deputy Director General of Central Bureau of Statistics

24  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 3

Social and Demographic Issues

Tunga Shiromani Bastola*

The relationship between population dynamics and environmental change is a “complex” one. Despite several possible
advantages, there are a number of reasons for a government to be concerned about population growth. For example, most of the
basic resources are strained by population increase. It has an adverse effect on natural resources as well. Population of Nepal is
increasing continuously since 1930s. Several demographic and social indicators for the country have also improved during the
last couple of decades. In spite of this encouraging news, there are growing concerns about the worsening environmental health
of the country. Population size, distribution, characteristics are some areas of concern. Population management to improve the
quality of life has been the main objective of the Government policies of Nepal. The aftermath of the 2015 massive earth quake
in Nepal has necessitated the Government to review its recently prepared “the first ever” population policy of the country.

Introduction comprises of the following information: population

living in absolute poverty, adult literacy rate, com-
“Social/demographic issues” is one of the clus- bined primary and secondary school enrollment
ters (agenda 21)1 identified and included in the ratio, life expectancy at birth, and females per 100
“Framework for the Development of Environ- males in secondary school.
ment Statistics” developed by the United Nations
Statistical Division. The social and demographic Definitions
issues are divided up into the following topics (as The following is a list of definitions of the forego-
events): socioeconomic activities/events; impacts ing information categories specified in Box 1.
and effects events; and inventories, stocks, and
background condition events. Government Policies
Information categories included in the Nepal has realized an increasing need to protect
socioeconomic activities/events are: population the environment. The Government of Nepal
growth rate, population density, urban/rural mi- (GoN) has ratified several national and interna-
gration rate, and calorie supply per capita. Impacts tional treaties and conventions regarding envi-
and effects events category includes the following ronmental issues.2 There are several Government
information categories -proportion of urban popu- policies (current plan, sector policy, rules, regula-
lation exposed to concentration of sulphur dioxide tions, guidelines, etc.) related to the environment
(SO2), particulates, ozone, carbon monoxide (CO) and population issues in Nepal. The “environ-
and lead (Pb), infant mortality rate, and incidence ment and climate change” related objective as laid
of environmentally related diseases. Inventories, down in the current Thirteenth Plan of Nepal is:
stocks, and background condition events category “adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change

Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal (CBS), 2014. Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Introduction, p. 4.
1

There are around two dozen conventions signed and/or ratified by the Government of Nepal (GoN). CBS, 2013, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Ap-
2

pendix III, p. 154.

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  25

 BOX 1: DEFINITION OF INFORMATION CATEGORIES

Population growth rate – The acids (such as nitrates and sul- injuries, malaria, road traffic injuries,
growth rate is the rate at which phates), organic chemicals, metals, chronic obstructive pulmonary dis-
a population is increasing (or and soil or dust particles. eases, and perinatal conditions (The
decreasing) in a given year due to World Health Organization).
natural increase and net migra- Ozone layer – The ozone layer is a
tion, expressed as a percentage of region of concentrated molecules Absolute poverty – It refers to the
the base population. The growth of a form of oxygen (O3) high poverty level using an absolute
rate takes into account all compo- above the earth. Without it, there threshold, or in other words, a
nents of population growth: births, would be no life as we know it here fixed standard of what households
deaths, and migration. because the ultra violet rays from should be able to count on in order
the sun can be very harmful. to meet their basic needs. (Relative
Population density – Population per poverty uses relative threshold, that
unit of land area; for example, per- Carbon monoxide (CO) – Carbon is, a cutoff point in relation to the
sons per square kilometer of land. monoxide (CO) is colourless, odour- overall distribution of income or
less and tasteless gas formed due consumption in a country.)
Migration – The geographic move- to incomplete fuel combustion.
ment of people across a speci- It is toxic to humans and other Adult literacy rate – Percentage of
fied boundary for the purpose of warm-blooded animals. Automo- persons aged 15 years and over
establishing a new permanent or bile exhaust gases contain carbon who can read and write.
semi-permanent residence. The monoxide. In the atmosphere, it has
concept is divided into interna- a role in the formation of ground- Enrollment ratio – School enroll-
tional migration (immigration and level ozone. ment ratio is divided into gross and
emigration) and internal migration net ratios. Gross enrollment ratio is
(in-migration and out-migration). Lead (Pb) – Lead (Pb) is a soft, the number of children enrolled in
dense, naturally-occurring metal a level (primary or secondary), re-
Calorie supply – Calorie supply per commonly used in the manufacture gardless of age, divided by the pop-
capita is amount of food available of building materials, lead-acid bat- ulation of the age group specified.
for consumption, measured in teries, paints, ammunition, weights, Net enrollment ratio corresponds
kilocalories per capita per day. It is medical equipment and coating for to the number of children enrolled
the total available food supply for high-voltage power cables. Expo- in a level (primary or secondary),
human consumption divided by sure to lead in the ambient air can who belong to the age group that
the population. be harmful to humans and animals. officially corresponds to the level
(primary or secondary) schooling,
Concentration of Sulphur dioxide Infant mortality – Infant mortal- divided by the total population of
(SO2) – Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a ity rate is the number of deaths of the same age group.
colourless gas with a sharp, irritat- infants under one year of age per
ing odour. It is produced from burn- 1,000 live births in a given year. Life expectancy at birth – Life
ing of fossil fuels (like coal and oil) expectancy is an estimate of the
and smelting minerals that contain Rate of incidence – The number of average number of additional years
Sulphur. Concentration of SO2 in persons contracting a disease per a person could expect to live if the
a place indicates the air quality of 1,000 population at risk, for a given age-specific death rates for a given
the place. period of time. year prevailed for the rest of his or
her life. Life expectancy is a hypo-
Concentration of particulates – Environment related diseases – Dis- thetical measure.
“Particulate matter," also known eases with the largest total annual
as particle pollution or PM, is a health burden from environmental Secondary school – Secondary level
complex mixture of extremely factors, in terms of death, illness of education in Nepal is divided
small particles and liquid droplets. and disability are: diarrhea, lower into lower secondary and second-
Particle pollution is made up of a respiratory infection, un-intentional ary levels of grades 6-8 and 9-10
number of components, including injuries other than road traffic respectively. 3

3
Education in Nepal has been structured as school education and higher education. Pre-primary includes ECD/PPCs. School education comprises Primary (grade 1-5),
Lower Secondary (grade 6-8), Secondary (grade 9-10) and Higher Secondary (grade 11-12) Education. However, the proposed School Sector Reform Programme
(SSRP) has proposed the school structure of Basic Education as Grade-One to Eight and Secondary Education as Grade-Nine to Twelve. (Ministry of Education, Nepal,
2010. Ministry of Education: A Glimpse, p. 10.)

26  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

by making human activities and development
BOX 2: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS REGARDING ENVIRONMENT,
process environment-friendly as called under the
HEALTH AND EDUCATION RIGHTS
principle of green development”.4
One of the strategies set forth in the Thir-
teenth Plan is, making environmental manage- 30. Rights regarding clean environment
(1) Every person has the right to live in a clean and healthy
ment an integral component of development environment.
programme. Several operating policies are speci-
fied in line with the objectives and strategies. The 31. Education rights
overarching operating policy is to draft new laws (1) Every citizen shall have the right to access basic education com-
pertaining to environmental conservation, and pulsory and up to the secondary level education free from the state.
strengthen and update “environmental policy, ex-
35. Health rights
isting laws, rules and mechanisms”, and enhance (1) Every citizen shall have the right to basic health services
institutional capacities. Other major policies re- free of cost from the state
lated to population and demography include: to
expand efforts to alleviate poverty; to carry out
programmes for spreading public awareness about
protecting and preserving the environment; to em- of the environment, and rare wildlife, and pre-
phasize the development of environment-friendly, vent further damage due to physical development
climate change adoptive infrastructure; to imple- activities, by increasing awareness of the general
ment special programmes to keep urban pollution public about environmental cleanliness. Other
within certain limit and to preserve the beauty of constitutionally recognized policies include - pro-
rural areas; to effectively implement poverty allevi- tection of the forest, vegetation and biodiversity,
ation programmes with an environmental dimen- their sustainable use and for equitable distribution
sion; and to improve the data collection methods. of the benefits derived from them.8
There are several environmental issues The Environment Protection Act, 2053
related policies, acts and rules in the country.5 (1997) is another prominent act concerned with
Among them, only a select few (i.e., related to is- the environmental protection in Nepal. The act
sues under consideration) are mentioned in the intends to minimize the adverse impacts of envi-
following. First of all, the constitution is the fun- ronmental degradation, and to protect environ-
damental law of the land. The Constitution of ment for sustainable development.9
Nepal, 2072 (2015)6 has guaranteed every person Nepal has formulated “Ozone Depleting
the right to live in “a clean environment”. The Substances Consumption (Control) Rules, 2001”
Constitution has also vowed to provide “basic in order to specify the substance to be consumed
health services free of cost from the State as pro- as well as sold and distributed within Nepal as pre-
vided for in the law”. There is also a right to free scribed by the Government.
primary and secondary education. (Box 2) The Ministry of Science, Technology and
The State has also promised to make nec- Environment (MoSTE) aims “to achieve sustain-
essary arrangements to maintain the natural en- able and broad based economic growth contrib-
vironment, to give priority to special protection uting to employment generation and poverty

4
National Planning Commission, Nepal, 2013. An Approach Paper to the Thirteenth Plan (FY 2013/14 – 2015/16), pp. 116-17.
5
The CBS publication, “Environment Statistics of Nepal 2013”, has listed six instruments having environment friendly policies, 29 acts having environment
friendly provisions, and 22 rules having environment friendly regulations.
6
http://www.lawcommission.gov.np
7
GoN, The Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063 (2007), Part 3, Fundamental Rights, 16. Rights regarding environment and health, p. 68.
8
Ibid, Part 4, Responsibilities, Directive Principles and Policies of the State Fundamental Rights, 35. State policies, p. 84.
9
7. Prevention and Control of Pollution:
(1) Nobody shall create pollution in such a manner as to cause significant adverse impacts on the environment or likely to be hazardous to public life
and people’s health, or dispose or cause to be disposed sound, heat radioactive rays and wastes from any mechanical devices, industrial enterprises, or
other places contrary to the prescribed standards.

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  27

 reduction in Nepal”. Under the MoSTE, there — Taking other measures relate to total sanita-
is a separate Department of Environment (DoE) tion, waste management, air pollution and
which is “primarily mandated for the implemen- climate change.
tation of the Environmental act, regulation and
standards in Nepal”. It is supposed to monitor Data Sources
the compliance of Environment Protection Act Environment statistics are multi-disciplinary and
(EPA), 2053; Environment Protection Rules cross-cutting in nature. As such, production of
(EPR), 2054; and different pollution control stan- environment statistics involves “numerous stake-
dards set out by the Government. holders, actors and producers”. Sources of en-
The Ministry of Health and Population vironment statistics are: “censuses and sample
(MoHP) has recently launched (March 30, 2015) surveys, administrative records, remote sensing,
the country’s “first ever” National Population Pol- monitoring systems, and scientific research and
icy. This “overarching” policy contains nine areas special projects”.
of focus and 78 strategies. The policy addresses Population census is the major source of
cross-cutting issues related to “social process and population and demographic data. Vital registra-
environment”. tion system of the country is another important
The Government has adopted the National source of such data. Demographic sample surveys
Health Policy 2071 (2014) in order to address the are powerful tools for estimating vital rates, where
direct relationship between “human being, envi- vital registration system is deficient for demo-
ronment and public health”. graphic purposes.
— Adopting environment-friendly and climate- Environment statistics is in a preliminary
adaptive measures by using local resources in stage of development in Nepal. Available data re-
the construction of drinking water and sanita- lated to environment in the country are sporadic;
tion structures. there are a few regular sources and a wide range of
— Encouraging environment-friendly and climate- other are from ad-hoc sources. Most of environ-
adaptive provisions in the construction and use ment data have been collected with a “particular
of drinking water and sanitation schemes. or administrative” purpose by several agencies.
These data are structured for their own specific
Table 1 : Select Social and Demographic Indicators, Nepal, 2000/01 - 2010/11 purpose.
Indicator 2000/01 2010/11 The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS),
Annual population growth rate 2.2 1.4 Nepal, is one of the major sources of environment
Life expectancy at birth (years) 60.4 66.6 statistics in Nepal. The CBS first published a com-
Male 60.1 65.5 pendium on “Environment Statistics” in 1994.
Female 60.7 67.9 Since then the Bureau has continued its publica-
Infant mortality rate ( per 1000 live births)  64.0 40.5 tion on environment statistics. The eighth volume
Male ..  44.3 in this series was compiled and published in 2013
Female ..  38.9 which contains data from more than 50 agencies.10
Literacy rate (6 years of age and over ) 54.1 66.6 This publication is the major source of data for this
Male 65.5 76.0 chapter.
Female 42.8 57.8
Adult literacy rate (15 years of age and over) 48.6 59.6 Select Tables
Male 62.2 71.7 Select tables based on the “Environment Statistics
Female 34.9 48.8 of Nepal, 2013” compiled and published by the
CBS are presented in the following. A few tables are
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.1, p. 29; Population Monograph
of Nepal, 2014, Vol. 1, Table 8.17, p. 190; Table 6.3, p. 130; Table 8.25, p. 201; Vol. II, Table 5.7, p. 202; Annex 5.2, p. 219.
derived from the other CBS publications, as well.

CBS, 2013. Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013.

10

28  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

A Brief Description Table 2 : Population Distribution and Composition, Nepal, 1971-2011
The following is a summary of the results pre- 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
sented in the foregoing tables and other basic data Total population (number) 11,554,983 15,022,839 18,491,097 23,151,423 26,494,504
related to the information categories of the social Population distribution (percent)
and demographic issues. Residence          
Rural 96 93 91 86 83
Population and Households Urban 4 7 9 14 17
On 22 June, 2011, there were 26,494,504 people Ecological belt          
living in Nepal, 3.3 million more than in 2001 Mountain 9.9 8.7 7.8 7.3 6.7
(a 14.4 percent increase over the period of the Hill 52.5 47.7 45.5 44.3 43.0
ten-year period). The 2011 census11 enumerated, Terai 37.6 43.6 46.7 48.4 50.3
12,849,041 males against 13,645,463 females in Development region          
the country (i.e., there were 796,422 more females Eastern 24 24 24 23 21.9
than males in the country). Central 33 33 34 35 36.4
The number of houses recorded in the Western 21 21 20 20 18.6
2011 census stood at 4,767,196. The total num- Mid-western 13 13 13 13 13.4
ber households in the country stood at 5,427,302 Far western 9 9 9 9 9.6
of which 5,423,297 were individual households Total 100 100 100 100 100
and 4,005 were institutional households. The av- Population composition by sex          
erage household size was 4.9. Male 50.3 51.2 49.9 49.9 48.5
Female 49.7 48.8 50.1 50.1 51.5
Population Distribution Sex ratio 101.4 105.0 99.5 99.8 94.2
The pattern of the spatial distribution of popula- Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.2, p. 30.
tion in Nepal is very uneven. Of the 75 districts
in the country, Kathmandu contained 1,744,240
persons while Manang contained only 6,538 per- Table 3: Status of Calorie Consumption and Malnutrition, Nepal, 2003-04
sons in 2011. Among the five development re- Poverty head count rate Distribution of the poor
Region
gions, the central region had the highest number 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
of people (36.4 percent of the total population) Nepal 41.8 30.8 25.2 100 100 100
while the far-western region contained the lowest Residence
number (9.6 percent). More than half of the pop- Urban 21.6 9.6 15.5 3.6 4.7 11.7
ulation lived in the Terai belt, 43 percent along the Rural 43.3 34.6 27.4 96.4 95.3 88.3
hills belt and 6.7 percent of the total population Ecological belt
lived along the mountain belt. Mountain 57.0 32.6 42.3 10.7 7.5 11.8
As of 2011, Nepal had 58 designated ur- Hill 40.7 34.5 24.3 41.9 47.1 42.8
ban areas with a total population of 4,523,820 Terai 40.3 27.6 23.4 47.4 45.4 45.4
(around 17 percent of the total population). The Development region
urban areas varied widely with respect to popula- Eastern 38.9 29.3 21.4 21.0 23.4 19.8
tion – the Kathmandu metropolitan city topped Central 32.5 27.1 21.7 26.9 32.2 30.8
the list with a population of 1,003,285 (22.2 Western 38.6 27.1 22.2 18.7 16.7 16.9
percent of the total urban population) whereas Mid-western 59.9 44.8 31.7 18.5 17.7 16.4
the Dhulikhel municipality contained merely Far western 63.9 41.0 45.6 14.8 9.9 16.0
16,263 people. Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.4, p. 32.

CBS, 2012. National Population and Housing Census 2011, National Report, Table 12, pp. 39-40.
11

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  29

 Table 4: Status of Calorie Consumption and Malnutrition, Nepal, 2003-04 Population Density
Calorie intake Stunting Underweight Wasting The population density in Nepal reported in 2011
shortfall (k0) ( So) < 5 age (Uo) < 5 age (Wo) < 5 age
was 180 people per square kilometer, an increase
Nepal 0.398 0.504 0.452 0.096
from 157 in 2001. Among the districts, Kathman-
Residence        
du was the most densely populated district (4,416
Urban 0.416 0.368 0.335 0.078
persons per sq. km) while Manang was the most
Rural 0.395 0.522 0.467 0.980
sparsely populated district (3 persons per sq. km).
Ecological belt        
Out of 58 municipalities recorded in the
Mountain 0.452 0.614 0.451 0.053
2011 census, the Kathmandu metropolitan city
Hill 0.418 0.524 0.414 0.059
was the most crowded city (20,289 persons per sq.
Terai 0.374 0.473 0.484 0.133
km) while Amargadhi municipality area was the
Development Region         
least crowded (160 persons per sq. km).
Eastern 0.376 0.476 0.434 0.091
Among the three ecological belts, Terai was
Central 0.399 0.500 0.447 0.108
the most populous as well as the most densely popu-
Western 0.372 0.501 0.434 0.089
lated belt (392 person per sq. km). On the other, the
Mid-western 0.443 0.539 0.490 0.088
mountain belt was the least populous with a density
Far-western 0.499 0.540 0.489 0.088
of 34 persons per square kilometer. Amongst the de-
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.6, p. 33. velopment regions, the central development region
was the most densely populated (352 persons per
Table 5: Primary and Secondary Level Enrollment, Nepal, 2001 - 2011 sq. km) while the mid-western region was the most
2001 2011 sparsely populated (84 persons per sq. km).
Level Girls Boys Girls Boys
Pre-primary 44.5 55.5 72.1 79.6 Population Growth
Primary (1- 5) 44.8 55.2 50.4 49.6 The population of Nepal is growing bigger. The
Lower secondary (6 - 8) 42.2 57.8 50.5 49.5 population of 2011 was nearly tripled from its
Secondary (9 - 10) 41.4 58.6 49.7 50.3 1961 level. The rate of growth, however, has
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.7, p. 33.
slowed down in recent years. The average annual
growth rate of the population from 2001 to 2011
Table 6: Gross and Net Enrollment Rates in Primary and Secondary Level was 1.35 percent per annum, a sharp decline from
of Schools, Nepal, 2001 – 2010 the previous decade 1991 - 2001 (2.25 percent per
Primary Lower Secondary Secondary
annum). Further, the rate of growth from 2001
Year Girls/Boys
(1- 5) (6 - 8) (9 - 10) to 2011 was the lowest since the 1960s. If this
Gross enrollment ratio (GER) growth rate prevailed, it will take another 51 years
Total 124.7 63.2 43.8 to double the population of Nepal.
2001 Girls 114.7 54.0 36.0
Boys 134.1 72.2 51.8 Migration
Total 135.9 100.0 70.1
2010 Girls 141.2 104.1 71.9 Absent Population
Boys 131.0 96.0 68.4 There is a significant number of Nepali diaspora
Net enrollment ratio (NER) abroad. Estimated as of 2011, one in every four
Total 81.1 39.4 25.5 households (25.4 percent, i.e. 1.38 million house-
2001 Girls 75.1 33.7 20.9 holds) had at least one member living abroad. The
Boys 86.9 45.0 30.2 total number of absent population reported in
Total 95.1 70.0 52.1 2011 was 1,921,494 as against 762,181 in 2001.
2010 Girls 94.5 69.5 51.4 The highest proportion of the diaspora belonged
Boys 95.6 70.5 52.7 to the age group 15 – 24 years.
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Tables 3.8 and 3.9, pp. 34-35.

30  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Population by Place of Birth Table 7: Inter-zonal Migrants by Sex, Nepal, 2001
Out of the total non-institutional population re- Destination (place of enumeration) Out-migration
Origin (place of birth) Net-migration
corded in 2011 (26,253,828), 25,524611 were Mountain Hill Terai Total (percent)
native born, 479,625 were foreign born and for Nepal
249,592 the place of birth was not stated. Mountain - 125,597 169,825 295,422 17.1 -255,103
Among the foreign born population, more Hill 33,895 - 1,157,035 1,190,930 68.9 -830,759
than 70 percent (338,460) were females. Nearly Terai 6,424 234,574 - 240,998 14 1,085,862
28.7 percent were born in India. Regarding the Total 40,319 360,171 1,326,860 1,727,350 100  
length of stay in Nepal, 54 percent were living in In-migration (percent) 2.3 20.9 76.8 100    
the country for more than 10 years. Male
Mountain - 57,170 84,783 141,953 16.8 -127,610
Internal Migration Hill 10,822 - 567,513 578,335 68.4 -400,001
Among the native born population, nearly 14.8 Terai 3,521 121,164 - 124,685 14.8 527,611
percent (3,788,070 persons) were born in districts Total 14,343 178,334 652,296 844,973 100  
other than where they were enumerated in 2011. In-migration (percent) 1.7 21.1 77.2 100    
Among persons having birthplace different from
Female
currently residing district (enumerated district),
Mountain - 68,428 85,040 153,468 17.4 -127,511
some 80.1 percent (3,033,574) were born in rural
Hill 23,061 - 589,528 612,589 69.4 -430,746
areas whereas 6.4 percent (241,437 persons) were
Terai 2,896 113,415 - 116,311 13.2 558,257
born in urban areas.
Total 25,957 181,843 674,568 882,368 100  
Among the native born population having
In-migration (percent) 2.9 20.6 76.4 100    
place of birth different from the currently resid-
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.11, p. 36
ing district, 10.7 percent (406,962), 65 percent
(2,460,799) and 22.2 percent (841,987) were Table 8: Inter-zonal Migrants by Sex, Nepal, 2011
born in the mountain, the hills, and the Terai dis- Origin (place of Destination (place of enumeration) Out-migration Net-migration
tricts respectively. birth) Mountain Hill Terai Total (percent)
In 2011, the total number of inter-zonal life Nepal
time migrants was 2,088,170. The proportion of Mountain - 213,714 180,587 394,301 18.9 -349,132
such migrants stood at 8.2 percent of the total na- Hill 37,672 - 1,273,599 1,311,271 62.8 -722,456
tive born population in 2011. The hills belt was the Terai 7,497 375,101 - 382,598 18.3 1,071,588
largest area of origin while the Terai was the largest Total 45,169 588,815 1,454,186 2,088,170 100  
area of destination. It was the common destination In-migration (percent) 2.2 28.2 69.6 100    
of migrants from the mountains and the hills belts.12 Male
Mountain - 98,533 86,441 184,974 19.4 -171,541
Life Expectancy Hill 9,555 - 567,368 576,923 60.5 -290,606
Life expectancy at birth in Nepal was estimated Terai 3,878 187,784 - 191,662 20.1 462,147
to be 66.6 years in 2011.13 Life expectancy of fe- Total 13,433 286,317 653,809 953,559 100  
males (67.9 years) exceeded that of males (65.5 In-migration (percent) 1.4 30.0 68.6 100    
years) in 2011. Estimates of life expectancy at Female
birth for urban and rural areas stood at 70.5 and Mountain - 115,181 94,146 209,327 18.4 -177,593
66.6 years respectively. Hill 28,116 - 706,231 734,347 64.7 -431,849
Terai 3,618 187,317 - 190,935 16.8 609,442
Infant Mortality Rate Total 31,734 302,498 800,377 1,134,609 100  
From the 2011 census figures, the infant mortal- In-migration (percent) 2.8 26.7 70.5 100    
ity rate per thousand live births was estimated at Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Population Monograph of Nepal, 2014, Table 10.3, p. 249.

CBS, 2014, Population Monograph of Nepal, 2014, Volume I, p. 245-46.

12

CBS, 2014, Population Monograph of Nepal, 2014, Volume II, Table 8.17, p. 190. One of the CBS publications has reported the figures for 2000/01 and 2010/10
13

as 60.8 and 68.8 years respectively (See: CBS, 2013, Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Table 3.1, p. 29).

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  31

 40.5. The comparable estimate in 2001 was 64 ages for the World for the same were 79 (g/cap/
per thousand live births. day) and 31 (g/cap/day) respectively.
Inadequate access to food in terms of the
Adult Literacy Rate depth of the food deficit for the period (2011 - 13)
According to the 2011 census, Nepal had an adult was 112 kcal/cap/day against 83 kcal/cap/day.
literacy rate of 59.6 percent, with a huge variation
between males (71.6 percent) and females (48.8 Nutritional Status of Children
percent). According to the Third Nepal Living Standards
Survey17 , 42 percent of children under five years
Enrollment Ratio of age were stunted (height-for-age) and 15 per-
Gross enrollment rates for the year 2011 were es- cent were severely stunted. Thirty-one percent of
timated to be 136 percent, 100 percent and 70 children were underweight (weight-for-age) and 8
percent for primary, lower secondary and second- percent were severely underweight. Fourteen per-
ary schooling levels respectively. Estimates of net cent of children were wasted (weight-for-height)
enrollment rates for the same year were: 95 per- and three percent were severely wasted. These
cent (primary), 70 percent (lower secondary), and indicators among females were in general higher
52 percent (secondary). than among males.

Females per 100 Males in Secondary School Population Living in Absolute Poverty
Ratio of girls to boys in secondary schools is the According to the Third Nepal Living Standards
percentage of girls to boys enrolled at secondary Survey, 2010/11, 25.2 percent of Nepalese were
level in public and private schools. living below poverty line. According to the survey
Ratio of girls to boys in secondary school report, Nepal recorded 5.6 percent decline in ab-
was 0.99 in 2013. Of the total enrolment, girl’s en- solute poverty between 2003 - 04 and 2009 - 10.
rolment constituted 50.9 and 49.7 percent at the
lower-secondary and secondary levels respectively.14 Urban Air Quality
Nepal accounts for relatively low carbon dioxide
Calorie Supply (CO2) emissions compared to other countries
Calorie is a shorter form used for technically more in the region. In 2009, Nepal’s total emission of
correct term “kilocalorie”. Calories are simple CO2 was four megatons, negligible proportion of
ways to measure the energy in food. Calorie sup- the global total of 29,837 megatons.18
ply is a function of food supply. The levels of gaseous pollutants such as
According to the Third Nepal Living oxides of nitrogen, oxides of Sulphur, and ozone
Standards Survey15, 16 percent of the respondent have not been found to be very high in major ur-
thought that food consumption in their households ban areas of Nepal. However, there are possibilities
was “less than adequate” (or inadequate), while 82 that these levels may increase in the future with
percent said it was “just adequate” and the remain- increasing motorization. “Environmental Pollu-
ing 2 percent answered “more than adequate”. tion Index 2014” published by Yale University
According to the FAO16 report , average has ranked Nepal second last (after Bangladesh) in
supply of protein during 2008 - 10 was 61 (g/cap/ terms of air quality and its effect to human health.
day) and average supply of protein of animal ori- Concentration of particulate matter less than 10
gin was 9 (g/cap/day). The corresponding aver- microns (PM10) in the Kathmandu Valley is sev-

14
National Planning Commission/United Nations Country Team of Nepal, 2013. Nepal Millennium Development Goals Progress Report 2013, p. 31.
15
CBS, 2011. Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2010/11, Statistical Report, Volume Two, p. 98.
16
FAO, 2014. FAO Statistical Yearbook 2014, Asia and the Pacific Food and Agriculture, Table 12, p. 56. (www.fao.org/3/a-i3590e.pdf )
17
CBS, 2011. Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2010/11, Statistical Report, Volume Two, pp. 119-120.
18
NPC/UNCT, 2013, Nepal Millennium Development Goals Progress Report, p. 65.

32  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

eral times higher than the WHO safe limit. Kath- Figure 1: Population of Nepal, 1911 - 2011
mandu is one of the most polluted cities in Asia
with regards to PM10 and PM25. 19
Nepal has formulated “Ozone Depleting
Substances Consumption (Control) Rules, 2001”
in order to specify the substance to be consumed
as well as sold and distributed within Nepal as pre-
scribed by the Government.

Environmentally Related Diseases

Illnesses and conditions caused by factors in the
environment are collectively called environmental
diseases. Pesticides, chemicals, radiation, air pol-
Nepal’s population took nearly 50 years to
lution, and water pollution, are some of the man-
double from 5.6 million to 11.2 million. It then
made hazards that are believed to contribute to
took only 30 years to double from 11.6 million to
human illnesses.20
23.2 million. At the latest rate of growth, it will
The high incidence of diseases such as heart
double again in another 51 years.
problems and cancer have been increasing due to
changes in dietary habit, lifestyle and exposure to
Population Density
pollution and toxic wastes etc.
In the last 100 years (1911 – 2011), the popula-
tion of Nepal grew by around 370 percent. The
population has increased each decade since 1930.
Status and Trends The first census recorded 5,638,749 people in Ne-
pal which increased to reach 26,494,504 in 2011.
The following is a short description of the cur-
It is natural that the population density
rent situation and a general direction in which the
increased in tandem with the population growth.
situation is changing. It should be noted that, the
In 1911, the average number of population per
trends presented here refer to the situation before
square kilometer was estimated at 38. As of July
the devastating earthquake of April 25, 2015.21
22, 2011, the density reached 180 persons per
square kilometer, an increase of 142 persons per
Population Growth
square kilometer. If the estimated growth rate (of
To date, Nepal has seen eleven decennial popula-
2001 - 2011) continued unchanged, the popula-
tion censuses. Except for the second and the third
tion density of Nepal would reach around 360
censuses, the population of the country has been
persons per square kilometer in 2061.
increasing from one census to the other (Figure
1). The annual population growth rate was phe-
Rural-urban Migration
nomenal after the fourth census. The growth rate
The population census of 1961 and subsequent
reached the highest (2.62 percent per annum)
censuses have collected information with regard to
during 1971 - 81. The rate has been undulating
the birth place of each enumerated person. The
after 1981 and slowed down to 1.35 percent per
birth place of a person was recorded in terms of
annum in 2000 - 2011.
the district where the person was born.

19
Clean Air Network Nepal, 2014. Air Quality Status and Management in Kathmandu Valley Make the City Air Breathable, MaYA Fact sheet #5 (www.cen.org.
np/.../AQ%20St...)
20
http://www.humanillnesses.com/original/E-Ga/Environmental-Diseases.html#ixzz3a6ziVhNr
21
The earthquake killed around 9 thousand people across Nepal and injured more than twice as many. More than 600 thousand houses were fully destroyed
and around 300 thousand houses were partially damaged. (http://reliefweb.int/report/nepal/nepal-earthquake-weekly-situation-update-31-july-2015) Ac-
cording to the UN report, around 2.8 million people were displaced. Schools system in the country has been shattered. More than 5,000 schools were
damaged and as many as 1,000 collapsed in the earthquake. Tomoo Hozumi, Unicef’s representative in Nepal, describe the situation in the following words:
“Almost one million children who were enrolled in school before the earthquake could now find they have no school building to return to. Prolonged inter-
ruption to education can be devastating for children’s development and future prospects”. The above numbers should be taken as indicative only. Final figures
are yet to come.
CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  33
 Rural to urban migration from different cen- The rate of decline for IMR (1990 – 2011)
suses cannot be compared as the number of desig- was significant, 57.4 percent. The rate of decline
nated urban areas have been changing/increasing in has, however, slowed down in recent years.25 One
one after another census. Estimates from the 2001 in 22 children dies before the age of one (and one
census figures indicate that the major streams of in- in 19 children dies before reaching age five).
ternal migration were rural-to-rural (68.2 percent),
and rural-to-urban (25.5 percent). The remaining Adult Literacy Rate
6.3 percent was accounted by urban-to-urban and The adult literacy rate (for the population aged 15
urban-to-rural migration taken together.22 years and over), has been increasing over the years. The
The 2011 census estimates show that ru- overall rate was 20.6 percent in 1981 which increased
ral-to-rural migration still outweighed the other and reached 33 percent (49.2 percent for males and
three streams. However, there is a noticeable de- 17.4 percent for females) in 1991. The rate increased
clining trend (59 percent in 2011 compared with to 48.6 percent in 2001 (62.7 percent for males and
68 percent in 2001). On the other, rural-to-urban 34.9 percent for females). The 2011 population cen-
migration increased from 25.5 percent in 2001 sus reported a further increase: 59.6 for both sexes,
to 35.5 percent in 2011.23 This provides a clear 71.7 percent for males and 48.8 percent for females.26
indication that rural-to-urban migration will gain
further prominence in coming years. School Enrollment Ratio
Overall, gross enrollment ratio (GER) for lower
Life Expectancy at Birth secondary level school in 2001 was 63.2 percent
Life expectancy at birth for Nepal has significantly (72.2 percent for boys and 54.0 percent for girls).
increased over the years since 1954. Expectation of The ratio increased significantly over the years
life at birth in 1954 for both sexes was estimated and reached 100.0 percent (96.0 percent for boys
at 27.8 years which almost doubled in 1991 (54.3 and 104.1 percent for girls).
years). It further increased and reached 66.6 years At the national level, GER for secondary level
in 2011 (an increase of around 140 percent be- school in 2001 was 43.8 percent (51.8 percent for
tween 1954 and 2011). boys and 36.0 percent for girls). The corresponding
Estimates of the expectation of life at birth figures for 2011 were 70.1 percent for both sexes,
in 1954 for males and females were 27.1 and 28.5 68.4 percent for boys and 71.9 percent for girls.
years respectively. The corresponding estimates Net enrollment ratios (NER) have in-
for 1991 were 55 years (males) and 53.5 years (fe- creased considerably during the period 2001 - 11.
males). Estimates for 2011 were 65.5 years (males) The NER for lower secondary level of school in
and 67.9 years (females) respectively.24 For 2001, 2001 was 39.4 percent for both sexes, 45.0 per-
the estimates were lower by 5.4 years (males) and cent for boys and 33.7 percent for girls. In 2011,
7.2 years (females) respectively. the NER for both sexes reached 70.0 percent, 70.5
percent for boys and 69.5 percent for girls.
Infant Mortality Rate For secondary level of schools, the NER in
Childhood mortality declined significantly over the 2001 was 25.5 percent for both sexes (30.2 per-
past 20 years (i.e., between 1990 and 2011). Dur- cent for boys and 20.9 percent for girls). The ra-
ing this period, the infant mortality rate (IMR) de- tios in 2011 reached 52.1 percent for both sexes,
clined from 108 to 46 per 1,000 live births. 52.7 percent for boys and 51.4 percent for girls.

22
CBS, 2003. Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II, pp. 141-143.
23
CBS, 2014. Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume I, Population Dynamics, p. 258.
24
CBS, 2014. Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume I, Population Dynamics, Table 8.17, p. 190.
25
National Planning Commission/United Nations Country Team of Nepal, 2013. Nepal Millennium Development Goals Progress Report 2013, p. 39.
26
CBS, 2014. Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II, Social Demography, Annex 5.2, p. 219.

34  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Females per 100 Males in Secondary School Table 9: Dietary Energy Consumption and Proportion of Undernourished
Ratio of female to male secondary enrollment is Population, Nepal, 1999 - 2012
the percentage of girls to boys at secondary level of 1999 - 2001 2004 - 2006 2007 - 2009 2010 - 2012
public and private schools. Dietary energy consumption (DEC), 2210 2280 2340 2400
The ratio female to male secondary enroll- kcal/person/per day

ment is increasing in favor of females in recent Proportion of undernourished in total 24.0 21.3 19.7 17.9
population, percent
years. According to the World Bank portal (http://
Source: FAO, Table 149 (www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3052e/i3052e00.pdf)
data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.SECO.
FM.ZS), the ratio was 97 percent in 2010 which
increased to 101 percent in 2011.
2011. In 1996, 42 percent of population was
Calorie Supply Per capita below the national poverty line in Nepal, which
The third Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/11 declined to 31 percent in 2004. The proportion
used 2,200 calorie consumption (per person per further declined to 25 percent in 2011. Accord-
day) as the threshold to measure poverty in Nepal. ing to the MDG Report 2013, between 2005 and
Using this threshold, the survey estimated that 2013, the poverty declined by an annual average
around 25 percent of the population in Nepal was rate of one percent . If this rate is sustained, the
living below poverty line. 21 percent target for 2015 can be easily achieved.29
According to the FAO27, dietary energy
consumption (DEC) level in Nepal is increasing Urban Population Exposed to Concentration of
over the years. The proportion of undernourished Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
in total population, on the other, is consistently Sulphur dioxide (SO2) levels in Kathmandu and
decreasing from 1999 - 2001 onwards. (Table 1). in other urban areas in Nepal were monitored in
In general, the nutritional status of children 2004. The levels in the Kathmandu valley area
in Nepal has improved over the decade 2001 - 11. were much lower than in other urban areas. The
The proportion of stunted children (for whom 8-hour average SO2 levels in the Kathmandu Val-
height-for-age value is less than two standard ley area in 2004 were much lower than other ur-
deviations of the WHO child growth standards ban counterparts in Nepal. These weekly 8-hour
median) declined from 57 percent in 2001 to 41 values, however, are not directly comparable to an-
percent in 2011 and that of underweight children nual and 24-hour standards set for Nepal.
(whose body weight is considered too low to be
healthy), from 43 to 29 percent in the same pe- Incidence of Environmentally Related Diseases
riod. Similarly, the proportion of wasted children During the last fifteen years (between 1996 and
(low weight-for-height) declined slightly, from 13 2011), there have been changes in health indica-
percent in 2006 to 11 percent in 2011.28 tors of Nepal. Several indicators show noticeable
improvements. For some other indicators, how-
Population Living in Absolute Poverty ever, the figures are not encouraging. Regarding
Poverty declining rate has been “impressive” in the MDGs, the targets for HIV/AIDs, tubercu-
Nepal. The annual rate of decline in Nepal’s pov- losis, malaria and other diseases, environmental
erty level increased from 1.5 percent between sustainability, and global partnership are unlikely
1996 and 2004 to 2.5 percent between 2004 and to be achieved by 2015. 30

27
FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 2012. Selected Indicators of Food and Agricultural Development in the Asia-Pacific Region, 2001-2011,
RAP publication 2012/18, Table 149, p 211.
28
National Planning Commission/United Nations Country Team of Nepal, 2013. Nepal Millennium Development Goals Progress Report 2013, p. 15
29
Ibid pp. 9-10. (http://www.np.undp.org/content/nepal/en/home/library/mdg/mdg-progress-report-2013.html).
30
Ibid, p. 92.

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  35

 Recommendations There is no shortage of good recommen-
dations available in the Government documents
Policy implications of demographic influences on regarding the social and demographic issues. The
the environment are complicated. Furthermore, following are select objectives, strategies and oper-
they can be controversial at times. Recommenda- ational policies outlined in the current Thirteenth
tions differ according to the complex issues related Plan of Nepal32. These are pertinent (or related)
to social and demographic issues. The following to the issues considered above.
are some of the recommendations (pertinent to — Use of population management efforts to cre-
the Nepalese situation) based on the overall sug- ate an environment in which people can lead
gestions made by Lori M. Hunter.31 productive and good-quality lives.
— Inclusion of demographic factors in devel- — Establishment of reproductive rights as fun-
opment policies to promote effective family damental human rights by increasing public
planning. awareness.
— Development of plan to slow migration to the — Implementation of programmes for targeted
Terai region and crowded urban areas. communities, thereby ensuring that popula-
— Development of incentives to encourage sus- tion management programme effectively pro-
tainable levels of consumption and the use of motes gender equality and social inclusion.
efficient, cleaner technologies. — Promotion of coordination between develop-
— Promotion of interdisciplinary and analytical ment programmes and the population structure.
approach in environmental research. — Management of population growth by family
— Collection of new data that allow examination of planning, population-education, and aware-
the links between social and natural processes. ness-raising interventions.
Nepal has its “first ever” National Popula- — Provision of intensive awareness, reproduc-
tion Policy endorsed by the Cabinet and unveiled tive, maternal and child health, and family
on March 30, 2015 (countryoffice.unfpa.org/ne- planning services to identified target groups in
pal/2015/.../first_population_policy_in_nepal). order to promote a good quality of life and
This umbrella policy “contains nine areas of fo- small families.
cus and 78 strategies”. According to the UNFPA, — Enhancement of equal participation of men
Nepal, “the policy, among other things, aims at and women in population management pro-
improving lives of people by integrating popula- gramme.
tion issues into development, ensuring reproduc- — Implementation of the National Population
tive health and reproductive rights of people as the Policy of Nepal.
fundamental human rights and promoting gender — Encouragement of “maximum of two children
equality and inclusion in all sustainable develop- per family” policy to control and manage pop-
ment strategies”. The policy is expected to be “a ulation.
key milestone in responding the population issues — Mobilization of youth-power, capitalising on
and the challenges of sustainable development the demographic dividend, in national devel-
faced by Nepal”. Further, the policy “follows a opment - by engaging youths in creative and
rights-based approach that will ultimately contrib- productive activities.
ute to balancing the population and achieve key — Regulation of immigration trend on the basis
demographic targets in 20 years (2015-2034) in of the domiciles, number and characteristics
line with the proposed Sustainable Development of immigrants.
Goals (SDGs) due to be endorsed by the UN — Development of integrated settlements for
member states in September 2015”. rural and mirginalised areas and endangered

31
Hunter, L. M., Population and Environment: A Complex Relationship, What should Policymakers do?
32
National Planning Commission, Nepal, 2013. An Approach Paper to the Thirteenth Plan (FY 2013/14 – 2015/16), Kathmandu: NPC, Nepal.

36  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 groups to balance the regional distribution of — Establishment of rehabilitation centers and
population. expansion of nutrition services in central and
— Conduct a nationwide survey to identify the zonal hospitals to improve child and maternal
nature, intensity and reasons for various trends health.
in national and international migration. — Strengthening of the existing nutrition pro-
— Expansion of geriatric wards from central to grammes to achieve the objectives of the
zonal hospitals. Multi-Sector Nutrition Plan.
— Establishment and improvement of health in- — Efforts for the reduction of pollution levels in
stitutions and provision of the resources they the rivers in Kathmandu and other metropo-
need, given the populations they serve, the lises and control of air, land, water, and sound
needs of patients, and their geographical loca- pollution.
tion. — Actions regarding hazardous waste manage-
— Restriction of unauthorised, uncontrolled and ment to be taken in coordination with the
unorganised urbanisation and settlement de- agencies concerned.
velopment process. — Framing and implementation of additional
— Development of safe, clean and prosperous environmental standards in the areas of air,
cities with adequate infrastructure. land, water, and sound pollution.
— Expansion of equal access to education of all — Designing and implementation of special pro-
levels and types, general, vocational, and tech- grams for reducing various types of pollution
nical. in order to keep urban pollution within a cer-
— Provision of equitable access to secondary- tain limit and to preserve the beauty of rural
level education, schools and access to students areas.
from all classes, communities and regions to — Development and implementation of mecha-
science education. nisms for the enforcement of ‘the polluter
— Expansion of alternative programmes, reserva- pays’ and ‘removing pollution is good’ prin-
tions, and scholarships to women, indigenous ciples.
and ethnic communities, Madhesis, Dalits, — Promotion of the use of low-polluting means
and people with special needs to ensure access of transport and environment-friendly fuel.
to education at all levels. — Adoption of advanced technology to mini-
— Efforts made to increase enrollment and pass mise the growing levels of pollution.
rates and to reduce dropout and repetition
rates by creating child-friendly school envi- Environment Friendly Measures
ronment. The Thirteenth Plan, also recommends for “en-
— Focus on the promotion and use of agricultur- vironment-friendly” measures to be adopted in
al and livestock products, in food-deficit and different sector under consideration. A few select
food-and-nutrition-insecure areas, which can measures recommended are as follows:
be produced locally by using local resources, — Construction of buildings that are safe, eco-
including materials, labour, and technology. nomical, affordable, environment-friendly
— Conduct awareness programmes designed to and earthquake resilient; and provision of
promote food-and-nutrition security. housing facilities to disadvantaged sections of
— Necessary arrangements in food-and-nutri- society.
tion-insecure areas and communities for solv- — Development and dissemination of environ-
ing the food crisis in the short and the long ment-friendly agro-technologies to minimize
term. the adverse impacts of climate change.
— Improvement of the nutritional status of vul- — Development and expansion of research-based
nerable citizens by implementing multi-sec- and environment-friendly agro technologies
toral nutrition programmes. that reduce the adverse impacts of climate

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  37

 change by protecting, promoting and using — Development and implementation of mech-
agro-biodiversity. anisms for the enforcement of ‘the polluter
— Development of irrigation programmes that pays’ and ‘removing pollution is good’ prin-
would ensure local environment-friendly ciples.
ponds, lakes, wetlands and water source are — Promotion of the use of low-polluting means
protected in coordination with other con- of transport and environment-friendly fuel.
cerned agencies. — Adoption of environment-friendly, climate
— Technical and financial support to industries change-adaptive and employment generating
which install environment-friendly and ener- approaches while conducting studies of and
gy-saving technology on their own initiative. research into and designing and implement-
— Development of mountainous areas as a key ing projects related to water-induced disaster
tourism destination by making mountaineer- control.
ing systematic and environment-friendly. — Development and dissemination of environ-
— Implementation of environment-friendly and ment-friendly agro-technologies to minimize
climate-adaptive measures by using local re- the adverse impacts of climate change.
sources in the construction of drinking water
and sanitation structures.
— Expansion of urban road networks in a man- Conclusion
ner which contributes to the management
of safe, environment-friendly, hindrance free There are several economists and social scientists,
mass transportation. who suggest a few benefits and advantages of pop-
— Development of good quality, sustainable, and ulation growth. The benefits, according to them,
environment-friendly local infrastructure by are - better use of country’s resources, increase in
adopting a sector-wide approach. size of market, generation of extra demand, and
— Contribution towards poverty alleviation increase in labour force.
by intensifying income generation through Further, possibilities of positive economic
means such as sustainable socio-economic effects from population growth as suggested by
development, the provision of environment- Kuznets and Hirschman also deserve consider-
friendly, good-quality local infrastructure, and ation. The positive effects include: exploitation of
efficient service delivery. economies of scale, greater number of potentially
— Promotion of environment-friendly local gov- creative people, and counter-pressure brought out
ernance by increasing people’s participation in by population pressure.33
and coordination of climate change adapta- Despite those possible advantages, there are
tion and disaster management efforts. a number of reasons for a government to be con-
— Development of outlines for environment- cerned about population growth. For example, ar-
friendly local governance that will ensure the able land, potable water, and forest resources get-
use of environment-friendly measures while ting scarcer with the population growth.
mobilizing local resources. There is no doubt that population increase
— Acclimatization to the adverse impacts of cli- will place increasing pressure on housing, schools,
mate change by making human activities and hospitals, and a host of other important aspects of
development processes environment-friendly life. It will have adverse effect on natural resources
as called for under the principles of green de- as well.
velopment. Exploding and unmanaged habitation of
— Development of environment-friendly, cli- people have adverse effect on and threat to other
mate change-adaptive infrastructure. species in the country. Also, there is an effect on

33
Kindleberger, P. C., and Bruce Herrick, 1977, Economic Development, Third Edition, p. 249-50.

38  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

ozone layer and climate change. If public poli- Unplanned urbanization has brought over-
cies are not reformed, the quality of life as well crowding and traffic problems in the major cities
as the biodiversity of our environment will suf- like the Kathmandu metropolitan area. Already
fer. Unchecked population growth without equal existing environmental problems have begun to
agricultural advancement to meet it leads to food trigger an alarm - declining resources are under
shortages. extra pressure. Influx of people in these areas in
Many basic resources like food, water, air search of jobs and better livelihood have created
and fuel are strained by population increase. Over- additional pressure on existing life style. Lack of
population and uncontrolled urbanization bring the proper housing and sanitation, worsening air
problems of overcrowding. Viruses are more likely to quality, water shortages and noise pollution have
spread more easily in dense areas. Overpopulation adversely affected the quality of urban life.
might bring conflict over resources.34 Nepal is experiencing massive youth migra-
The complex relationship between popu- tion – within and outside the country. Many of
lation dynamics and environmental issues are these migrants are from rural Nepal. Migration
eloquently “synthesized” by Lori Hunter in her has affected both the youth migrants themselves
report.35 Cause and effect analysis of relation be- and the young and old persons left behind. One
tween population and environment is not straight example, there is acute scarcity of farm labour in
and simple as it may appear in the first sight. the country. Agricultural status of the country is
Population of Nepal is increasing continu- worsening. Nepal is becoming a food insecure
ously since 1930s. Nepal added 3,343,081 people country. Rural poverty is rampant with adverse
during the last decade ending in 2011. On the aver- impact on environment.
age, that was more than 9 hundred people per day This is a bizarre story. Increasing population
within a physical area of 147,181 square kilometer. has naturally necessitated increase in food require-
Over the last couple of decades, several de- ment. Thousands of hectares of forest are being
mographic and social changes have occurred in cleared, and marginal lands are being brought into
the country. On the whole, there is good news. cultivation. This has increased vulnerability to nat-
Fertility and mortality rates have declined. Life ex- ural disaster including soil degradation, soil erosion,
pectancy has increased significantly. On average, fragmentation of land, flooding, and land slide etc.
people are healthier and better nourished than be- The Government has prepared the first
fore. Urbanization is increasing rapidly. population policy of Nepal with due consider-
During the same period, however, there ation to environment issues. Nepal environmen-
have been growing concerns about the worsen- tal policy and action plan “sets forth a strategy for
ing environmental health of the country. Uneven maintaining the country’s natural environment,
population distribution has inspired crowding in the health and safety of its population and its cul-
several parts of the country. Internal migration pat- tural heritage as economic development occurs”.
tern is asymmetric. There is a mass exodus from the National health policy of Nepal, along with other
mountain and the hill regions to the plains or the health issues, has given priority to “environmental
Terai and major urban centres. People are moving health” of the people.
to the more arable lands of the Terai. In some parts The Thirteenth Plan (2013/14-2015/16) of
of the country, the carrying capacity of the land has Nepal36 has accorded to prioritise the management
been pushed to the limit. Deforestation, soil ero- of population in the country. The objective of the
sion, flooding in the Terai are some of the conse- population policy is “to use population management
quences. In addition, this region (the Terai) is also efforts to create an environment in which people can
experiencing ethnic tensions to some extent. lead productive and good-quality lives”. The objec-

34
Hinrichsen, D. and Bryant Robey, Population and the Environment: The Global Challenge, (http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/hinrichsen_robey.
html)
35
Hunter, Lori M., Population and Environment: A Complex Relationship (www.rand.org › Published Research › Research)
36
National Planning Commission, Nepal, 2013. An Approach Paper to the Thirteenth Plan (FY 2013/14 – 2015/16), Kathmandu: NPC, Nepal.

CHAPTER 3 Social and Demographic Issues  |  39

 tives of the plan regarding the “environment and cli- ---------- (1998). A Compendium on Environmental Statistics 1998,
Nepal, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
mate change” and the agricultural sector are:
---------- (2011). Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2010/11, Statistical
Environment - Adapt to the adverse impacts Report, Volume One, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
of climate change by making human activities and ---------- (2011). Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2010/11, Statistical
development processes environment-friendly as Report, Volume Two, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
---------- (2012). National Population and Housing Census 2011,
called for under the principles of green development. National Report, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
Agriculture - To develop and disseminate ---------- (2014). Environment Statistics of Nepal, 2013, Kathman-
environment-friendly agro-technologies to mini- du: CBS, Nepal.
---------- (2014). National Population and Housing Census 2011,
mize the adverse impacts of climate change.
Tables from Form II, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
The devastating earthquake of April 25, ---------- (2014). Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume I, Popu-
2015 has claimed thousands of lives, destroyed lation Dynamics, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
thousands of infrastructures - thousands of build- ---------- (2014). Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II, Social
Demography, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
ings including many historical heritage sites have
---------- (2014). Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume III, Eco-
been destroyed or severely damaged. According to nomic Demography, Kathmandu: CBS, Nepal.
a preliminary estimate of the Government, eco- Government of Nepal (1976). Birth, Death, and other Vital Events
nomic cost to the country has been as much as (Registration) Act (1976), Kathmandu: Law Books Manage-
ment Board, Ministry of Law and Justice.
“half of Nepal’s economy”. A lot of rebuilding is ---------- (1999). Local Self-Governance Act 2055 (1999), Kath-
necessary in the aftermath of the earthquake. mandu: Law Books Management Board, Ministry of Law and
Nepal had unveiled “it’s first ever popula- Justice.
---------- (2007). Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 (2007), Kath-
tion policy” on March 30, 2015, less than one
mandu: Interim Constitution Bilingual UNDP.pdf
month before the massive earthquake in the coun- Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission / United
try. The policy, no doubt, will be a milestone in Nations Country Team of Nepal, 2013. Nepal Millennium
responding to the population issues and its rela- Development Goals Progress Report 2013, Kathmandu: NPC
and UNCT, Nepal.
tion to the environmental issues faced by Nepal.
Haupt, A., T. T. Kane, 1998. Population Reference Bureau’s Popula-
What is needed in the present context is to review tion Handbook, 4th International Edition, Washington, D. C:
and implement the said policies from a different USA, Population Reference Bureau.
perspective in the aftermath of the quake. Kindleberger, C. P., Bruce Herrick, 1977. Economic Development,
Third Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
www.foodsecurityportal.org/api/calorie-supply-capita
www.unicef.org/infobycountry/stats_popup1.html
References www.unicef.org/infobycountry/stats_popup5.html
http://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/relative-versus-absolute-
poverty-headcount-ratios-full-breakdown
Central Bureau of Statistics, CBS (1994). A Compendium on the
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr32/en/
Environmental Statistics of Nepal, Issues and Facts, Kath-
www.rand.org › Published Research › Research
mandu: National Planning Commission Secretariat (NPCS),
CBS, Nepal.

* Mr. Bastola is former Director General of Central Bureau of Statistics

40  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 4

Climatic Extremities in Nepal

Keshav P. Sharma, Ph.D.*

Assessment of climatic extremities in Nepal showed that recurrent daily precipitation exceeding 100 mm is common in most
of the southern parts of Nepal. Except a few isolated locations, intense precipitation was found to be less likely in the High
Mountain and Himalayan areas. Most of the intense precipitation exceeding 400 mm was recorded in areas lying below 2100
m. Similarly, more than half of the precipitation events exceeding 400 mm were found to be occurring below 1000 m. Analysis
of short duration extreme precipitation indicated the depth duration relationship in a logarithmic form give as:

Pe = 55+162*ln(T), where Pe is the extreme precipitation (mm) and T is the duration in hour.

The recorded precipitation depth showed one hour precipitation exceeding 77 mm and 24 hour precipitation exceeding 550 mm.
Assessment of extreme precipitation probability indicated that most of the intense precipitation zones of Nepal were located
in the southern parts: mainly foothills and Sivaliks. Intense precipitation in Sivaliks also indicates high sediment transport as
Sivaliks are made of conglomerates and loose rocks. The recorded extreme annual precipitation in Nepal is as high as 5284
mm at Lumle to as low as 146 mm in Mustang. Recorded temperature within Nepal was found within the range of 46.4oC to
-45.0oC. Assessment of climatic conditions in Nepal is, however, limited not only by limited network coverage but also by limited
frequency and parameters monitored.

Introduction velopment activities to the climatic extremes has

made it an essential aspect of research and a major
Hydro-meteorological hazards triggered by weath- challenge for scientific communities regarding its
er and climatic extremes include: floods, droughts, prediction (Quevauviller, 2014).
tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, windstorm, Regarding statistics, extremities related
hailstorm, cloudburst, lightening, heat waves and to weather, climate and water are responsible for
cold waves. Some of these hazards ultimately turn ninety percent of the globally occurring disasters
into disasters affecting people’s socio-economy as (WMO, 2006). Similarly, analysis of the greatest
well as development activities. rainfall values are of particular significance in esti-
One of the major concerns related to cli- mating Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
mate change is the likely scenario of amplified in- for design of major hydraulic structures. There has
tensity and frequency of such hydro-meteorologi- been more than 200 dam failures in the world,
cal hazards, which could jeopardize investments in which are mostly linked to inadequate assessment
development activities. Intergovernmental Panel of extreme hydrometeorological events (Rakhecha
on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that extreme & Singh, 2009).
weather and climate are likely to change in terms Temperature decreases with increase in alti-
of its frequency, intensity, extent, duration and tude. With the variation of elevation from 61 me-
timing in the global warming scenarios (IPCC, tre at Budhanagar in Moran (Survey Department,
2012). Increased vulnerability of societies and de- 2012) to the Sagarmatha, the highest peak of the

CHAPTER 4 Climatic Extremities In Nepal  |  41

 world at 8848 m, Nepal provides environment eral atmospheric circulation supports persistent
for most of the possible climate of the world from subsidence (Black, 1991).
sub-tropical to alpine.
Besides atmospheric circulation and mois-
ture source, spatial pattern of precipitation is de- Background
pendent on several topography-related parameters
such as elevation, slope and orientation (Spreen, Rainfall observations have been reported in dif-
1947). Topography has the key role to play in ferent parts of the world since mid-eighteenth
producing rainfall events in the Himalayan re- century. A rainfall station established in Calcutta
gion; absence of topography would lead to dryness in 1785 by the East India Company is the first
as the region lies in a geographic belt where gen- initiation of climatic observation in South Asia.
The company was also involved in recording and
publishing precipitation from 1833 to 1840 for
Figure 1: Spatial Distribution of Annual Average Temperature in Nepal Kathmandu (Sharma, 2009). Regular climatic ob-
servations (precipitation and temperature) based
on standard practices was initiated at the British
Residency in Kathmandu from 1921. Tempera-
ture observation in other parts of Nepal was initi-
ated only in the late 1950s.
Hydrological Survey Department under
the Ministry of Canal and Electricity was estab-
lished in 1963 as an authentic organization for
monitoring hydro-meteorological information in
Nepal (Sharma, 2014). Project-based hydro-me-
teorological information remained in a scattered
manner before this period. Climatology based on
a nation-wide network is, hence, possible only on
the basis of data from late 1950s for precipitation
and from 1970s for temperature and other meteo-
rological variables.
The first network of precipitation station
Figure 2: Spatial Distribution of Average Annual Precipitation in Nepal was developed in the Koshi basin during
the late 1940s. With availability of precipitation
data for the spatial analysis of precipitation, assess-
ment of one the severest floods that occurred in
1954 on the Kohsi River was made possible (Dhar
& Narayanan, 1966).

General Climatology

Nepal lies in the central part of the Great Himala-

yas with high mountains, valleys and plains. Cli-
matology of the Himalayan region is characterized
by extreme diversity with the wettest area on earth
(highest annual precipitation amount) and a few
extremely dry areas. Similarly, the temperature
from low lands to the peaks of the world can vary
from 45oC to -45oC (Sharma, 2014).
42  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015
 Under the strong influence of monsoons, Figure 3: Self-recorded Chart of 30-31 July 1993, 19-20 July 2003 and
the annual wetness varies from wet period during 14-15 August 2014 Severe Rainstorms
the four months of southwest monsoon (June-
September) to relatively dry period during rest of
the year. The recorded extreme annual precipita-
tion in Nepal is as high as 5284 mm at Lumle to
as low as 146 mm in Mustang (Sharma, 2014).
About thirty percent of Nepal lies above
3000 m, which is an uninhabitable area due to
harsh climatic conditions. Very few settlements
are found above this level leading to inaccessibility
for proper instrumentation. Network coverage for
proper assessment of climate is hence limited in
these areas. Most of the climatic stations in Nepal
lie below 2000 m representing only sixty percent
of Nepal (Sharma & Paudel, 2008). Few stud-
ies based on scientific expedition indicate higher
monsoon precipitation within the elevation range
of 2000 m to 3000 m, decreasing upwards (Higu-
chi & Ageta, 1982; WECS/DHM, 1990).
Based on the Koppen climatic classification,
seventy percent of Nepal lies in the humid subtrop-
ical region with distinctly dry winter, temperature
of the warmest month exceeding 22oC (Sharma, (Source: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology).
(The precipitation depth in one reversal on the Tistung chart is 50 mm)
2014). Dry winter with cool summer (temperature
below 22oC) dominate in ten percent of Nepal oc-
Figure 4: Comparison of Three Severe Precipitation Events
cupied by mountainous region. Elevation between
Maximized for Different Durations
4000 m to 6000 m, which is about nineteen per-
cent of the area in Nepal, experiences polar type of
climate, frost and snow covering the remaining area
(nine percent) above 6000 m.

Extreme Temperature

Figure 1 presents the distribution of annual mean

temperature over Nepal. Spatial pattern of tempera-
ture is based on the average lapse rate of tempera-
ture, which is calculated as 5.5oC/km2, and the digi-
tal elevation model developed at 100 m resolution
(Sharma, 2014). The figure shows that the annual
temperature varies from 27oC in low lands to -21oC
in the Himalayan region. Based on this model, the
average temperature of Nepal is about 16oC. The temperature recorded at the Sagarmatha
Figure 1 indicates that not only the Terai but at -45oC is considered as the lowest temperature re-
also the mountain valleys experience relatively warm corded in Nepal. It is also the lowest temperature
temperature. As topography is the major agent con- reported in in South Asia (Sharma, 2014). The
trolling temperature, spatial pattern of temperature records available at the Department of Hydrology
significantly varies from one location to another. and Meteorology (DHM) showed that 46.4oC, re-
CHAPTER 4 Climatic Extremities In Nepal  |  43
 Table 1: Causal Factors of Selected Severe Rainstorms in Nepal and corded at Ataria (Near Dhangadi) on 16 June 1995,
Adjacent Areas is the highest temperature recorded in Nepal.
Rainstorm Causal Factor Reference
17-18 September 1880 storm that yielded about 271 km3 Re-curvature of mon- (Dhar, Rakhecha& Mandal,
of water with 24 hour precipitation exceeding 800 mm at soon depression 1975) Extreme Precipitation
Nagina about 100 km west of Nainital

23-25 August 1954 that resulted in the largest flood Monsoon break (Dhar & Narayanan, 1966) Major precipitation events causing disastrous floods
(24300 m3/s) recorded so far on the Kosi River.
are mostly associated with large-scale synoptic pro-
24-hour precipitation exceeding 360 mm on 3-5 October Tropical cyclone (Soja & Starkel, 2007) cesses. Such processes usually develop with move-
1968 that triggered thousands of landslides with deaths (Wirthmann, 2000) ment of low pressure area during monsoons, which
exceeding thousand in Darjeeling

Widespread rainfall in Utterakhanda area exceeding 333 Re-curvature of mon- (Ramaswami, 1987)
are also known as monsoon depression. Most parts
mm in two days at Almora on 27-28September 1924 soon depression to the
of India experience break in monsoon activities
storm that caused more than one thousand deaths and when the monsoon troughs move towards north
washed away more than 240,000 houses Himalayan range
crossing the foot hill of the Himalayan range. On
20-21, 1993 rainstorm, the highest recorded daily rainfall Extended localized in- (Sharma, 2006) the contrary, the Himalayan and sub-mountain re-
(539 mm) in Nepal so far causing extensive floods and stability gions receive high precipitation during such period
landslides resulting in the deaths of
(Dhar, Saman & Mulya, 1982). Some events are
30-31 July, 2003 rainstorm in Chitwan area with daily Cloudburst: local in- (Joshi, 2006)
value exceeding 446 mm. also found to be associated with the movement of
stability
tropical cyclones (Table1). Table 1 presents some
Kedernath and Mahakali disaster that occurred in 2013 Convergence of mon- (Dobhal, Gupta, Mehta& Khan-
with a rainstorm in Mandakini and Mahakalibasins.
causal factors associated with some of the severest
soon trough and west- delwal, 2013)
Twenty-four hour rainfall exceeded 325 mm at Chorabari rainstorms that occurred in Nepal.
near Kedarnath. Dipayal recorded 205 mm on 18 June. ern disturbances
Table 2 presents a list of severe rainstorm
More than 300 mm in Surkhet area that caused disasters Monsoon break observed in Nepal. The list includes the storms
related o floods on the Bheri and Babai resulting in 189 with daily precipitation exceeding 400 mm. Daily
deaths.
precipitation is obtained from the measurements of
accumulated precipitation during 24-hour period
starting 03:00 UTC (08:45 Nepal Standard Time).
Table 2. Daily Rainfall Exceeding 400 mm in Nepal Twenty-four hour extreme, however, can be higher
Location Region Elevation (m) Date Rainfall (mm) that the daily maximum; but such data are not al-
1 Tansen Middle Mountain 1067 7 September 1959 409 ways available as most of the precipitation stations
2 Anarmanibirta Terai 122 10 October 1959 473 are not equipped with self-recording system.
3 Musikot Middle mountain 2100 29 July 1960 503
Table 2 indicates that 539 mm measured at
4 Gumthang High Mountain 2000 25 August 1968 505
Tistung on 20 July 1993 was the highest daily pre-
5 Barahkshetra Foothill 146 28 July 1974 405
cipitation reported for Nepal. The precipitation on
6 Bajura Middle Mountain 1400 12 August 1980 431
20 July 1993 was also recorded by a self-recording
rain gauge established at the location (Figure 5). As
7 BeluwaGirwari Sivalik 150 29 September 1981 446
presented in Figure 3, self-recorded precipitation
8 Manebhanjyang Middle Mountain 1576 30 September 1981 420
data are also available for the second and third se-
9 Tribeni Middle Mountain 143 17 September 1984 403
verest storms of Nepal.
10 Hetauda Inner Valley 474 27 August 1990 453
Figure 4 presents the maximum depth-du-
11 Tistung Middle Mountain 1800 21 July 1993 539
ration of the three severest rainstorms derived from
12 Sindhuligadi Mahabharat 1463 21 July 1993 403
the recorded charts as given in Figure 3. Table 3
13 Patharkot Foothill 275 21 July 1993 437
provides the maximum depth-duration based on
14 Hariharpurgadhi Mahabharat 880 20 July 1993 482
Figure 4. Some of the depth-duration values are
15 Devghat Foothill 200 31 July 2003 446
compared with global maximum and the maxi-
16 Surkhet Inner Terai 720 15 August 2014 423
mum values observed in monsoon region: India
17 Chisapani, Karnali Foothill 225 15 August 2014 527
and China (Rakhecha & Singh, 2009).
(Source: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology)

44  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 The best fit equation for the data presented Table 3. Maximum Rainfall Depth-Duration Recorded in Nepal: Com-
in Table 3 can be obtained as: parison with Global and Regional Values
R = 55+162*ln(T), Duration (Hour) 1 3 6 9 12 24
where R is the maximum rainfall depth in Maximum (mm) 77 199 303 439 499 552
mm and T is the time in hour. Global Maximum (mm) 830 1087 1340 1870
Spatial pattern of 2-year and 100-year Maximum in India/China (mm) 129 610 1672
daily precipitation in Nepal is presented in Fig-
ure 5. Two-year precipitation can be considered as Figure 5: Spatial Pattern of 2-year and 100-year Daily Precipitation in Nepal
the annual average maximum daily precipitation,
whereas 100-year maximum daily precipitation
can be considered as a severe case likely to happen
only once in the life-time of most of the hydraulic
structures. The figure shows that the daily maxi-
mum precipitation exceeding 100 mm is likely to
occur in about half portion of the southern part
of Nepal. There are only a few pockets of precipi-
tation exceeding this amount in high mountain
areas. Daily maximum precipitation is less than
50 mm in Mustang and in major parts of Dolpa.
Most of the extreme precipitation events are likely
to occur in the Sivalik region or along the foothills
where several pockets with precipitation exceed-
ing 150 mm can be found (Figure 5). The figure
also indicates that the 100-year extreme daily pre-
cipitation depth exceed 300 mm in most of the
southern parts in Nepal.
The spatial patterns of extreme daily pre-
cipitation (Figure 5) is different from the annual
average precipitation (Figure 2). The comparison
between the spatial patterns of annual average pre-
cipitation and the maximum daily precipitation
indicates that the orographic and convective pre-
cipitation is more pronounced in the Sivaliks and
foothill areas compared to middle mountains.

Conclusion

Daily precipitation exceeding 100 mm was com-

mon in most of the southern part of Nepal. Ex- Analyses of short duration extreme precipi-
cept a few isolated locations, intense precipitation tation indicated the depth duration relationship in
was found to be less likely in the High Mountain a logarithmic form (Precipitation in mm = 55 +
and Himalayan areas. Most of the intense precipi- 162*ln(Duration in hour)). The recorded precipita-
tation exceeding 400 mm was recorded in areas tion depth showed one-hour precipitation exceeding
lying below 2100 m. Similarly, more than half of 77 mm and 24-hour precipitation exceeding 550 mm.
the precipitation events exceeding 400 mm were Assessment of extreme precipitation prob-
found to be occurring below 1000 m. ability indicated that most of the intense precipita-
tion zones of Nepal were located in the southern

CHAPTER 4 Climatic Extremities In Nepal  |  45

 parts: mainly foothills and the Sivaliks. Intense flows and lndslides alond Mugling-Narayanghat
road. DWIDP Bulletin 2005-2006, pp. 29-32.
precipitation in Siwaliks also indicates high sedi-
Quevauviller, P. (2014). Hydrometeorological hazards:
ment transport as Sivaliks are made of conglom- interfacing science and policy. New Jersey: Wiley-
erates and loose rocks. Blackwell.
Assessment of climatic conditions in Nepal Rakhecha, P. R. & Singh, V. P. (2009). Applied hydrometeorol-
ogy. Dordrecht: Springer.
is limited not only in terms of network coverage Ramaswami, C. (1987). Meteorological aspects of severe
but also in term of parameters monitored. Moni- floods in India. Meteorological Monograph, 1923-
toring of climatic variables, such as wind gust, 1979.
Sharma, K. (2006). Charateristics of selected severe rain-
wind direction, solar radiation, evaporation, etc
storms in the central Himalayas. In K. Sharma, & R.
are limited. On the other hand, monitoring of soil Jha, Proceedings of the Workshop on Flood Forecast-
moisture, lightening, air chemistry, air pollution, ing Management in Mountainous Areas (pp. 23-26).
etc does not exist. Since we have a better coverage Kathmandu: Department of Hydrology and Meteo-
rology.
of precipitation and temperature network over Ne-
Sharma, K. (2009). Nepalko pariprekchhama jal tatha
pal, the study is limited to the assessment of tem- mausam vijyanko itihas. In G. Pokhrel, Nepalma en-
perature and precipitation. gineering tatha engineer (pp. 83-85). Kathmandu:
Gorakha Sandesh.
Sharma, K. (2014). Spatial and temporal patterns of climatic
parameters in Nepal. In U. Khadka, Contemporary en-
References vironmental issues and methods in Nepal (pp. 38-46).
Kathmandu: Central Department of Environmental
Black, P. (1991). Watershed hydrology. Bica Raton: CRC Press LLC. Science.
Dhar, O.& Narayanan, J. (1966). A study of rainspell associated Sharma, K. (2014). Water: statistics and information. Kath-
with the unprecedented flood in the Kosi river in August mandu: Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha/Global Water Prtnership
1954. Indian Journal of Meteorology and Geophysics, 37- Nepal.
42. Sharma, K.& Paudel, D. (2008). Information for disaster
Dhar, O., Rakhecha, P.& Mandal, B. (1975). A hydrometeorological study management in Nepal: a review of precipitation and
of September 1880 rainstorm which caused the greatest rain stream gauging network . International Seminar on
depths over Northwest Utter Pradesh. Irrigation and Power, 81- Management and Mitigation of Water Induced Di-
86. sasters (pp. 76-86). Kathmandu: Department of Water
Dhar, O., Saman, M.& Mulya, S. (1982). Distribution of rainfall in the Induced Disaster Prevention.
Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan regions during ‘breaks’ in SMEC. (1994). Assesment of July 1993 floods and flood es-
monsoon. International Sysposium on Hydrological Aspects timation procedures for middle mounains region of
of Mountainous Watersheds (pp. I-22-I-26). Roorkee: Manglik Nepal. Kathmandu: Snowy Mountain Engineerin Cor-
Prakashan. poration Limied/Ministry of Water Resources.
Dobhal, D., Gupta, A. K., Mehta, M.& Khandelwal, A. (2013, July 25). Soja, R. & Starkel, L. (2007). Extreme rainfalls in Eastern Hi-
Kedarnath disaster: facts and plausible causes. Current Sci- malaya and southern slope of Meghalaya Plateau
ence. and their geomorphologic impacts. Geomorphol-
Higuchi, K., & Ageta, Y. Y. (1982). Characteristics of precipitation dur- ogy, 170-180.
ing monsoon season in high mountain areas of the Nepal Spreen, W. (1947). A determination of the effect of topogra-
Himalayas. Proceeding of the Exeter sysmposium on hy- phy upon precipitaion. American Geophysical Union
drological aspects of alpine and high mountain areas (pp. Transactions, 285-290.
21-30). Wallingford: International Association of Hydrological Survey Department. (2012). Map of Nepal, Scale 1:500,000.
Sciences. Kathmandu: Topographical Survey Branch, Survey
IPCC. (2012). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disas- Department.
ters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special Re- WECS/DHM. (1990). Methodologies for estimating hydro-
port of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental logic characteristics of ungauged locations in Nepal.
Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat and De-
D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, partment of Hydrology and Meteorology.
G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Wirthmann, A. (2000). Geomorphology of the tropics. Ber-
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, lin: Springer-Verlag.
NY, USA, 582 pp. WMO. (2006). Preventing and mitigating natural disasters.
Joshi, S. P. (2006, July). A sustainable way of controlling debris Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.

* Dr. Sharma is former Director General of Department of Hydrology and Meteorology. Now, Technical Director of ADAPT Nepal.

46  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 5

Land and Soil

Basanta Raj Adhikari, Ph.D.*

The use of land and soil is very important for human life and land is one of the most important resources in Nepal. Nepal is a
mountainous country and has multiple types of land and crops due to different climatic conditions. The barren or uncultivated land
is generally unsuitable for agriculture either of topography or its inaccessibility. Most of the agricultural lands are concentrated
in the Terai and dun valleys. Wells and tube wells are the main sources of irrigation in Terai whereas river and canal are in the
mountain and hills. The government of Nepal has amended the Land Act, 2021 B.S. focusing on land ceilings. However, new and
innovative policies should be formulated to address problems in food security and proper land use management.

Introduction and Definition Nepal government has also adopted this classifi-
cations:
Nepal has different extremes: climate ranges from • Cultivated lands: All lands under agricultural
subtropical to arctic and vegetation ranges from practices
sub tropical forests to arctic like Tundra. How- • No cultivated inclusion: These are small pock-
ever, Nepal has been divided into mainly 3 phys- ets of land close to cultivated lands: too small
iographic regions: 1. Low land (Terai); 2. Middle to be mapped at a scale of 1:50000. Although
hills; and 3. High Mountains. More than 90% of these pockets are not mapped separately from
the country’s population dependent upon the land cultivated areas, there are nevertheless mea-
for their fulfillment of the basic need. sured as a distinct land use category. They may
Land use is characterized by the arrange- contain barren areas, trees, shrubs or grass
ments, activities and inputs people undertake in • Grass lands: Large flat lands covered by grasses
a certain land cover type to produce, change or with the minimal number of other vegetation
maintain it (FAO/UNEP, 1999) (Adopted during • Forested lands: Must have at least 10% crown
the course of development of the land cover clas- cover but small pockets of plantation and
sification system, LCCS). Land use information burned areas are also included
provided the following information: • Other lands: All land areas which are not in-
• What: the purpose of activities undertaken cluded in other categories and may include rocky
• Where: the geographical location and extent areas, lakes, ponds, waterways or settlements.
of the spatial unit under consideration However, the Central Bureau of Statistics
• When: the temporal aspects of various activi- (CBS) collected information based on the fol-
ties undertaken lowing classifications: Agricultural land and non-
• How: the technologies employed agricultural land. Agricultural lands are broadly
• How much: quantitative measures classified into two categories: the crop land and
• Why: the reasons underlying the current land the ponds. Furthermore, the crop land is classi-
use fied into three categories, namely: arable lands,
Land Resources Mapping Project (LRMP, land under permanent crops and land under per-
1986) has categorized the land use as follows and manent meadows and pastures. Similarly, non-

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  47

 agricultural lands are those lands that are part of • 2021 Prepared Land Related Act
the holding the comprise woodland or forest and With the commencement of Land Reve-
all other lands. nue Act, 2034, the broad land management area is
opened such as collection of land Revenue, Land
Registration establishment of Land Revenue Of-
Government Policy of the Sector related fices. After this, the Malpot Offices were gradually
with Environment (Current plan, sector replaced by Land Revenue Offices. The Depart-
policy, rules, regulations, guidelines, etc.) ment of Land Revenue, which was working under
the Ministry of Finance, was included under the
Ministry of Land Reform and Management in
Historical Background 2044 B.S.
Nepal has a long history on land management
sector from Veidic period. The land is taken National Land Use Policy 2069 BS (2012)
as the main property of the state in the Vedas, Nepal government has formulated National land
Manusmriti, Mahabharat and Kautilya’s econom- use Policy in 2012 to improve the current land use
ics. In Lichchhabi rule, the land administration practices inside the country and to implement the
was regulated by the Gaun Panchali. The Malla different international treaty and understanding.
rule introduced the system of purchase of land, This policy is very important to implement the
land survey and land classification on the basis different targets explained by the UNHABITAT.
of productivity. Ram Shah, the king of Gurkha The vision, goal and objectives of this policy are
Kingdom, started land record maintenance system as follows:
by dividing the land type into various units like
hale, kodale, mato muri, bija, mana etc. The land Vision:
survey was started in 1930 B.S. The vision of the land use policy is to strengthen
The Mal Adda was established in 1953 the social, economic and environmental develop-
B.S. The Pota Registration Adda, which was es- ment by utilizing optimum utilization of land.
tablished in 1978 B.S carried out the functions
like, approval of written documents, namsari, Goal:
dhakhil, lagat katta, collection of land revenue, al- The main goal of the policy is to classify the land
location of budget to governmental offices and ac- according to landform, capability, usability and
count keeping. The Survey Department and the necessity. To fulfil these goals, the land use plan
Department of Land Revenue were established will be carried out within 10 years within the
respectively in 2014 B.S and 2016 B.S. The dis- country. However, the land use plan will be pre-
trict level land Revenue Offices were established pared for the Municipality, district headquarter
after the political division of the Kindgdom in and area around main roads within 5 years. The
75 districts. The significant works undertaken in land use law will be formulated within two years
land related sector after the dawn of democracy to address the land use and regulations.
are given below:
• 2009 Formulated the Commission for Land Objectives:
Reform The major objectives of this policy are as follows:
• 2012 Declared 13 term Plan on Land Refor- • To classify the land for maximum utilization
mation • To promote the conservation of land and
• 2013 Prepared Land and Land Tenancy Re- management
cords Act • To manage land division properly and pro-
• 2014 Prepared Land Related Act mote well managed urbanization
• 2016 Prepared Birta Unmulan Ain • To maintain the balance between the develop-
• 2019 Prepared Land Survey and Measure- ment and environment
ment Act • To preserve the land which are very important

48  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 by historical, cultural, religious and touristic Table 1: Land use Pattern by Type, Nepal, 1978/79-2001.
point of view 1978/79*  1985/86*  2001**  
• To prepare the land use plan accordance with S.N.  Types of Land  Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent
land use policy 1.0 Cultivated land 2969400 20.1 3052000 20.7 3090780 21.0

2.0 Non Cultivated land 986900 6.7 998000 6.8 1030390 7.0

3.0 Forest 5612400 38.1 5518000 37.4 4268200 29.0

Land Use Pattern
4.0 Shrub land 694000 4.7 706000 4.8 1560110 10.6

The land use pattern in Nepal is mostly divided in 5.0 Grass land 1755900 11.9 1745000 11.8 1766160 12.0
to seven categories namely cultivated land, non- 6.0 Other land 2729800 18.5 2729000 18.5 2619800 17.8
cultivated land, forest, shrub land, grass land, oth-
7.0 Water /Lake NA   NA   382660 2.6
er land and water/lake. The total area of cultivated
 Total 14748400 100.0 14748000 100.0 14718100 100.0
land has been increasing from 2.9694 million
hectors in 1978/79 to 3.090780 million hectors Source :
*Water and Energy Commission Secretariat( Energy Sector Synopsis Report 2010 ),
in 2001 whereas forest has been decreasing from **Department of Forest Research and Survey, 2001

5.6124 million hectors in 1978/79 to 4.2682 mil-

lion hectors in 2001 (Table 1). (3) in the Manang district (Table 2). This is due to
The population density per square km is rural-urban migration and the trend will increase
highest (4416) in Kathmandu whereas the lowest due to increasing trend of urbanization.

Table 2: Population - Land Ratio and Population Density by District, 2011

S.N. District Geographical Holdings Household Population Population Land Ratio Population Density
Area (sq.km.) (person per ha .) (person per sq.km.)

      Number Area (ha)        

1 Taplejung 3646 23444 22327.5 26509 127461 5.71 35
2 Panchthar 1241 36664 28725.5 41196 191817 6.68 155
3 Ilam 1703 57950 53394.3 64502 290254 5.44 170
4 Jhapa 1606 120538 102442.6 184552 812650 7.93 506
5 Morang 1855 126891 109943.0 213997 965370 8.78 520
6 Sunsari 1257 86650 75141.3 162407 763487 10.16 607
7 Dhankuta 891 31382 25488.7 37637 163412 6.41 183
8 Terhathum 679 19608 19102.2 22094 101577 5.32 150
9 Sankhuwasabha 3480 29983 28955.6 34624 158742 5.48 46
10 Bhojpur 1507 36832 29775.8 39419 182459 6.13 121
11 Solukhumbu 3312 21478 19116.8 23785 105886 5.54 32
12 Okhaldhunga 1074 30451 28546.9 32502 147984 5.18 138
13 Khotang 1591 40358 31349.9 42664 206312 6.58 130
14 Udayapur 2063 54919 28162.3 66557 317532 11.28 154
15 Saptari 1363 89241 73907.7 121098 639284 8.65 469
16 Siraha 1188 88527 78797.5 117962 637328 8.09 536
17 Dhanusa 1180 96006 72307.2 138249 754777 10.44 640
18 Mahottari 1002 80844 64977.2 111316 627580 9.66 626
19 Sarlahi 1259 98288 80678.4 132844 769729 9.54 611
20 Sindhuli 2491 51233 26626.3 57581 296192 11.12 119
21 Ramechhap 1546 40888 30372.4 43910 202646 6.67 131
22 Dolakha 2191 40718 26844.6 45688 186557 6.95 85
23 Sindhupalchok 2542 58998 34781.5 66688 287798 8.27 113
24 Kavrepalanchok 1396 68872 39707.3 80720 381937 9.62 274
25 Lalitpur 385 33616 9300.3 109797 468132 50.33 1,216
26 Bhaktapur 119 30631 5682.8 68636 304651 53.61 2,560
27 Kathmandu 395 51462 9595.6 436344 1744240 181.77 4,416

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  49

 S.N. District Geographical Holdings Household Population Population Land Ratio Population Density
Area (sq.km.) (person per ha .) (person per sq.km.)

      Number Area (ha)        

28 Nuwakot 1121 53984 32996.5 59215 277471 8.41 248
29 Rasuwa 1544 8504 4557.7 9778 43300 9.50 28
30 Dhading 1926 64517 35398.0 73851 336067 9.49 174
31 Makwanpur 2426 67111 31802.8 86127 420477 13.22 173
32 Rautahat 1126 79233 64834.9 106668 686722 10.59 610
33 Bara 1190 81292 56866.7 108635 687708 12.09 578
34 Parsa 1353 59496 48898.7 95536 601017 12.29 444
35 Chitawan 2218 88242 40631.6 132462 579984 14.27 261
36 Gorkha 3610 57671 31493.5 66506 271061 8.61 75
37 Lamjung 1692 33041 17265.8 42079 167724 9.71 99
38 Tanahu 1546 59233 29022.3 78309 323288 11.14 209
39 Syangja 1164 57613 29450.6 68881 289148 9.82 248
40 Kaski 2017 53268 23438.6 125673 492098 21.00 244
41 Manang 2246 993 473.6 1480 6538 13.81 3
42 Mustang 3573 2420 1374.8 3354 13452 9.78 4
43 Myagdi 2297 22480 12358.5 27762 113641 9.20 49
44 Parbat 494 28644 12598.9 35719 146590 11.64 297
45 Baglung 1784 51663 30686.6 61522 268613 8.75 151
46 Gulmi 1149 57705 40910.4 64921 280160 6.85 244
47 Palpa 1373 48830 29985.3 59291 261180 8.71 190
48 Nawalparasi 2162 101337 56125.2 128793 643508 11.47 298
49 Rupandehi 1360 104174 71188.0 163916 880196 12.36 647
50 Kapilbastu 1738 74770 64578.0 91321 571936 8.86 329
51 Arghakhanchi 1193 43422 31597.3 46835 197632 6.25 166
52 Pyuthan 1309 44423 25811.8 47730 228102 8.84 174
53 Rolpa 1879 40284 24853.3 43757 224506 9.03 119
54 Rukum 2877 37759 21375.2 41856 208567 9.76 72
55 Salyan 1462 42840 26684.8 46556 242444 9.09 166
56 Dang 2955 86623 61951.5 116415 552583 8.92 187
57 Banke 2337 61433 44120.1 94773 491313 11.14 210
58 Bardiya 2025 68063 47233.5 83176 426576 9.03 211
59 Surkhet 2451 56571 27241.3 72863 350804 12.88 143
60 Dailekh 1502 45079 21329.3 48919 261770 12.27 174
61 Jajarkot 2230 28546 16127.2 30472 171304 10.62 77
62 Dolpa 7889 6696 3733.4 7488 36700 9.83 5
63 Jumla 2531 17774 7010.9 19303 108921 15.54 43
64 Kalikot 1741 21528 14700.7 23013 136948 9.32 79
65 Mugu 3535 9174 6218.6 9619 55286 8.89 16
66 Humla 5655 8306 5232.1 9479 50858 9.72 9
67 Bajura 2188 22611 9413.1 24908 134912 14.33 62
68 Bajhang 3422 32446 11812.2 33786 195159 16.52 57
69 Achham 1680 44986 18488.6 48351 257477 13.93 153
70 Doti 2025 36840 16382.5 41440 211746 12.93 105
71 Kailali 3235 111662 66658.5 142480 775709 11.64 240
72 Kanchanpur 1610 70573 44352.9 82152 451248 10.17 280
73 Dadeldhura 1538 24797 11616.8 27045 142094 12.23 92
74 Baitadi 1519 43544 21326.7 45191 250898 11.76 165
75 Darchula 2322 22420 17378.5 24618 133274 7.67 57
NEPAL 1,47,181 3831093 2525639.2 5427302 26494504 10.49 180
Source: CBS (Population Census 2011 and National Sample Census of Agriculture 2011)

50  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Land Use Types Moreover, Land under permanent pas-
The total area of agricultural land has been in- tures crops has been decreasing from 42.4
creasing from 1.6264 million in 1961/62 to thousand hectors in 1981/82 to 29.3 thousand
2.36309 million hectors in 2011/2012. Table1 il- hectors in 2011/12. Similarly, non-agricultural
lustrates that the agricultural land has decreased land has also been increasing from 59 thousand
from 2.4977 million hectors in 2001/02 to hectors in 1961/62 to 161.91 thousand hectors
2.36309 million hectors in 2011/2012. Similarly, in 2011/2012.
arable land has been increasing from 1.5919 mil- The forest covered area in Terai region
lion hectors in 1961/61 to 2.357 million hectors has been significantly changing in every decade.
in 2001/02 whereas the area has decreased in The forest cover area has been increasing in
20011/12 with 2.162 million hectors. Dang, Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Sarlahi, Mahot-

Table 3: Land Use Type in Nepal ('000 hectares), 1961/62 - 2011/12

  1961/62 1971/72  1981/82   1991/92 2001/02  2011.12 
Agricultural land 1626.40 1592.3 2359.2 2392.9 2497.7 2363.09
Arable land 1591.90 1567.00 2287.50 2324.30 2357.00 2162.14
Land under temporary crops 1550.50 1537.10 2250.20 2284.70 2326.10 2123.17
Other arable land 41.40 29.9 37.3 39.7 30.9 38.97
Land under permanent crops 12.20 15.0 29.2 29.4 117.5 168.45

Land under permanent pastures crops 22.30 10.30 42.50 36.90 19.80 29.30

Ponds n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.9 3.5 3.20

Non-agricultural land 59.00 61.80 104.50 205.00 156.40 161.91
Woodland and forest 13.80 4.70 15.00 108.80 37.20 54.89
Other land 45.2 57.1 89.5 96.2 119.2 107.02
Total area of holding 1685.40 1654.00 2463.70 2597.40 2654.00 2522.52
  Percentage          
Agricultural land 96.5 96.3 95.8 92.1 94.1 93.7
Arable land 94.5 94.7 92.8 89.5 88.8 85.7
Land under temporary crops 92.0 92.9 91.3 88.0 87.6 84.2
Other arable land 2.5 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.5
Land under permanent crops 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.1 4.4 6.7

Land under permanent pastures crops 1.3 0.6 1.7 1.4 0.7 1.2

Ponds n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.2 0.1 0.1

Non-agricultural land 3.5 3.7 4.2 7.9 5.9 6.4
Woodland and forest 0.8 0.3 0.6 4.2 1.4 2.2
Other land 2.7 3.5 3.6 3.7 4.5 4.2
Total area of holding 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 4 : Land Use Pattern by District (area in hector)

Agricultural
S.N. District Total Forest Area Shrub Water bodies Barren land Snow Others Total
land/ grass
1 Taplejung 112256 56362 70946 405 37757 60115 27496 365337
2 Panchthar 53182 14369 54078 181 326 29 0 122165
3 Ilam 72214 31649 64595 236 2873 0 0 171567
4 Jhapa 13239 1863 141795 778 6517 0 0 164192
5 Morang 43814 6040 126955 1374 4996 0 0 183179
6 Sunsari 21304 1508 91799 6262 6861 0 0 127734
7 Dhankuta 26324 14598 47350 549 982 0 0 89803
8 Terhathum 20033 12489 34917 129 494 0 0 68062

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  51

 Agricultural
S.N. District Total Forest Area Shrub Water bodies Barren land Snow Others Total
land/ grass
9 Sankhuwasabha 159872 48476 71335 975 23723 40825 0 345206
10 Bhojpur 61448 22207 66525 552 1284 0 0 152016
11 Solukhumbu 86002 49628 67424 571 59670 50037 19509 332841
12 Okhaldhunga 32363 15592 58858 352 729 0 0 107894
13 Khotang 61039 22571 74328 931 2020 0 0 160889
14 Udayapur 109404 15766 70005 1150 6587 0 0 202912
15 Saptari 30286 82 94397 3154 8169 0 544 136632
16 Siraha 20202 679 94268 818 4201 0 0 120168
17 Dhanusa 25773 1832 83617 1300 5158 0 0 117680
18 Mahottari 24086 1602 70897 1224 4836 0 0 102645
19 Sarlahi 21786 918 100624 488 2834 0 0 126650
20 Sindhuli 136302 25708 71842 1268 8442 0 0 243562
21 Ramechhap 48477 33076 67900 620 6149 3906 0 160128
22 Dolakha 78111 41194 54778 401 16031 22913 2985 216413
23 Sindhupalchok 92955 36017 67105 162 17404 32560 2679 248882
24 Kavre 46448 29511 67492 434 750 0 0 144635
25 Lalitpur 14620 8250 15553 125 999 0 0 39547
26 Bhaktapur 583 611 5440 1 316 0 0 6951
27 Kathmandu 12680 5219 22677 69 2375 0 0 43020
28 Nuwakot 42916 23526 48412 405 2405 1352 0 119016
29 Rasuwa 47494 15667 9443 54 8983 25138 44308 151087
30 Dhading 79205 31945 66322 745 4464 6382 0 189063
31 Makwanpur 137220 22578 75529 817 5696 0 0 241840
32 Rautahat 29076 563 78805 715 3332 0 0 112491
33 Bara 37974 1394 78480 298 1997 0 0 120143
34 Parsa 73131 922 63342 181 2513 0 0 140089
35 Chitawan 132746 6230 77280 2465 3696 0 0 222417
36 Gorkha 101158 52885 62886 497 23616 119141 0 360183
37 Lamjung 87552 22328 30999 607 9116 15162 0 165764
38 Tanahu 71949 18881 60850 1004 1410 49 0 154143
39 Syangja 51214 16685 45515 707 1293 74 0 115488
40 Kaski 89087 24881 28361 1803 10417 47308 0 201857
42 Mustang 16723 23587 285 272 78241 229295 10856 359259
43 Myagdi 67898 51574 16744 330 23035 70444 0 230025
44 Parbat 26189 7756 15371 141 735 7 0 50199
45 Baglung 91505 39702 21453 391 24612 1738 0 179401
46 Gulmi 51649 26853 36524 364 3033 80 0 118503
47 Palpa 72607 23736 44332 538 70 42 141325
48 Nawalparasi 89635 15210 104672 3260 9260 25 0 222062
49 Rupandehi 19897 3989 99894 1807 9063 0 0 134650
50 Kapilbastu 60500 2232 104141 2632 3951 0 0 173456
51 Arghakhanchi 69961 19414 24292 302 865 0 0 114834
52 Pyuthan 93042 3919 24587 526 8547 0 0 130621
53 Rolpa 150095 486 16458 67 19027 0 0 186133
54 Rukum 174725 2130 12961 130 77148 23253 0 290347
55 Salyan 143786 2610 36419 526 7337 0 0 190678
56 Dang 170124 8233 106934 1727 10343 0 0 297361
57 Banke 104269 9461 71475 1923 6296 0 0 193424
58 Bardiya 99364 5300 85809 2548 4756 0 0 197777
59 Surkhet 157687 33269 48653 1899 7556 0 0 249064

52  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 Agricultural
S.N. District Total Forest Area Shrub Water bodies Barren land Snow Others Total
land/ grass
60 Dilekh 88699 20705 36341 167 8812 353 0 155077
61 Jajarkot 151306 1088 24126 489 43401 4095 0 224505
62 Dolpa 60603 3910 77 764 474881 249817 0 790052
63 Jumla 110531 1118 19819 338 98595 18566 0 248967
64 Kalikot 87165 3846 15560 0 48264 9588 0 164423
65 Mugu 87312 9387 20729 1360 139358 69568 0 327714
66 Humla 41051 21954 12584 677 112174 421759 0 610199
67 Bajura 72507 23982 31414 264 32110 63897 0 224174
68 Bajhang 92391 39713 43697 440 38826 139599 0 354666
69 Achham 99144 16967 45102 422 6219 154 0 168008
70 Doti 141848 17277 44839 311 2049 10 0 206334
71 Kailali 169708 14761 129769 2330 4715 0 0 321283
72 Kanchanpur 84420 2207 71938 1361 5680 0 0 165606
73 Dadeldhura 105937 11280 31359 212 1306 0 0 150094
74 Baitadi 72020 27751 46368 370 1229 0 0 147738
75 Darchaula 58177 31218 32902 591 30750 81568 0 235206
Total 5599760 1283231 4061631 64664 1683493 1974003 108377 14775159
The maximum forest cover area belongs to Rukum (174725 hectors) whereas the lowest belongs to Bhaktpur (583 hectors). Similarly, the maximum agricultural land belongs to Jhapa (141795 hectors)
whereas the lowest belongs to Dolpa (77 hectors) (Table 4).

Table 5: Change in Forest Covered Area in Terai Districts (Excluding Table 6: Estimated Coverage by Different Types of
Protected Areas) Wetlands in Nepal
S.N. District 1990/91 2000/01 Change % Change S.N. Wetland Types Estimated Coverage Column1
1 Jhapa 21274 21000 -274 -1.29     Area (ha. ) Percent (%)
2 Morang 45718 45184 -534 -1.17 1 Rivers 395000 48.2
3 Sunsari 21659 21365 -294 -1.36
2 Lakes 5000 0.6
4 Saptari 21054 21110 56 0.27
3 Reservoirs 1500 0.2
5 Siraha 19021 18278 -743 -3.91
4 Ponds 7277 0.9
6 Dhanusa 28876 28323 -553 -1.92
5 Marginal swamps 12500 1.5
7 Mahottari 23587 24181 594 2.52
8 Sarlahi 30037 30528 491 1.63 6 Irrigated paddy fields 398000 48.6

9 Rautahat 29472 29559 87 0.3  Total 819277 100

10 Bara 49632 49157 -475 -0.96 Source: Directorate of fisheries Development (2012)

11 Parsa 18904 18644 -260 -1.38

12 Chitawan 61677 63586 1909 3.1
13 Nawalparasi 91026 93171 2145 2.36
14 Rupandehi 27305 26524 -781 -2.86
15 Kapilbastu 64579 62211 -2368 -3.67
16 Dang 191200 194262 3062 1.6
17 Banke 113074 110820 -2254 -1.99
18 Bardiya 35491 33719 -1772 -4.99
19 Kailali 210413 205939 -4474 -2.13
20 Kanchanpur 54546 51933 -2613 -4.79
  Total 1158545 1149494 -9051 -0.78

Source: Department of Forest, 2005, ( Forest Covered Change Analysis of the Terai Districts 1990/91-2000/01)

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  53

 Figure 2: Forest Cover Changes in the Different Terai
Figure 1: Land Use Types Changes in Different Decades District between 1990/91 to 2000/01

1961/62 1971/72

1981/82 1991/92

Figure 3: Estimated Coverage by Different Types of

Wetlands in Nepal

2001/02

Land under temporary crops Other arable land Land under permanent crops
Land under permanent pastures crops Ponds Woodland and forest
Other land

54  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

tari and Saptari whereas the forest cover area has Figure 4: Soil Erosion due to Landslide along the
been decreasing in Kanchanpur, Kailali, Bardiya, Bhotekoshi River.
Banke, Kapilbastu, Rupendhi, Parsa, Bara, Dha-
nusa, Siraha, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa (Figure
2). The maximum forest cover area increased
from 61677 to 63586 hectors in one decades in
Chitwan (3.1%) whereas the maximum decreased
from 35491 to 33719 hectors in Bardiya (-4.99%)
in one decade (Table 5).
The total estimated coverage of wetland in
the country is 819277 hectors (Table 6). Rivers
and Irrigated paddy field have covered more than
96% of the wetland of country.

Land Degradation and Soil Erosion Table 7: Sediment Yield in Large Watersheds
Watersheds Watersheds Area (sq. km) Sediment Delivery (ton/ha/yr)
Land degradation is the reduction in the capacity 5770 38.0 (1)
of the land to provide ecosystem goods and ser-
5700 70.0 (6)
vices and assure its functions over a period of time Tamor
for the beneficiaries of these. Increased population 5900 80.0 (4)
pressures and excessive human expansion into dry 5770 38.0 (5)
lands during long wet periods leave an increasing 18985 21.0 (1)
number of people stranded there during dry peri-
Sunkoshi 19000 65.0 (3)
ods. Almost all types of land degradation exist in
Nepal. However, soil erosion, water logging and 19000 45.0 (4)

flooding are the major types of land degradation Bagmati 585 45.0 (6)
process. Land degradation in Nepal is mainly due 4100 18.0 (6)
to land clearance, quarrying of construction mate- Trisuli
4110 18.5 (3)
rial, urban sprawl and commercial development,
livestock including overgrazing and rural-urban Karnali 42890 21.0 (9)

migration with agricultural depletion of soil nu- Nagmati 1388 46.0 (3)
trients through poor farming practices (Figure 4). Ganges 1076000 13.5 (8)
Due to steep slopes and intense monsoon rainfall,
59280 15.0 (1)
soil erosion mainly by water is major land deg-
radation process prevalent in Nepal. Almost all 62000 27.7 (8)
Saptakosi
parts of the country are affected by soil erosion 6100 31.0 (7)
resulting sediment yield in different river basin in 59280 15.0 (5)
Nepal (Table 7). Sedimentation with high flood
34525 7.6 (1)
discharge result in abrupt river channel change
36000 16.0 (7)
which may cause complete loss of fertile farm land Arun
due to deposition of eroded material or slumping 36533 (4)
of river banks and in some cases it destroy of hu- 34525 7.6 (5)
man settlements. Every year large amount of sedi-
Reference: Impat-1779; Sherchan-1991; Schaffner-1987; Upadhaya et al. 1991; Ries-1994; Maskey and
ment is transported by river from Himalayas to Hoshy-1991; Karver-1995; Erl-1988; HPC-1989.
Source: Water and Energy Commission Secretariat/CIDA (Himalayan sediment, Issues and Guidelines, 2003)
Bay of Bangal. The maximum sediment yield is

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  55

 Table 8: Affected Land Area from Erosion Figure 5: Area of Land Made Uncultivable due to
Affected Area as % of Total Land Flooding/Soil Erosion in Different Ecological Region
S.N. Degradation Type Affected Area (million ha.) from 2001/02 to 2011/12.
Area of Nepal

1 Water erosion 6.7 45.4

2 Wind erosion 0.6 4

3 Chemical deterioration 0.3 1.7

4 Physical deterioration 0.2 1.3

Source: Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, 2008.

Table 9: Estimated Soil Erosion Rate at Selected Sites in Nepal

Area Location and Characteristics Land Use Erosion Rate (ton
/sq. km/yr.)
Siwalik Range Eastern Nepal, South aspect, sand Different land use ranging from 780 - 3680
stone foot hills forest to grazing
Far Western Nepal, South aspect a. Degraded land 2000
sand stone foot hills of Surkhet b. Degraded forest, gullied land 4000
c. Severely degraded heavily 20000
grazed forest, gullied land Figure 6: Area of Land Made Uncultivable due to
Flooding/Soil Erosion in Different Developmental
Mahabharat Lekh Central Nepal, steep slope on Meta- a. Degraded forest and 3150 - 14000
morphic and Sedimentary Rocks agriculture land Region from 2001/02 to 2011/12.
b. Gullied land 6300 - 42000
Middle Mountain Northern foot hills of Katmandu a. Degraded forest & shrub land 2700 - 4500
Valley b. Over grazed shrub land 4300
c. Severely gullied land 12500 - 57000
South of Katmandu 75 percent dense forest 800
Phewa Watershed a. Protected pasture 920
b. Overgrazed grass land 2200 - 34700
c. Gullied overgrazed grass land 2900

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (A Compendium on Environment statics 1999 Nepal)

Table 10: Area of Land Made Uncultivable due to Flooding/ Soil Erosion
by Ecological Belt and Development Region, Nepal between 2001/02
to 2011/2012 (area in ha.)
Types of Soil Degradation
Percentage
Total Affected
of affected Chemical from Tamor River which is 80 ton/hr/yr whereas
Area Area (ha) Area (ha) Soil Ero- Physical
area sion
Degrada-
Degradation minimum is in Arun River of about 7.6 ton/hr/yr
tion
(Table 7).
ECOLOGICAL BELT
Soil erosion created by rain and river in
Mountain 213931.50 3512.30 1.64 1848.60 32.10 1631.60
hilly areas, causes landslides and floods, is one
Hill 986073.20 18764.50 1.90 11679.60 414.90 6670.00
of the major problems in Nepal. However wind
Terai 1325634.50 34394.90 2.59 23643.40 1485.50 9266.00
erosion; chemical deterioration and physical de-
Total 2525639.20 56671.70 2.24 37171.60 1932.50 17567.60
terioration are also responsible factors for erosion
DEVELOPMENT REGION
in Nepal (Table 8). The maximum estimated soil
Eastern 755178.00 14789.00 1.96 8407.00 294.00 6088.00
erosion rate is very high in the Mahabharat Lekh
Central 716861.00 19841.00 2.77 13808.00 869.00 5164.00
(6300-4200 ton/sq.km/yr.) where metamorphic
Western 482547.00 8517.00 1.77 6135.00 193.00 2189.00
and sedimentary rocks are present. The lowest
Midwestern 353624.00 5214.00 1.47 3791.00 129.00 1294.00
erosion rate is in the southern part of Kathmandu
Farwestern 217430.00 8310.00 3.82 5030.00 447.00 2833.00
(800 ton/sq.km./yr.) where 75% of land is cov-
Total 2525640.00 56671.00 2.24 37171.00 1932.00 17568.00
ered by forest (Table 9).
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (National Census of Agriculture, Nepal between 2001/02 to 2011/12)

56  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Figure 7: Type of Soil by Area of Holdings and by Development Region, Nepal, 2001/02

Table 11: Area of Land made Uncultivable due to Flooding/ Soil Erosion by Ecological Belt and Development Region, Nepal
between 2001/02 to 2011/2012 (area in ha.)
Eastern Development Central Development Western Develop- Mid -Western Develop- Far-Western Develop-
Nepal
Type and Region Region ment Region ment Region ment Region
S.N. Color of Soil Area of Area of Area of Area of Area of
Area of hold- Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent to
holding holding holding holding holding
ing (ha) to total to total to total to total to total total
(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)

Soil Type                        

1 Sand 589455 25.4 198604 26.9 143885 27.1 85893 18.0 92983 25.6 68091 32.3

2 Loam 884697 38.1 273424 37.0 204719 38.5 174045 36.5 140687 38.8 91822 43.6
3 Silt 167822 7.2 53289 7.2 36094 6.8 28316 5.9 35415 9.8 14708 7.0
4 Clay 532488 22.9 171696 23.2 119527 22.5 144043 30.2 70175 19.3 27047 12.8
5 Clay Loam 145777 6.3 41692 5.6 27212 5.1 44381 9.3 23467 6.5 9025 4.3
Total 2320239 100.0 738704 100.0 531437 100.0 476678 100.0 362727 100.0 210693 100.0
Soil Color                        
1 Black 825307 35.6 263073 35.6 173058 32.6 163488 34.3 147848 40.8 77841 36.9
2 Brown 939299 40.5 330750 44.8 214421 40.3 171923 36.1 134623 37.1 87583 41.6
3 Yellow 215460 9.3 57059 7.7 55618 10.5 53487 11.2 35728 9.8 13568 6.4
4 Red 283687 12.2 74556 10.1 70311 13.2 78762 16.5 39307 10.8 20751 9.8
5 Other 56485 2.4 13266 1.8 18029 3.4 9019 1.9 5221 1.4 10951 5.2
Total 2320239 100.0 738704 100.0 531437 100.0 476678 100.0 362727 100.0 210693 100.0

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (National Sample Census of Agriculture, Nepal, 2001/02).

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  57

 Figure 8: Color of Soil by Area of Holdings and by Development Region, Nepal 2001/02

The maximum percentage of land in ferent kinds of soil are present in the country.
Terai is affected due to flooding or soil ero- Sand, loam, silt, clay and clay loam are the ma-
sion whereas mountain regions are less affected. jor types of soil. Loam soil is present throughout
(Figure 5). The land degradation is increased the country with the highest percentage (Table
significantly in one decade. This might be due 11, Figure 7) followed by sand, clay, silt and clay
to low land in the Terai and high percentage of loam. The color of soil is dissimilar in different
debris flow in the mountain. Soil degradation parts of Nepal but brown color soil is present
due to different factors in the country covers the everywhere in the highest percentage followed
area of total 566671.70 hectors. Whereas soil by black, red, yellow and others (Table 11, Fig-
erosion covers 37171.60 ha and rest are from ure 8).
chemical degradation and physical degradation
in 2001/12. Far-western developmental region
is highly affected due to soil erosion between Livestock and Poultry
2001/02 to 2011/2012 (Figure 6). It might be
due to highest no. of flood events in the past The country has different types of livestock
and numbers of landslide are present in this and poultry. However, major types are buffa-
area. Soil erosion results in huge loss of nutrients los, sheep, goats, pigs, fowls and duck. Gen-
in suspension or solution, which are removed erally, the population density of flows is very
away from on replace to another, thus causing high followed by goats, buffalos, pigs and
depletion or enrichment of nutrients. More- ducks (Table 12). The population/land of
over, subsidence of land in some areas and land- sheep and ducks has been decreasing whereas
slides in the hilly tracts are problems affecting fowls, goats, buffalos and pigs have been in-
highways, habitations and irrigation dams. Dif- creasing. This might be due to change in food

58  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 12: Livestock and Poultry Population in Arid and Semi-Arid Land
Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats Pigs Fowls Ducks
Year Population p/land* Population p/land* Population p/land* Population p/land* Population p/land* Population p/land* Population p/land*
1994/95 6837913 116 3278255 56 918885 16 5649056 96 636024 11 14063581 239 403705 10
1995/96 7008420 119 3302200 56 859000 15 5783140 98 670340 11 14521100 247 416100 11
1996/97 7024775 119 3362435 57 869582 15 5921956 101 723613 12 15576525 265 415758 11
1997/98 7048660 120 3419150 58 869142 15 6080060 103 765718 13 16664730 283 416943 11
1998/99 7030698 119 3470600 59 855159 15 6204616 105 825132 14 17796826 302 421423 11
1999/00 7023166 119 3525952 60 851913 14 6325144 107 877681 15 18619636 316 425160 11
2000/01 6982660 119 3624020 62 850170 14 6478380 110 912530 15 19790060 336 411410 11
2001/02 6978690 119 3700864 63 840141 14 6606858 112 934461 16 21370420 363 408584 11
2002/03 6953584 118 3840013 65 828286 14 6791861 115 932192 16 22260700 378 408311 11
2003/04 6966436 118 3952654 67 824187 14 6979875 119 935076 16 23023979 391 405217 10
2004/05 6994463 119 4081463 69 816727 14 7153527 122 947711 16 22790224 387 391855 10
2005/06 7002916 119 4204886 71 812085 14 7421624 126 960827 16 23221439 394 392895 10
2006/07 7044279 120 4366813 74 813621 14 7847624 133 989429 17 23924630 406 394798 10
2007/08 7090714 120 4496507 76 809480 14 8135880 138 1013359 17 24665820 419 390748 10
2008/09 7175198 122 4680486 80 802993 14 8473082 144 1044498 18 24481286 416 383123 10
2009/10 7199260 122 4836984 82 801371 14 8844172 150 1064858 18 25760373 438 379753 10
2010/11 7226050 123 4995650 85 805070 14 9186440 156 1093610 19 39530540 671 378050 10
2011/12 7244944 123 5133139 87 807267 14 9512958 162 1137489 19 NA   376916 10
2012/13 7274022 124 5241873 89 809536 14 9786354 166 1160035 20 NA   375975 10
*Arid land/semi arid land= Cultivated land, Non cultivated land and Grass land/Pasture estimated area 58873.3 sq. km NA: Not Available
Source Ministry of Agriculture Developments

Table 13: Number of Livestock by Type in Nepal, 1981/82-2011/12

S.N. Livestock type Number of Livestock (in 'ooo) Percentage change
1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12 1991/1981 2001/1991 2011/2001
1 Cattle 6501.6 7359.3 7215.2 6430.4 13.2 -2.0 -10.9
2 Chaunri 55.5 58.6 95.4 48.9 5.6 62.8 -48.8
3 Buffaloes 2379.7 3116.3 3477.7 3174.4 31.0 11.6 -8.7
4 Goats 3643.7 5515.5 6932.9 10990.1 51.4 25.7 58.5
5 Sheep 677.1 602.8 471.2 608.1 -11.0 -21.8 29.0
6 Pigs 433.6 495.8 632.6 818.5 14.3 27.6 29.4
7 Horses NA 14.3 20.1 17.9 0.0 40.6 -11.1
8 Mules and asses 27.5 5.3 6 5.5 -80.7 13.2 -9.0
9 Rabbits NA NA 10.1 24.2 0.0 0.0 140.0
10 Other animals 36.8 7.3 5.9 17.1 -80.2 -19.2 189.6
11 Chickens 7368.6 12333.1 17631 26267.8 67.4 43.0 49.0
12 Ducks 142.3 280.3 393.1 429.9 97.0 40.2 9.4
13 Pigeons 830.7 1419.9 1845.2 1498.9 70.9 30.0 -18.8
14 Other poultry 20.4 9.2 57.3 52.1 -54.9 522.8 -9.1
  Total 22117.5 31217.7 38794 50383.8 41.1 24.3 29.9

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (Monograph Agriculture Census Nepal,2001/02) , National Report Of National sample census of Agriculture 2011/12

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  59

 Figure 9: Livestock and Poultry Population in Arid and Semi-Arid Land

60  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Figure 10: Livestock and Poultry Population in Arid and Semi-Arid Land

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  61

 Table 14: Irrigated Land by Source of Irrigation, 2011/12
Area Total Area Irrigated Area Source of Irrigation
(ha) (ha)

      River/Lake/Pond Dam/reservoir Tubewell/boring Others Mixed

      By gravity Pumping        

ECOLOGICAL BELT                

Mountain 213.9 58.4 53.4 1.0 1.6 0.0 2.2 0.2

Hill 986.1 270.3 210.5 4.9 24.1 1.5 27.3 2.0

Terai 1325.6 984.8 250.2 107.0 182.5 390.4 26.2 28.4

Total 2525.6 1313.4 514.1 113.0 208.1 391.8 55.7 30.7

DEVELOPMENT REGION                

Eastern 755.2 394.4 181.1 18.3 41.6 132.0 15.8 5.7

Central 716.9 429.5 127.0 53.6 74.5 139.8 15.9 18.6

Western 482.5 209.8 83.3 28.7 21.4 57.3 14.8 4.3

Mid-western 353.6 152.5 56.6 6.5 55.5 27.1 6.2 0.7

Far-western 217.4 127.3 66.1 6.0 15.1 35.6 3.0 1.5

Total 2525.6 1313.5 514.1 113.0 208.1 391.8 55.7 30.7

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (National Censuses of Agriculture, 2011/12) (number is in ,000)

Figure 11: Irrigated Land by Source of Irrigation, 2011/12

habit and lifestyle (Figure 9). Moreover, the
data shows that the number of mules and asses
have been decreasing whereas others domestic
animals have been increasing (Figure 10, Table
13) in four decades.

Irrigation
Nepal has more than 6000 rivers, which pro-
vide a dense network of rivers with steep topo-
graphic conditions. The major four river sys-
tems viz the Mahakali, Karnali, Narayani and
Saptakoshi, all predate the uplift of the main
Himalayan range and cut through the moun-
tain range to form deep river valley which
drain from north to south towards the Ganges.
Similarly, rivers originating from the Siwalik
are shallow in depth and mostly dry up during
the dry season. These rivers are used by small-
scale farmer-managed irrigation schemes for
seasonal supplementary. Moreover, groundwa-
ter is the major water source irrigation in Ne-
pal. The hydro-geological mapping indicates
that the Terai has a tremendous potential of

62  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 15: Area under Permanent Crops
Compact area ('000 in ha.)
Permanent Crop
1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12 % Increase 2001-2011
Orange 0.60 2.40 3.20 5.96 86.3
Lemon 0.40 0.40 0.62 0.39 -37.0
Lime 0.40 0.20 0.29 0.21 -29.8
Junar - - - 0.20 na
Sweet Oranges 0.10 - 0.23 0.11 -51.2
Other Citrus fruit 0.20 0.40 0.34 0.40 17.3
Mangoes 5.20 15.20 18.48 17.95 -2.9
Bananas 4.00 2.10 3.14 4.90 56.1
Guavas 1.10 0.40 0.48 0.39 -18.8
Jackfruit 1.80 0.60 0.68 0.43 -35.9
Pineapples 0.40 0.20 0.23 0.28 21.6
Lychees 0.10 0.30 0.78 1.38 77.7
Pears 0.20 0.10 0.35 0.25 -29.1
Apples NA 0.60 1.38 1.71 24.0
Plums / Peach NA 0.10 0.45 0.15 -65.7
Papayas 0.70 0.10 0.30 0.19 -38.2
Pomegranate - 0.10 0.09 0.04 -50.2
Coconut - - - 0.09 na
Walnut - - - 0.18 na
Betel Nut - - - 1.78 na
Other fruit 14.00 2.70 1.70 0.67 -60.7
Tea NA 3.50 6.20 5.19 -16.3
Coffee - - - 0.41 na
Black Caramon - - - 14.28 na
Thatch NA 66.40 67.60 78.99 16.8
Fodder Tree NA 2.50 7.30 9.35 28.1
Bamboo NA 6.00 6.30 7.23 14.8
Multiyear grass crops - - - 2.49 na
Broom Grass (Amrisho) - - - 12.86 na
NA: not applicable
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (National Censuses of Agriculture) 2011/12

Table 16: Area under Selected Temporary Crops

Crop Area ('000 Ha)

S.N. Selected Crops 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12

1 Paddy 1394 3252 3423 1456

2 Wheat 389 633 794 749

3 Maize 523 769 769 674

4 Millet 154 302 251 201

5 Barley 28 46 39 26

6 Buckwheat 11 16 21 13

7 Other Cereals NA 5 5 4

8 Legumes 335 340 379 298

9 Tubers 86 79 93 111

10 Cash Crops 86 63 61 68

11 Oilseeds 224 260 214 186

12 Spices 58 29 41 44

13 Vegetables 17 40 60 84
14 Temp. Grass Crops NA NA NA 9
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (National Sample Censuses of Agriculture, Nepal)

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  63

 Figure 12: Irrigated Land by Source of Irrigation

Figure 13: Area under Selected Temporary Crops between 191/82 to 2011/12

64  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

groundwater resources with a thick sequences Table 17: Pesticides Registered in Nepal
of saturated detrital sediments of alluvial and Number of Trade Name
colluvial origin. Different ecological zone has S.N. Pesticide 1997* 2002+ 2003+ 2004+ 2009 2010 2013
different types of irrigation system. Terai re- 1 Insecticides 46 207 213 213 210 391 613
gion has better irrigation system and has cov- 2 Herbicides (Weedicides) 9 22 23 23 24 63 120
ered large percentage of irrigation than moun- 3 Fungicides 17 71 71 71 62 170 304
tain and hill (Figure 11). Similarly, the eastern 4 Acaricides 1 2 2 2 − − 12
region has large area of land followed by cen- 5 Rodenticides   8 8 8 9 7 18

tral, western, mid-western and far-western but 6 Bio- Pesticides − − − − 13 16 23

the ratio is similar in every development region 7 Bactericides           4 7

(Figure 12). 8 Molluscicide             1

The total land area under irrigation has 9 Others 5 2 2 2 8 − −

gradually increased proportionally and physi- Total 78 312 319 319 326 651 1098

cally since 1981/82. The irrigated lands are in *Nepal Gazette vol.47, No. (1997) + updated Registration list of the Pesticide
Source: Pesticide Registration and management section
different development zones. However, the ir-
rigated lands in mountain and hills have been
decreasing since 2001/02 (Figure 13). Terai Table 18: List of Banned Pesticides in Nepal
belt has the highest proportion of irrigated S.N. Name of Pesticide S.N. Name of Pesticides
land with irrigation relative to the total land 1 Chlordane 9 BHC
irrigation within the belt in 2011/12 at 52.5% 2 DDT 10 Lindane
compared with the mountain belt of 8.5 % hill 3 Dieldrin 11 Phosphamidon
belt with 39% of the land by source of irriga- 4 Endrin 12 Orano mercury fungicides
tion. The well/boring is dominant source of 5 Aldrin 13 Methyl parathion
irrigation in the Terai while canal and river/ 6 Heptachlor 14 Monocrotophos
lake/pond are dominant in mountain and hill. 7 Toxafen 15 Endosulphan*
The permanent crop yields have in- 8 Mirex    
creased slightly in Nepal over the past 30 years. Persistent Organic Pollutant; Deregistered in 2069/7/20, grace period sell and use till 2071/7/19 B.S;
Most of the increases might have been due to Source: Pesticide Registration and Management section

development of crop varieties which respond

to fertilizers. The production of orange, ba- Pesticides and Fertilizer
nanas, pineapples, lichees, fooder trees, bam-
boo are significantly increased from 2001/02 The uses of chemical fertilizers in the cultivation
to 2011/12 whereas Lemon, lime, guvas, jack- pattern and the users of pesticides by crop grow-
fruit plums, papayas and tea have decreased ers have been started since 1981/82. People are
significantly with one decade. using different kinds of pesticides in their farm-
The paddy is reduced more than 50% ing system. There are nine pesticides registered
from 2001/02 to 2011/12 followed by millet, namely; insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,
barley, buckwheat, legumes, oilseeds whereas acaricides, rodonticides, bio-presticides, bacteri-
turbers, spices and vegetable have been increas- cides, molluscicide and others and the number
ing in this decade (Table 16). The decrease in is increasing day by day (Table 17).
production might be due to rural-urban mi- There is a regulatory infrastructure es-
gration, migration aboard for labor and poor tablished for the management of pesticides in
economic returns and climate change. This Nepal. It covers all handling and using aspects
has created the problems of soil erosion and of pesticides. No pesticide may be imported
the destruction and disturbances to wild life into the country without the appropriate cer-
habitats. tificate of importation issued by registration

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  65

 Table 19: Pesticide Imported and Formulated in Nepal, 2006-2012
Quantity of Pesticides Imported

2004 2005 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12

Kinds of Formulations Formulations Formulations Formulations Formulations Formulations Formulation Formulation

S.N.
Pesticide Total Total Total Total Total Total
Total Active Total Active
Active In- Active In- Active In- Active In- Active In- Active In-
Ingredients Ingredients
Liquid Solid gredients Liquid Solid Liquid Solid gredients Liquid Solid Liquid Solid gredients Liquid Solid gredients Liquid Solid gredients Liquid Solid gredients
(kg.) (kg.)
(Ltr.) (kg.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (kg.) (Ltr.) (kg.) (kg.)

1 Insecticides 55827 186754 43994 92948 180164 65113.57 85649 99460 46553.25 94234 165768 60282.42 99095.4 179051 105814.6 132278 181192 61615.8 220632 308343 96115.325 221059 326074 114717.714

1.1 Organochlorine 9922 0 2473 8846 0 3096 23470 0 8214.5 31560 0 11046 32582.6 0 11403.9 31485 0 11019.8 40059 280 14031.85 29820 0 10437

66  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Orga-
1.2 3354 134880 26912 40060 90270 25401 32654 70200 24682.6 15905 94749 17709.05 16415.5 95745 65838.2 42884 10765 23280.3 71925 17595 40148.42 96603 39360 60497.48
no-phospates

1.3 Carbamates 25 450 183.24 20 2550 1007.9 36 2780 115.4 25 7545 321.05 205.6 7654 1100.34 650 31363 1344.15 669 48233 2127.95 971.5 85800 2847.97

Synthetic
1.4 33440 13727 3146.8 39083 76310 31050 22269 6626 2640.43 21852 20063 4592.66 22581.8 19941 7228.88 40634 19600 5255.65 72498 15300 9313.615 50000 3137.7 6101.7771
Pyrethroids

Botanical
1.5 1680 0 16.8 420 0 4.2 2875 0 4.31 1430 0 2.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
products

Mixed
1.6 3380 180 1235 3259 0 1147 4155 200 2290.35 10593 200 3625.25 13529.9 1276 6736.68 13760 0 7284.3 32053 450 16463.24 35515 130 18069.04
Insecticides

1.7 Others 4026 37517 10027 1260 11034 3407.47 190 19654 8605.66 12870 43211 22986.26 13780 54435 13506.6 2865 119464 13431.6 3428 226485 14030.25 8150 197646 16764.447

2 Herbicides 4480 11000 6386.4 11240 15850 11030 11470 0 5701.7 12523 7308 6574.05 20195.2 11956 11124.3 37452 5111 15683.1 88160 20738 46696 108478 7871.2 53476.66

3 Fungicides 1015 148817 97036 210 73290 47702 4970 103848 74368.45 5900 326005 237372.2 86874.5 324018 203392 5575 176790 129567 4590 258016 183893.02 6536 226901 166815.43

4 Rodenticides 0 3152 1135 0 4048 1457 0 2260 1808 70503 43600 37297.75 0 38617.2 31086.9 0 3085 2468 0 8310 5528.07 0 24360 8183.1066

5 Bio-Pesticides 7.2 422 4.29 0 3040 30.4 0 3850 57.58 0 3810 57.12 129.8 4293.81 30.08 2099 5134 82.08 2997 4229 78.26 7230 9823 121.687

6 Acaricides 1516 0 864.12 418 0 77.33 1290 0 238.65 5612 0 2458.06 5511 0 2080.4 220 0 38 3170 0 1085.25 7910 0 1424.1

7 Bactericides 400 0 12 0 460 13.8 0 0 0 250 0 750 45.9 20.49 6.64 0 250 25 0 16 1.6 0 0 0

8 Others 19588 4897 3244.2 0 18633 2469 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2000 120

Agricultural 82833 355042 152676 104816 295485 127893.1 103379 209418 128727.63 189022 546490 344791.6 211852 557957 353534.92 177624 371562 209478.98 319549 599652 333397.53 351213 597029 344858.698
Pesticides

Pesticides used in 0 28125 1406.3 0 66000 3377.33 0 25568 2556.8 0 27030 2703 0 28110 2811 0 32000 1600 0 45520 2276 995 1100 174
Public Health

Grand Total 82833 383167 154082 104816 361485 131270.43 103379 234986 131284.43 189022 573520 347494.6 211852 586067 356345.92 177624 403562 211078.98 319549 645172 335673.53 352208 598129 345032.698

Source: Pesticide Registration and Management section

Table 20: Chemical Fertilizer Use in Nepal, 1990/00 to 2012/2013
Government Sector Private Sector Total Fertilizer Nutrient mt / Cultivated
Year Land ha*100
Urea DAP Potash Complex
1999/00 43508 26154 308   76727 146697 4.75
2000/01 29528 15633 58   101145 146364 4.74
2001/02 17697 20645 1016   101140 140498 4.55
2002/03 34449 33331 2966   103636 174382 5.64
2003/04 7428 11377 1688   118265 138758 4.49
2004/05 10043 19436 2332   90895 122706 3.97
2005/06 1960 10857 478   78258 91553 2.96
2006/07 14985 7437 NA   65679 88101 2.85
1999/00 43508 26154 308   76727 146697 4.75
2000/01 29528 15633 58   101145 146364 4.74
2001/02 17697 20645 1016   101140 140498 4.55
2002/03 34449 33331 2966   103636 174382 5.64
2003/04 7428 11377 1688   118265 138758 4.49
2004/05 10043 19436 2332   90895 122706 3.97
2005/06 1960 10857 478   78258 91553 2.96
2006/07 14985 7437 − 2747 65679 90848 2.94
2007/08 2500 1990 − 2156 47107 53753 1.74
2008/09 5935 − − 1198 5677 12810 0.41
2009/10 5049 2523 236 2521 NA − −
2010/11 85190 22001 2821 − NA − −
2011/12 91500 20000 − − NA − −
2012/13 140000 40000 5000 − NA − −

Note: The cultivated land (3090780) based on Department of Forest Research and Survey, 2001.
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and Agriculture Inputs Company Ltd.

Table 21: Farm Population 1991/92-2011/12

Census year
Discription
1991/92 2001/02 2011/12
Total household***** 3328721 4253220 5427302
Total holding 2736050 3364139 3831093
Percentage of holding 82 79.1 70.6
Total Population*****      
Male 9220974 11563921 12849041
Female 9270123 11587502 13645463
Total 18491097 23151423 26494504
Sex ratio 99.5 99.8 94.2
Farm population      
Male 8496843 10267646 10317681
Female 7761377 9544003 10234862
Total 16258220 19811649 20552543
Percentage of the total population
Male 52.3 51.8 50.2
Female 47.7 48.2 49.8
Total 87.9 85.6 77.6
Sex ratio of farm population 109.5 107.6 100.8
Average size of farm household 5.9 5.9 5.4
*****Population census
Source: CBS

CHAPTER 5  Land and Soil  |  67

 authority. Nepal government has banned the fol- source management priorities, action plans and
lowing pesticides in the country (Table 18). policies are scattered in different ministries and in-
The total active pesticides ingredients im- stitutions. Information flow is often irregular and
ported and formulated between 2006 to 2012 ad hoc. Systematic and integrated land manage-
have been drastically increased from 128727.63 ment and soil fertility management policies should
kgs to 344858.7 kgs. Which is 38% increase of be simplified and harmonized. The agricultural
the original pesticides (Table 19). practices are changing day by day and therefore,
There has been an increasing trend of usage the government should consider the specific prob-
of chemical fertilizers in the cultivation of impor- lems of rainfed agriculture and sustainable use of
tant crops in Nepal since 80’s. Chemical fertilizers fragmented land to overcome the food scarcity
are distributing by both from governmental and and climate change. Land use planning should
private sectors. Urea, DAP, Potash and complex be based on international standard and the hu-
are distributed by the government. man resources should be strengthened through
different programs. The government should allo-
cate budget for such kinds of activities. Policy and
Conclusion and Recommendation plans should be developed in a co-ordinated way
involving all the concern stakeholders.
Land use planning and management is a major
challenge in a country like Nepal where land re-

* Dr. Adhikari is Assistant Professor of Pulchok Engineering College, T.U.

68  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 6

Water
Narayan P. Chaulagain, Ph.D.*

Water is essential for all living beings in the world. Out of the total water available in the earth, only about 3% is fresh water and
the rest 97% is stored in the seas and ocean as saline water. Nepal has more than 6000 rivers flowing from mountains to hills
and plains. The rivers of Nepal are typically classified into three types depending on their source and discharge. The first one is
the large river which originates from Himalayas. It consists of snowmelt component and maintain significant reliable dry season
flows. The second category of river is medium type which originates in the midlands or the Mahabharat range. The third type of
rivers originates from Siwalik range. These rivers are seasonal with little or no flow during the dry season, and cannot be used
for year-round irrigation or hydropower generation without surface storage. There are around 5,000 lakes; 1,380 reservoirs; and
5,183 village ponds in Nepal. Likewise, there are about 3,808 glaciers with a total area of 4,212 sq km and 1466 glacial lakes
with an area of 64.75 sq km in Nepal. About 20 glacial lakes have been identified as dangerous ones with the potential risk of
glacial lake outburst floods. Uneven distribution of water spatially and seasonally; growing demand of water due to population
growth, urbanization, migration and increased living standards; poorly planned physical infrastructures causing disruption to
the sources of water as well as to the water course; lack of integrated water resources management policies and practices;
lack of coordination among the institutions involved in different sub-sectors of water; lack of proper institutional and regulatory
framework for sustainable and integrated water resources development in Nepal are some of the issues prevalent in the water
resources sector of Nepal. Besides, climate change has created an additional but new set of issues and challenges for all the
sub-sectors of water resources like hydropower, irrigation, drinking water supply, sanitation, water related industries, fisheries
and tourism. The majority of the glaciers in the Himalayan region of Nepal are retreating so rapidly that even without any further
warming; most of them may disappear by the end of this century. This may result in decreased melt-water contribution to total
water availability, particularly during dry seasons. The hydropower and irrigation sector, which are already under stress during
non-monsoon seasons, might be badly affected.

Introduction agricultural and industrial use without proper

treatment. Out of the available freshwater, about
Water is essential for all living creatures including 68.7% is stored in icecaps and glaciers, about
for human being. It is estimated that around 1.4 30.1% as ground water, 0.3% as surface water and
billion cubic kilometres of water is available in the 0.9% in other forms. The surface water is largely
world in different forms and places (Subba, 2001). available in lakes (87%), and in swamps (11%).
Out of the total water available in the earth only Only about 2% of the available surface water is
about 3% is freshwater and the rest 97% is stored found in rivers. These figures tell us how little per-
in the seas and ocean as saline water. Apart from centage of the global water is readily available for
the fresh water, saline water is generally not suit- us to use compared to the total available global
able for municipal (i.e. drinking, washing etc.), water resources (Table 1)

CHAPTER 6  Water | 69
 Nepal has more than 6000 rivers flowing ally characterized by a wide seasonal fluctuation
from mountains to hills and plains. Nepal’s rivers of flows with the monthly flows generally reach-
are typically classified into three types depending ing their maximum in July-August and declining
on their source and discharge. The first ones are to their minimum in February-March. The rivers
the large rivers which originate in the Himalayas, with smaller catchment area generally have wider
they consist of snowmelt component and main- flow fluctuations around the year.
tain significant reliable dry season flows. Depend-
ing upon the source and discharge, the large rivers
originating from the Himalayas, which maintain Government Policy of the Sector related
their flow even during the dry seasons, consist with Environment
of snowmelt component are the first type. Such
as Mahakali, Karnali, Gandaki and Kosi Rivers. The policiy/ies, acts, rules and regulations play an
These rivers are perennial and offer promising wa- important role in determining the development,
ter sources for irrigation and hydropower develop- ownership and management mechanism of avail-
ment even during the lean period (WECS, 2011). able water resources; as well as in framing the social,
The medium types which originate in the mid- economic and institutional aspects of water gov-
lands or the Mahabharat range belong to the sec- ernance and development. The provisions for the
ond category. Babai, West Rapti, Bagmati, Kama- institutional arrangements and the limitations on
la, Kankai and Mechi Rivers belong to this type, the water sector affect how water resources are used,
which are fed by precipitation as well as groundwa- developed and managed. Nepal at this moment
ter regeneration including springs. Though these does not have a single institution or ministry deal-
rivers are perennial in nature, they are commonly ing with the entire water resources. The different
characterized by a wide seasonal fluctuation in dis- sub-sectors of water resources are being dealt with
charge. The seasonal rivers that originate from the by various agencies under different ministries, e.g.
Siwalik range fall in the third category. As there is irrigation sector under the Ministry of Irrigation;
little or no flow during the dry season, these riv- hydropower sector (generally large hydro) under
ers cannot be used for year-round irrigation or the Ministry of Energy; micro hydropower sector
hydropower generation without surface storage under the Ministry of Science, Technology and
(WECS, 2011). The rivers of Nepal are gener- Environment; drinking water supply sector under
Table 1: Estimated Global Water Distribution the Ministry of Urban Development, the Minis-
try of Federal Affairs and Local Development etc.
Water source Water volume, in Percentage of Percentage of
cubic kilometers freshwater, % total water, % Therefore, due to the fragmented mandates under
Oceans, Seas, & Bays 1,338,000,000 -- 96.5 different ministries, agencies and departments; the
Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow 24,064,000 68.7 1.74 coordination and cooperation for integrated water
Ground water 23,400,000 -- 1.69 resources management and development has be-
    Fresh 10,530,000 30.1   0.76 come a serious bottleneck for Nepal.
    Saline 12,870,000 --   0.93 Water Resource Act 1992 (2049 BS) is the
Soil Moisture 16,500 0.05 0.001 umbrella Act governing water resource manage-
Ground Ice & Permafrost 300,000 0.86 0.022
ment. It declares the order of priority of water use
Lakes 176,400 -- 0.013
(drinking, irrigation, water related enterprises and
    Fresh 91,000 0.26 0.007
hydropower); vests the state ownership of water;
provides basis for the formation of water user as-
    Saline 85,400 -- 0.006
sociations; and establishes a system of licensing
Atmosphere 12,900 0.04 0.001
and prohibits water pollution. Likewise, Water Re-
Swamp Water 11,470 0.03 0.0008
source Regulation 1993 (2050 BS) is the umbrella
Rivers 2,120 0.006 0.0002
Regulation governing water resource management
Biological Water 1,120 0.003 0.0001
formed based on the Water Resources Act 1992.
Source: Shikhlomanov, 1993

70  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

The regulation sets out the procedure to register a Policies related to Drinking Water
Water User Associations and to obtain a license; es-
tablishes the District Water Resource Committee; Nepal Water Supply Corporation Act 1989 (2046
sets out the rights and obligations of Water User BS) establishes the Nepal Water Supply Corpora-
Associations and license holders; and deals with the tion as the perpetual, autonomous government
land acquisition and compensation issues. controlled corporation responsible for the supply
Water Resources Strategy 2002 (WRS) has of drinking water; and prohibits certain acts and
its goal of meeting water supply needs and achiev- provides penalties/punishment for violation of the
ing long-term sustainability. This strategy provides Act. Drinking Water Regulation 1998 (2055 BS)
a systematic framework for the development of regulates the use of drinking water; provides the
water resources and identifies action plans to avoid basis for the formation of Drinking Water User
and resolve conflicts, and to achieve water-related Associations and sets out the procedure for reg-
development objectives for Nepal (WECS, 2002). istration; deals with licensing related to drinking
National Water Plan 2005 (NWP) recognizes the water; deals with the control of water pollution
broad objectives of the WRS and lays down short- and maintenance of quality standards for drinking
medium- and long-term action plans for the water water; sets out the conditions of service utilization
resources sector, including investments and human by consumers; and provides provision for the ac-
resource development. The NWP attempts to ad- quisition of house and land, and compensation.
dress environmental concerns, which is reflected by
the incorporation of the Environmental Manage-
ment Plan in the document. This Environmental Polices related to Irrigation
Management Plan will contribute to maximizing
positive impact and minimizing or mitigating ad- Irrigation Regulation 2000 (2056 BS) deals with
verse impacts in line with the environment sustain- Irrigation Water User Associations and the transfer
ability concerns (WECS, 2005). of projects to Irrigation. Water User Associations
Environment Protection Act 1996 (2053 provides a mechanism for the joint management
BS) and Environment Protection Regulation system by the government and Irrigation Water
1997(2054 BS) require certain persons or bodies User Association. It deals with the Irrigation and
to conduct an environmental impact assessment River Control Committee sets out the conditions
or initial environmental examination of water of service utilisation sets out the obligations of
resources projects; deals with the prevention and user for the irrigation and provides provision for
control of water pollution; and list the water relat- service charges; and deals with the protection, re-
ed projects required to conduct an Environmental pair and maintenance of irrigation systems.
Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmen-
tal Examination (IEE).
Local Self Governance Act 1999 (2055 Policies related to Hydropower
BS) and Local Self Governance Regulation
1999 (2055 BS) have established a decentralised Hydropower Development Policy 1992 and 2001
governance structure. They set out the powers, facilitates the supply of electricity as per the de-
functions and duties of the village development mands of the people in urban and rural areas
committee (VDC), municipality and district de- through the development of the high potential-
velopment committee (DDC) in relation to water ity of the water resources that exists in the coun-
and sanitation, set out which natural resources are try; encourages the development of hydropower
assets of local bodies and empower local bodies to to meet the energy required for the industrial
levy a natural resource tax; and establish the proce- development in the country; and motivates the
dure for the formulation of water related plan and national and foreign private sector investment for
project implementation. the development of hydropower. The objectives

CHAPTER 6  Water | 71
 of Hydropower Development Policy 2001 are to 67.3% to 87%; irrigation facilities from 1.3 mil-
generate electricity at low cost by utilizing the wa- lion ha to 1.5 million ha of irrigable land. The
ter resources available in the country; to extend Plan has the following objectives related to water
reliable and qualitative electric service throughout sector for the set period:
the country at a reasonable price; to tie-up elec- l To provide the basic services of drinking water

trification with the economic activities; to render and sanitation facilities to all population
support to the development of rural economy l To increase access to reliable and quality elec-

by extending the rural electrification; and to de- tricity service to general public by encouraging
velop hydropower as an exportable commodity the hydropower generation
(MoWR, 2001). l To emphasize the promotion and develop-

Water Resources Strategy 2002 provides a ment of micro hydropower in the areas not
systematic framework for hydropower develop- yet connected with central grid of electricity as
ment and identifying action plans to avoid and well as to reduce the dependency of traditional
resolve conflicts, and achieve the hydropower- and imported energy
related development objectives of Nepal for meet- l To assist the development of agricultural sec-
ing its hydropower needs and achieving long-term tor by multipurpose and sustainable develop-
sustainability (WECS, 2002). National Water ment of irrigation sector through appropriate
Plan 2005 (NWP) recognizes the broad objectives use of water resources available in the country
of the WRS related to hydropower development
and lays down short-, medium- and long-term
action plans for the hydropower sector, including Water Resources in Nepal: Data and
investments and human resources development Information
(WECS, 2005). Electricity Act 1992 (2049 BS)
and Electricity Regulation 1993 (2050 BS) gov- General Information on Water Resources of Nepal
ern the use of water for hydropower production; There are more than 6000 rivers in Nepal. There
establish a system of licensing; set out the powers, are 33 rivers having their drainage areas exceeding
functions and duties of a licence holder; provide 1000 sq km (WECS, 2011).Total drainage area
certain financial incentives for licence holders; and of all the rivers in Nepal is about 194,471 sq km
set out the powers of the government. out which 147,181 sq km lies in Nepal and rest in
China and India. The annual average discharge of
the Nepalese rivers is about 7124 cubic metre per
Thirteenth Three Year Plan (2013-2016) second including the total basin area and about
on Water Sector 5479 cubic metre per second excluding the area
outside Nepal (CBS, 2013).
The ongoing Thirteenth Three Year Plan (2013-
2016) has defined its long-term vision as to up- Rivers and Lakes in Nepal
grade Nepal from a least developed to a developing Rivers of Nepal can be broadly classified into three
country by 2022; its objective as to bring a direct types, in accordance to their origins. The first cat-
positive change in the living standards of the gen- egory comprises of the four major river systems
eral public by reducing the economic and human of the country, namely Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali
poverty prevalent in the nation; and its main goal and Mahakali originating from glaciers and snow-
is to reduce the proportion of the population liv- fed lakes. These rivers are perennial and have good
ing below the poverty line to 18 percent (NPC, potential for irrigation and hydropower develop-
2014). Increase access to drinking water from ment. The medium sized rivers, which originate
85% to 96.25%; access to sanitation from 62% to from the mid-hills or the Mahabharat range, such
90.5%; grid connected electricity generation from as Babai, West Rapti, Bagmati, Kamala, Kankai
758 MW to 1426 MW; access to electricity from and Mechi belong to the second type. These riv-

72  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

ers are fed by precipitation as well as groundwater Table 2: River Water Runoff from Nepal
regeneration (including springs). Though these Length Drainage Area (sq km) Estimated Runoff (m3/sec)
rivers are perennial in nature, they are common- S.N. River (km) Total Nepal From all Basins From Nepal
ly characterized by a wider seasonal variation in 1 Mahakali 223 15260 5410 698 247
flows. Besides the large and medium categories of 2 Karnali 507 44000 41890 1441 1371
the rivers, there are also a large number of small 3 Babai 190 3400 3400 103 103
rivers in Nepal, mostly in the Terai, which gener- 4 West Rapti 257 6500 6500 224 224
ally originate in the Siwalik range and are seasonal 5 Narayani 332 34960 28090 1753 1409
with little or no flow during the dry season mak- 6 Bagmati 163 3700 3700 178 178
ing them unsuitable for year-round irrigation or 7 SaptaKoshi 513 60400 31940 1658 878
hydropower generation without seasonal storage. 8 Kankai 108 1330 1330 68 68
The rivers of this category cause flash floods dur-
9 Other rivers   24921 24921 1001 1001
ing monsoon rains and remain with very little or
Total 194471 147181 7124 5479
no flow during the dry season.The surface water
Source: CBS, 2013
available in the country is estimated to be about
225 billion cubic metres per annum, equivalent to
an average flow of 7,124 cubic metres per second
Table 3: Major Lakes in Nepal
(m3/s) (Table 2).
Name Elevation, masl Area, sq km Max depth, m Volume, 106 m3
Physiographic characteristics and climatic
factors affect the distribution of river flows spa- Rara 3060 8.00 167

tially and seasonally (CBS, 1998). The amount of Phewa 742 4.10 20 30.5
available water resources has been unevenly dis- Phoksundo 3620 4.94 145 409.0
tributed in space and time in Nepal. About 78% Begnas 650 3.28 10 29.0
of the average flow in Nepal is available in four
Jagadishpur 197 2.25 - -
major river basins, 9 % in the medium basins and
Gosaikunda 4397 0.12 18 0.8
13% in the smaller southern rivers of the Terai.
Ghodaghodi 205 0.59 - -
The southern slopes of the Mahabharat range,
the Himalayan range and the eastern two-third of Gajedi 4.50 - -

Nepal receive the highest amount of precipitation Gokyo 4700 0.43 43 -

and there is relatively higher contribution of flows Rupa 1.35 6 3.3
of the rivers within the catchments of these areas. Maipokhari 1910 0.90 - -
About 74 % of the total annual surface flow oc-
Tilicho 4917 3.54 - -
curs in four months of June – September (WECS,
2011). Source: modified after JVS/GWP Nepal, 2014

There are around 5,000 lakes; 1,380 reser-

voirs; and 5,183 village ponds in Nepal. Likewise, and/or retreating processes of a glacier. All lakes
there are 163 wetlands in the Terai, and 79 in the in contact with or near a glacier, or formed by re-
hills and mountains (NTNC, 2009). There are cent glacial morphological activities are referred
about 132 lakes with the individual surface area of to as glacial lakes (Mool et. al, 2001). Generally,
more than 10 sq km covering a total area of about the area higher than 5,000 metres above sea level
80 sq km (JVS/GWP Nepal, 2014). There are 12 (masl) in Nepal Himalayas is mostly covered by
major lakes in Nepal with a total area of 34 sq km snow and ice throughout the year. The glaciers
(Table 3). and glacial lakes are the sources of the headwaters
A glacial lake is defined as a water body of many great rivers in Nepal. Most of the glacial
with a sufficient amount of water and extending lakes are located in the down valleys close to the
with a free surface in, under, beside and/or in front glaciers. They are formed by the accumulation of
of a glacier. It is originated by glacier activities large amount of water from the melting of snow

CHAPTER 6  Water | 73
 and ice cover and by blockage of end-moraines size and rapid growth in area; if there is an increase
at the glacier terminus due to the recent retreat- in lake-water level; if there is an activity of supra-
ing processes of glaciers. The sudden break of a glacial lakes at different times. The position of the
moraine may discharge the large volumes of water lakes in relation to moraines and associated gla-
and debris causing devastating floods commonly cier; supporting dam condition; glacier condition;
known as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF). and physical conditions of surroundings also de-
Mool et al (2001) had earlier reported that fine the GLOF risk level of the glacial lakes. Based
there were about 3252 glaciers with a surface area on these criteria, 20 glacial lakes are considered as
of 5324 sq km and an ice reserve of 481.32 cu. km potentially dangerous of GLOF (Table 4)
in Nepal. Similarly, there were 2323 glacial lakes a Some glacial lakes in Nepal have been rela-
total surface area 75.64 sq km based on the same tively known and better studied because of their
inventory (Table 4). Recent study carried out in potential threats of GLOF, past GLOF records
2009 has revealed that there are 1466 glacial lakes or some other reasons, e.g. Lower Barun, Imja,
with an area of 64.75 sq km in Nepal (Ives et al., Tsho Rolpa, Thulagi, Dig Tsho, Tam Pokhari etc.
2010). The level of risks of GLOF of these glacial (Table 5)
lakes was defined critical, if they have large lake
Ground Water Potential in Nepal
Table 4: Summary of Glaciers, Glacial Lakes, and Lakes identified as The groundwater of Nepal is being used for do-
Potentially Dangerous in Nepal mestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. The
River basin Glaciers Glacial Lakes hydro-geological mapping indicates that the Terai
Number Area (sq. Ice reserves Number Area Potentially region has a good potential of groundwater re-
km) (cu. km) (sq. km) dangerous sources. The Terai, with a thick layer of saturated
Koshi River 779 1410 152.06 1062 25.09 16 sediments of alluvial origin, is one of the most pro-
Gandaki River 1025 2030 191.39 338 12.5 4 ductive aquifers in the South Asian sub-continent
Karnali River 1361 1740 127.81 907 37.67 0 (UNEP, 2001). The erosion of the Siwalik hills
87 143 10.06 16 0.38 0
and the outwash fans of rivers form the northern-
Mahakali River
most Bhabar region. The aquifers consisting of
Total 3252 5324 481.32 2323 75.64 20
coarse sediments materials are unconfined and
Source: after Mool et al, 2001 have a very high permeability in the range of 100-
150 metre per day (m/d). The Chure/Bhabar re-
Table 5: Famous Glacial Lakes in Nepal Himalayas gion is considered as the main source of recharge
Description Lower Imja Tsho Rolpa Thulagi Dig Thso Tam for the Terai groundwater. Groundwater recharge
Barun Pokhari at some specific areas is estimated to be as high as
Latitude 27° 48’ N 27° 59’ N 27° 50’ N 28 ° 30’ N 27° 52’ N 27° 44’ N 600 mm per annum; however, on an average 450
Longitude 87 ° 07’ E 86 ° 56’ E 86 ° 28’ E 84 ° 30’ E 86 ° 35’ E 86 ° 15’ E mm can be considered as a recoverable recharge
Altitude (m) 4570 5000 4580 4146 4365 4432 figure for all of the Terai area. Inner Terai areas
Depth (m)             such as Chitwan, Dang and Surkhet are also con-
Average 50 47 55.1 41.8 20 45 sidered as regions with good groundwater poten-
Maximum 118 99 131 81     tial. The groundwater of the Kathmandu Valley is
Length (km) 1.25 1.3 3.2 2 1.21 1.15 under immense pressure as it is being heavily used
Width (km) 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.45 0.44 0.5 for drinking as well as for other activities, resulting
Area (sq. km) 0.78 0.6 1.39 0.76 0.5 0.47 in a decline of its water level (WECS, 2005).
Average water It is estimated that the Terai region has a
28 28 76.6 31.8 10 21.25
(106 x m3) groundwater recharge potential of about 6.5 billion
Approximate age
35 45 45 45 50 45
cubic m in the Terai and about 3.1 billion cubic
( year)
m in Chure /Bhavar making a total of 9.6 billion
Source: ICIMOD, 2007

74  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

cubic m (JVS/GWP Nepal, 2014). About 0.8 bil- tural sector is largely dependent on the monsoon
lion cubic m of groundwater is annually being used rains due to lack of adequate modern irrigation
for irrigation / industrial purpose and about 0.3 facilities. Agriculture is the largest consumer of
billion cubic m of groundwater is being used for water use in Nepal, which uses about 96% of the
drinking purpose. With this, the current average total annual water use (ADB/ICIMOD, 2006).
groundwater withdrawal is about 1.1 billion cubic Nepal has about 2.6 million ha (18% of total area
m per year. The aquifers in the Terai and Bhavar of Nepal) of cultivable area and about 1.8 mil-
region, which consist of sediments of alluvial origin, lion ha (12% of total area of Nepal and 67% of
are very much appropriate for water accumulation cultivable area) of the land has potential for irri-
beneath the surface area (UNEP, 2001). gation (NPC, 2014). As of June 2014, about 1.3
million ha (76% of the potential) of Nepal’s ag-
ricultural land has been irrigated but only about
Water Utilization in Nepal 36% of which (i.e. 0.8 million ha) has the year
round irrigation services, out of which 0.5 million
The requirements for water in Nepal do not vary ha through surface irrigation schemes and 0.3 mil-
much from those in other countries. However, the lion ha through groundwater schemes (JVS/GWP
amount and type of water-use may vary according Nepal, 2014).
to the level of economic development, living stan- Irrigation is the largest water use sub-sector
dards of the people, industrial activities, climate, affecting the life of many people involved in agri-
religious/traditional practices etc. Generally, water culture. Irrigation has been given due importance
is being used for drinking and personal hygiene, in annual plans/programmes and five year nation-
agriculture, religious activities, industrial produc- al development plans. Given the importance of ir-
tion, hydropower generation, and recreational rigation and large investments already made and
activities such as navigating, rafting, swimming, planned for the future, the effectiveness of water
and fishing. Over the time, the requirements for delivery and its ultimate sustainability are of major
water in Nepal in these activities have increased concern. In the future, it is necessary to increase
due to population growth, industrial/economic the irrigated area by constructing new schemes and
developments, urbanisation and improved living at the same time to increase the efficiency, cover-
standards. There is an intense pressure on the wa- age area, cropping intensity as well as recovery of
ter resources being used in Nepal due to the lim- operation and maintenance costs of the existing
ited availability of water in time and space with irrigation schemes. Two types of activities would
respect to demand. Urbanisation caused by natu- be needed to continue side by side for irrigation
ral growth and migration is another factor that has development, firstly modernization of the already
put additional pressure not only on water supply constructed irrigation schemes and secondly con-
but also on management of municipal solid waste struction of new schemes to provide irrigation to
and industrial effluents (UNEP, 2001). With in- more agricultural sectors. Most of the schemes in
crease in additional pressure on water supply, the Nepal are supply oriented with main objective
total annual withdrawal of water is also increasing of distributing irrigation water to the maximum
in order to meet the additional requirements. The number of farmers. The design capacity of the ca-
ADB/ICIMOD (2006) has reported that the total nals is not enough for intensive irrigation. There
annual withdrawal has increased from 14.0 cubic has been a tendency to overestimate the available
km in 1995 to 18.5 cubic km in 2001, whereas water in the source and to include more command
the total available renewable annual water resource area due to the social pressure. The problem is fur-
in Nepal is 224 cubic km. ther augmented by seepage losses and reduced ca-
nal capacity due to sedimentation.
Irrigation
Irrigation is a fundamental infrastructure for agri- Drinking Water
cultural development of Nepal. So far, the agricul- The urban population in Nepal is growing faster

CHAPTER 6  Water | 75
 than the overall population. Both the percentage Water supply needs should be guaranteed for sus-
of population being served by drinking water con- tained industrial growth. Big industries depend
nections and the total connections are increasing. largely on groundwater extraction through deep
With an increase in population, the total water de- tube wells and such water-use needs to be regulated
mand per year has also increased. Nevertheless, the through licensing and effectively monitored. The
per capita consumption of piped water of munici- industrial wastes and waste-water need to be prop-
pal drinking water system has decreased because erly treated before discharging them into water-
of scarcity of water in supply system. This has put bodies. Establishment of bottling plants for spring
a pressure on groundwater extraction, especially in water from pristine mountain springs for export
Kathmandu Valley. Another striking feature of the as well as domestic uses needs to be expanded and
drinking water supply system in the urban areas encouraged by providing a legal base and proper in-
of Nepal is the large percentage of unaccounted centives. Himalayan spring water has exotic value
water as ‘leakage’, which accounts for about 40% and Nepal should take advantage of it.
of the total supply (UNEP, 2001). Water supply Water has significant religious and cultural
system seems to be one of the most critical sec- value. Important religious and cultural sites are
tors having very serious issues in Nepal. As of June located next to water bodies like rivers or lakes.
2013, about 86% of the population had access to Hence, these water bodies should be protected
basic services of drinking water supply and about and maintained in good condition, which will not
11% of country’s population had access to safe only respect the sentiments of local residents but
drinking water supply services. Likewise, about also encourage tourism in the form of pilgrimage
62% of the population had access to basic sanitary and at the same time protect the religious and
services as of June 2013 (NPC, 2014). cultural values of the country. Water tourism in
the form of white water rafting and kayaking is
Hydropower attracting domestic as well as foreign enthusiasts.
The estimated theoretical hydropower potential of The Himalayan rivers are becoming popular for
Nepal is 83,000 MW, out of which 114 projects such adventure tourism and provide employ-
with a combined capacity of 45,610 MW have ment for many private companies and individu-
been identified as economically feasible ones. The als through white water rafting. There are several
Integrated Nepal Power System (INPS) is primar- rivers that are popular for white-water rafting and
ily managed by the Nepal ElectricityAuthority kayaking such as Bhote Koshi, Trishuli, Marsy-
(NEA). At present, the NEA has a total installed angdi, Kaligandaki and Karnali. The total num-
electricity generation capacityof about 746 MW ber of white water rafting and kayaking tourists at
(MoF, 2014). Besides, there are hundreds of mini present is estimated at 40,000 annually and is ex-
and micro hydropower plants as well as improved pected to grow (WECS, 2005). While developing
water mills in the hills and mountains of Nepal, water projects, due consideration should be given
which are providing electricity and mechanical to avoid adverse effects on water tourism.
power of about 26 MW for lighting, small en- Commercial fishery has a great potential
terprises and agro processing to the households in Nepal, as the potential area of fishing covers
in isolated mountains, valleys and hills yet-to-be an area of around 800,000 ha at present in the
connected to the national electricity grid system form of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, marginal swamps,
(NPC, 2013). irrigated paddy fields and ponds. Though small-
time fishing by traditional fishermen is an age-old
Industrial Use, Tourism, Fisheries and Navigational Uses tradition, fish culture was popularized by the gov-
In the present context, growing use of water in ho- ernment with foreign assistance only after planned
tel, carpet, brick, agro-based and other large water- interventions in the early1980s (WECS, 2005).
consuming industries as well as the increased waste- The per capita production of fish was below 100
water produced by these industries is a big concern. grams (gm) before the Government’s intervention,
and reached over1,400 gm in 2000/01. The con-

76  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

tribution of fisheries to agriculture GDP (AGDP) ditions; and these in turn are influenced by physical
reached 2.02% of current price and the share of and anthropogenic activities. In Nepal, there is still
fishery in national GDP at current price reached a need for comprehensive water resources policy.
0.81%. In terms of quantity, it was estimated that Nepal lacks an integrated river basin planning and
Nepal produced around 32,000 metric tons of fish management system and a scientific water pricing
in 1999/2000 (WECS, 2005). At the same time, and cost recovery mechanism. There is good po-
the fish-eating habit of Nepalese people has been tential of water transportation –navigation. The is-
increasing since the mid-1980s, and, therefore, the sues related to water sector might have micro- and
fish export, which peaked at 1,000 metric tons an- macro-economic implications for the country.
nually in the early period of the Aquaculture De- There are information and database re-
velopment Project, has diminished considerably lated issues in the water sector, e.g. inadequate
and the import of fish has picked up. Fisheries in hydro-meteorological network; inadequate fund-
Nepal consist of aquaculture and open water fish- ing for management of existing network; inad-
ery (capture fishery). Aquaculture is considered equate flood forecasting and warning systems;
the fastest-growing fish production system and lack of regulatory mechanism in hydrogeology
Nepal has achieved considerable production of and geo-seismology sectors; inadequate geo-seis-
fish and has great potential to increase the produc- mic data and information. There are also some
tion to meet the challenges of food security as well international issues in this sector like, compli-
as to generate employment through aquaculture. ance with the provisions stipulated in Koshi and
Nepal so far has very limited water transport Gandak agreements; formulation of general legal
except small boats being used for crossing rivers and framework for development of trans-boundary
entertainment in some of the lakes. Identified stor- rivers; absence of mechanism for institutional-
age dams on rivers such as the Koshi, Gandaki and ized cooperation between riparian countries.
Karnali could open up navigational waterways in Environmental issues also become very criti-
the hills of Nepal. The total length of navigational cal in the development of water resources sector,
waterways in the Koshi basin could be around 400 e.g. lack of environmental database and mapping;
km; in the Gandaki basin around 400 km and in weak integration of environmental considerations
the Karnali basin around 250 km (WECS, 2005). into planning of water resources developments;
However, commercial inland waterways in dams poor implementation and enforcement of environ-
and reservoirs are prone to several risks, including mental impact assessment (EIA) and strategic en-
volume of traffic. It could also be quite complicated vironmental assessment (SEA) norms and recom-
in designing water locks and associated manage- mendations; bio-diversity conservation; surface and
ment problems during large draw-down effects due groundwater pollution; lowering of groundwater
to dam-water releases for other purposes. tables; lack of environmental awareness; landslides,
erosion, sedimentation, glacial lake outburst flood
(GLOF), flooding; watershed conservation, etc.
Issues and Challenges related to Water Sector Institutional issues have also been not less
critical in the water sector, e.g. absence of an ef-
Issues related to water include both quantity and fective central planning organization; unclear
quality of the resource and relate to human health (sometimes overlapping) responsibilities between
standards. Normally, a person requires 2.5 litres of policy, implementation, operational and regula-
water per day for their basic physiological processes tory institutions; absence of an institutional
(UNEP, 2001). Besides, water is also required for framework for coordinated and integrated water
domestic hygiene such as washing, bathing, clean- resources development; jurisdictional overlaps
ing, and so on. Any changes in water quality are re- and the challenge of maintaining coordination
flected in its physical, biological, and chemical con- between public and local bodies.

CHAPTER 6  Water | 77
 Water Supply and Sanitation Issues tains, water leakage and drainage problems have
In drinking water supply and sanitation sector, caused damages to the physiography of the ter-
there are several issues like, lack of adequate plan- rain causing soil erosion in the hills and siltation
ning, design and construction of water supply and problems in the Terai (ADB/ICIMOD, 2006).
sanitation projects; lack of appropriate approach Increased use of agro-chemicals together with ir-
towards rural water supply system; improper man- rigation water has further degraded the quality of
agement of water supply systems of Kathmandu soil, the groundwater and surface water.
Valley and other urban centres; and lack of wa- A large number of the households in the
ter quality standards for drinking water (WECS, Terai are being affected by arsenic contamination
2005). Similarly, lack of coordination among the in groundwater. In the Terai, groundwater pumped
different agencies; inadequate repair and main- for drinking purposes is also used for irrigation. Use
tenance as well timely improvement of the op- of arsenic contaminated water not only affects crops
erational schemes due to unavailability of enough but also results in the accumulation of arsenic in
budget and finance; drying up of the sources of top soil, which may again be harmful. Arsenic con-
water (e.g. springs, spouts, streams, rivers ) due to taminated soils are a major source of contamina-
deforestation, landslides, human activities or cli- tion in the food chain through plant uptake, animal
mate changes are some of other issues encountered consumption and water supplies. The issues, such
in drinking water supply sector. as lack of enough resources for operation, repair
and maintenance; inadequate irrigation tariff; in-
Irrigation Issues adequate institutional strengthening and capacity
The present focus for the development of irriga- building; and poor coordination has hindered the
tion in Nepal has been to promote quick yield- pace of irrigation development in Nepal. Likewise,
ing small irrigation systems. Despite considerable land acquisition, sustainability of handed over ir-
investments in infrastructure development and a rigation projects, multiple use of water of the irriga-
well-trained cadre of technicians for the design, tion project are some of the challenges faced by the
development, operation and management; the irrigation sector in Nepal (NPC, 2014).
public sector irrigation schemes have been per-
forming below expectations. The irrigation ef- Hydropower Development Issues
ficiency is around 30%; the crop productivity is The capital investment cost of developing hydro-
stagnant or declining; and the problem of system power projects in Nepal has been a quite high so far.
management still remains an issue. The issues can Therefore, it is still a challenge to produce sufficient
be summarized as (WECS, 2005; NPC, 2014): hydropower at cheaper cost and make it available at
• Poor performance of irrigation systems an affordable price to meet the growing demand for
• Farmers’ dependency syndromes and sustain- different economic sectors such as agriculture, in-
ability dustry, transport, domestic and others. As the hy-
• Problems of river management dropower development is a high investment propo-
• Weak institutional capability sition, there is a need of mobilizing the private and
• Weak relationship between agriculture and ir- public sector financing in order to meet the future
rigation demand for hydropower. National capabilities are
• Not adequately strong Water Users Associa- yet to be strengthened to produce cheaper hydro
tions (WUAs) energy (WECS, 2005). Similarly, there are some
Without adequately conserving the water- legal issues for the development of hydropower
shed, the use of dynamite during the construction such as, non-specificity of water rights and owner-
of contour canals along the hill slopes has caused ship; lack of sub-ordinate enabling legislation; lack
slope instability, rock falls, landmass movements of harmony among related legislation; lack of ad-
and canal damage, which ultimately has disturbed equate legal provisions to encourage private sector
the natural state of the habitat. With the increased participation in multipurpose projects etc.
network of canal systems in the hills and moun-

78  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Water Quality celerated melting of glaciers, formation of glacial
lakes in the mountain valleys and expansion of ex-
Water quality refers to the suitability of the water isting glacial lakes in Nepal Himalayas. This has
to sustain living organisms and other uses such as resulted in increased risks of glacial lake outburst
drinking, bathing, washing, irrigation, and indus- floods creating threats to people, property, infra-
try. The rising demand for water by the population structures, livestock and ecosystem not only in the
has put pressure on the quality of water. The quality mountains but also far downstream in the hills and
of water sources at both surface and groundwater is plains. Studies have suggested that glacial lake out-
being degraded. The quality of water is deteriorated burst floods in the Himalayas have occurred more
by inflow of pollutants including industrial waste, frequently during the last fifty years (Mool et al,
solid waste, domestic waste water, man-made natu- 2010). Accelerated melting of snow and glaciers
ral disasters, increased use of agro-chemicals, change in the Himalayas has adversely affected the water
in land-use etc (UNEP, 2001). storage capacity of the mountains. Decreased melt
Not all the houses, even in the cities of Nepal water contribution to the river flows particularly
are connected to a waste water system. Many peo- during non-monsoon season has negative impact
ple, even in urban areas, defecate on open ground, on run-of-river hydropower, irrigation and even
often along the banks of rivers and streams. There municipal water supply (Chaulagain, 2015).
is no sewerage network system in the country’s ru- The time series studies on glacier and snow
ral region or in many of the municipalities in Ne- show that majority of glaciers in Nepal Himalayas
pal. Increasingly, pit latrines are being introduced, have retreated in the range of 30 to 60 m in the past
particularly in rural areas and some people have and while some smaller glaciers have begun to dis-
constructed septic tanks. Even so, much domestic appear. The most studied glaciers of Nepal (Glacier
waste water percolates directly into the groundwa- AX010 in Shorong Himal, Yala Glacier in Langtang
ter or flows as runoff into local streams. Likewise, Valley, Rikha Samba Glacier in Hidden Valley and
most of the domestic sewers discharge directly into Khumbu Glacier in Khumbu region) are retreating
rivers without treatment. Such practices resulted in and thinning. Such retreats are helping to expand
the contamination of the water. the existing glacial lakes such as the most studied
glacial lakes of Nepal such as Imja, Tsho Rolpa
and Thulagi Glacial Lakes. The ongoing climatic
Water Resources under Climate Change: changes and projected future changes are likely to
Current Scenarios and Future Projection have severe impact on water resources. It also in-
creases the risk of the sudden flooding following
Currently, about 10% of total precipitation in glacial lake outbursts. The water induced disasters
Nepal falls as snow (UNEP, 2001). About 23% in Nepal are increasing in terms of magnitudes as
of Nepal’s total areas lie above the permanent well frequency (MoEST, 2012). MoEST (2012)
snowline of 5000 m (MOPE, 2004). Presently, has revealed that the likely changes in the river
about 3.6% of Nepal’s total areas are covered by flows in the future vary widely from river to river;
glaciers (Mool et al.2001). There are about 3,808 the rain-fed rivers might have shown a decreasing
glaciers with a total area of 4,212 sq km in Ne- trend during lean seasons and an increasing trend
pal Himalayas (ICIMOD, 2011), which provide during rainy season; and magnitude of the change
perennial flows for major river systems in Nepal. would be relatively higher than the snow-glacier fed
The contribution of snow and glacier melt water rivers. Trend of the annual discharge of three major
to the flows of these rivers, particularly during dry River basins Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali indicated
season is substantial. The average temperature in a decreasing trend. Early shift of the hydrographs
Nepal is increasing and increasing faster in higher might be possible which might impact on the nor-
altitudes than in the lower ones, resulting in ac- mal water withdrawal pattern of the river.

CHAPTER 6  Water | 79
 Reduced Water Availability total annual surface water. However, the snow and
glacier-melt contribution is significant (up to 34%)
Increased temperature will not only affect the an- during April-May (Chaulagain, 2015).
nual glacier mass balance, but also will change pre-
cipitation pattern, i.e. more rainfall and less snow-
fall. Rainfall, unlike snowfall, will not be stored in Reduced Hydropower Generation
the mountains, but will immediately be drained
out from the basin resulting in less ground water Flood waters and river flows during monsoon sea-
recharge upstream and more floods downstream sons have a relatively less meaning for hydropower
during the monsoon. generation in the Nepalese context where majority
Majority of the glaciers in Nepal Hima- of the hydropower plants are of the run-of-river
layas are retreating at the rate is higher than the type. As the glacier-melt water initially increases
glaciers elsewhere in the world, though the rate of with increase in temperature and hydropower po-
retreat varies from glacier to glacier. A sensitivity tential generally increases accordingly as it largely
analysis of all the glaciers in Nepal Himalayas was depends on the lean season flows. Nepal’s hydro-
done by using glacier mass balance model origi- power generation generally follows the pattern of
nally developed by Y. Ageta (Kadota and Ageta, dry season flows (Chaulagain, 2007). Over 90%
1992; Naito et al, 2001) for the glacier AX010 in of Nepal’s existing hydropower plants are the run-
the eastern Himalayas and by applying the same off river type which are generally designed based
empirical equation for the 24 glaciers in the Lang- on the dry season flows. These power plants have
tang Himalayas of the central Nepal. The analysis been already facing the problem of water short-
has shown that many of the glaciers in Nepal Hi- ages during dry seasons and generating only about
malayas will disappear by the end of this century, 30% of the total installed capacity in dry months.
if melting of the glaciers continue at the present The problem will be further exacerbated during
rate. Likewise, the analysis has revealed that the dry season by the reduced snow and glacier-melt
current ice reserve of 481 cubic km in Nepal Hi- contribution in the future (Chaulagain, 2015).
malayas will come down to 0.6 cubic km by 2100, The anticipated future adverse impact
if the temperature will increase by 0.03 degree C on the electricity generation of the hydropower
per year (Chaulagain, 2015). Such an accelerated plants largely depends on the rate of temperature
decrease of ice reserve in Nepal Himalayas may re- increase. Initially, the electricity generation poten-
sult in the decrease of melt water contribution to tial may increase with the rise in temperature and
the annual river flows. then gradually goes down. The higher the rate of
Water-supplies stored in glaciers and snow temperature increase in the future, the earlier the
cover are projected to decline in the course of the peak of the electricity generation potential of the
century, thus reducing water availability during hydropower plant will arrive. However, the elec-
warm and dry periods (Bates et al, 2008). The tricity generation may also depend on the rain-
glacier-melt water contribution will initially rise fed contribution, which is adversely affected due
with the rise in temperature and ultimately will to changed precipitation pattern (i.e. too much
go down after the contributing glaciers disappear of rainfall during monsoon and too little during
(IPCC, 2007). Decreasing glacier-melt water and non-monsoon seasons). Out of the total avail-
disappearance of glaciers will ultimately change the able energy in 2012, only less than 1% was from
hydrograph of the river system. The snow- and gla- thermal sources and about 80% was from domes-
cier-fed rivers will be converted into rain-fed ones. tic hydropower plants (NEA, 2013). Because of
The monsoon stream-flows including flood wa- the insufficient river flows during dry season, the
ter will further increase and the dry season stream existing hydropower plants could generate just
flows will further decrease. Currently, the snow and around 30% of the total installed capacity of the
glacier-melt contributes to about 13% of Nepal’s hydropower plants. Any decrease in the river flows

80  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

during dry season due to the decreased glacier ice contributes to 35% of GDP (MoF, 2013). The
reserve and decreased flows of the rain-fed rivers small landholdings, subsistence farmers and the
as projected, will further deteriorate the electricity poorest of the poor will face the biggest adverse
generation situation. impact of reduced agriculture production due to
reduced water availability, which ultimately may
lead to the famine (Chaulagain, 2015).
Adverse Impacts on Irrigation and
Agriculture
Increased Risks of Water-induced Extreme
Increased temperature will result in increased Events
evapo-transpiration leading to increased irrigation
water demand, and decreased river flows. Studies The shrinkage and disappearance of mountain
have suggested that glacier-fed perennial rivers will glaciers may result in changes in the flow charac-
be converted into rain-fed seasonal rivers after the teristics of glacier- fed rivers and changes in flood
glaciers disappear. The ratio of maximum to mini- severity and frequency (Kaltenborn et al, 2010).
mum flows of rain-fed rivers is substantially higher Glaciers in Nepal Himalayas have been thinning
than that of snow-fed rivers indicating a possible and retreating at rates of 10 m to 60 m per year
future re-distribution of water among months af- and many small glaciers with surface area of less
ter glacier-fed rivers will become the rain-fed ones. than 0.2 sq km have already disappeared (Bajra-
Furthermore, increased temperatures will widen charya et al., 2007). Upward shifts in the eleva-
the gaps between the water supply and demand tion of a terminus as great as 100 m have been
for irrigation. A water balance analysis of Bagmati recorded during the past 50 years and retreat rates
river basin at Kathmandu Valley has shown that of 30 m per year are common in Nepal Himalayas
a one-degree rise in annual temperature may in- (Malone, 2010). Increased melt of snow and gla-
crease the water demand by 3.7% and reduce the ciers in Nepal Himalayas has resulted in formation
annual river flow by 1.5% simultaneously (Chaul- of glacial lakes and expansion of existing ones in
again, 2007). the mountain valleys (Ives et al, 2010).
Due to monsoon dominated flow pattern, Higher temperature increases the likeli-
the Kathmandu valley in Bagmati river basin has hood of precipitation falling as rain rather than
already been facing water shortage during non- snow (IPCC, 2007), which can result in increased
monsoon seasons though there is surplus water likelihoods of floods during rainy season and de-
during monsoon. The increase in temperature creased river flows during dry season. Chaulagain
will further worsen the situation of too much wa- (2009) has revealed that decrease in snow cover
ter during rainy season and too little during dry areas exponentially increases the ratio of maxi-
seasons. Increase in frequency of climate extremes mum-to-minimum stream-flows (i.e. increased
may lower crop yields (Tubiello et al, 2007). In- maximum flows and decreased minimum flows
creased evapo-transpiration and increased soil simultaneously) in Nepalese rivers. Moreover, in-
moisture deficit due to increased temperature can creased melting of snow and ice including perma-
have significant adverse impacts on agriculture frost can induce an erodible state in the mountain
production and food security. Water availability soil which was previously non-erodible. This has
is a key component of food security as the avail- increased likelihoods of landslides in the moun-
ability of water supplies is the single most impor- tains. Because of warming, snowmelt begins ear-
tant factor in food production (McGuigan, 2002). lier and winter becomes shorter, which ultimately
Changes in glacier melt, along with other changes affects river regimes, natural hazards, water sup-
in high-altitude hydrology, will affect agricultural plies, infrastructures and people’s livelihoods (Ji-
production (Malone, 2010). Nepal’s agriculture anchu et al, 2007).

CHAPTER 6  Water | 81
 Adverse Socio-Economic Consequences further exacerbate the existing water stress particu-
larly during dry season (Chaulagain, 2015).
Increase in evaporation, reduction in snow cover, Currently, Nepal’s annual renewable water
and fluctuations in precipitation are key factors availability is 7656 cubic m per person, which is well
contributing to the degradation of mountain above the global average water availability of 6000
ecosystems. While too little water leads to vul- cubic m per capita per year and the water stress level
nerability of production, too much water can of 1700 cubic m per capita per year (FAO, 2007).
also have adverse effects on crop productivity. The analysis of different scenarios of future temper-
Heavy precipitation events, excessive soil mois- ature increase and the United Nations population
ture and flooding disrupt food production and projection have revealed that the annual renewable
rural livelihoods (Bates et al, 2008). Changes in water availability in Nepal even in 2100 AD will be
glacier regimes and runoff from snow and ice, above the critical line of water stress (Chaulagain,
combined with changes in precipitation timing 2015). However, the water stress is already a com-
and intensity, increase human vulnerability and mon phenomenon during non-monsoon seasons
affect agriculture, forestry, health conditions and and in many regions within Nepal.
tourism (Kaltenborn et al, 2010). Decreased The impact of water scarcity is unevenly
snow cover due to warming can result in direct distributed among the sectors and income levels.
adverse impacts on tourism. Rayamajhi (2012) Water scarcity is an issue of poverty. Unclean wa-
has revealed that absence of snow on mountain ter and lack of sanitation are the major water issue
caps degrade the aesthetic view of the mountains for poor people. Water scarcity for poor people
and divert the tourists to other destinations. In- is not only about droughts or rivers running dry
creased risks of avalanches and glacier lake out- but it is also about guaranteeing the fair and safe
burst floods in the mountains due to accelerated access, they need to sustain their lives and liveli-
melting of snow and glaciers can adversely affect hoods (FAO, 2007). Decreased runoff will make
the tourist arrival in the mountains. it harder to improve access to safe drinking water,
Water infrastructure, usage patterns and which leads to additional costs for the water sup-
institutions have been developed in the context ply sector and higher socio-economic impacts and
of current and past climatic conditions. Any sub- follow-up costs. In the areas, where water-induced
stantial change in the frequency of floods and extreme events become more intense and more
droughts, or in the quantity and quality of water frequent, the socio-economic costs of those events
or seasonal timing of water availability, will require will increase significantly. Poor communities can
adjustments that can be costly, not only in mon- be particularly vulnerable in such areas.
etary terms but also in terms of societal and eco-
logical impacts, including the need to manage po-
tential conflicts between different interest groups. Recommendations
Increased risk of food and water shortage, water
shortages for settlements, industry and societies; The mountains and hills of Nepal have been not
reduced hydropower generation potentials; poten- adequately studied because of the rugged topog-
tial for population migration due to floods and raphy, remoteness, severe weather conditions and
landslides are some of likely major adverse impacts little economic development, leading to the infor-
associated with the water resources. Enhanced mation and knowledge gaps regarding the water
melting and increased length of the melt season of resources of Nepal. More hydrological, glacio-
glaciers leads at first to increased river runoff and logical and meteorological stations to record the
discharge peaks, while in the longer time-frame, data and information should be established and
glacier runoff is expected to decrease. The future strengthened. An integrated institutional, regula-
socio-economic pathways will most likely increase tory and policy framework should be established
the future water demand resulting in widening to ensure the holistic and sustainable development
gap between water supply and demand, which will of water resources sector of Nepal.

82  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Conclusions Himalayas. In: Journal of Hydrology and Meteorology. Vol
6, No. 1, Society of Hydrologists and Meteorologists–Nepal
(SOHAM-Nepal), Kathmandu,
Nepal is rich in water resources. There are more Chaulagain, N.P. (2015). Socio-economic dimension of snow and
than 6000 rivers flowing from the Himalayan glacier melt in the Nepal Himalayas. In : R. Joshi et al. (eds.),
Dynamics of Climate Change and Water Resources of North-
Mountains to the hills and plains. Most of these
western Himalaya, Society of Earth Scientists Series,. Springer
rivers are glacier-fed and provide sustained flows International Publishing Switzerland DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-
during dry seasons to fulfill the water require- 13743-8_15
ments of hydropower plants, irrigation canals and FAO (2007). Coping with Water Scarcity. Challenge of the twenty-
first century. UN-Water, FAO, Rome
water supply schemes downstream. The melting ICIMOD (2007). Impact of climate change on Himalayan glaciers
of snow and glaciers and subsequent changes in and glacial lakes : case studies on GLOF and associated haz-
water system due to climate change have multi- ards in Nepal and Bhutan. International Centre for Integrated
faceted impacts on society and economy because Mountain Development, Kathmandu
ICIMOD (2011). Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in
of direct linkage of water with people, ecosystem, Nepal. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Develop-
economy and society. The impact of changed run- ment, Kathmandu
off regime and widening gaps between water sup- IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vul-
nerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth
ply and demand disproportionately falls more on
AssessmentReport of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
the poor, marginalized, subsistence farmers and mate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van
the economic units which are directly dependent der Linden and C.E.Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press,
on natural system. Changing precipitation pattern Cambridge, UK
Ives, J.D., Shrestha, R.B. and Mool, P.K. (2010). Formation of glacial
would increase the likelihoods of floods, landslides lakes in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas and GLOF risk assessment,
and droughts. Likewise, accelerated glacier melt ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
and a decreased snow-to-rain ratio would increase Jianchu, X, A. Shrestha, R. Vaidya, M. Eriksson and K. Hewitt (2007).
the likelihood of formation and expansion of the The melting Himalayas: Regional Challenges and Local Im-
pacts of Climate Change on Mountain Ecosystems and Liveli-
glacier lakes in the Nepal Himalayas and subse- hoods. ICIMOD Technical Paper, ICIMOD, Kathmandu
quent collapse of them creating devastating floods, JVS/ GWP Nepal (2014). Water statistics and information .JalsrotVi-
which can cause substantial damages to the prop- kasSanstha (JVS)/ GWP Nepal, Kathmandu
Kadota, T and Ageta,Y. (1992). On the relation between climate and
erty, people and the environment of a large section
retreat of Glacier AX010 in the NepalHimalaya from 1978 to
along the river valley downstream. 1989. In: Bulletin of Glacier Research 10. Data Centre for Gla-
cier research.Japanese Society of Snow and Ice
Kaltenborn, B. P., Nellemann, C., Vistnes, I. I. (Eds) (2010). High moun-

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Kathmandu ington, D.C.
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CBS (2013). Environment statistics of Nepal 2013. Central Bureau of nance, The Government of Nepal, Kathnadu
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2/10. ICIMOD, Kathmandu

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Naito, N., Y. Ageta, M. Nakawo, E. D. Waddington, C. F. Raymond velopment, Environment and Studies. Oxford University
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* Dr. Chaulagain is Deputy Chief Technical officer of GIZ

84  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 7

Biological Resources
Udhab Raj Khadka, Ph.D.*

Nepal lies in the cross-road between Palaearctic and Palaeotrophic biogeographic realms with unique topographic and
climatic variations. Thus, it is rich in biological resources relative to the proportion of its land area. The country comprises
only 0.1% of global land area; it possesses 3.3% and 1.1% of global flora and fauna respectively with a high rate of
endemism. This diversity is distributed from the dense tropical forests to the sub-alpine and alpine pastures and snow-
covered peaks of the Himalayan mountain range. Nepali communities are largely dependent on natural ecosystems for
their livelihood. Although, the country has favored diverse flora and fauna with significant eco-economic significances, they
have been threatened by multiple factors including climate change, over exploitation, increased anthropogenic pressure
and habitat destruction. Amidst such challenges, the Government of Nepal is committed to preserving and maintaining the
natural biological integrity of the country, and it has formulated and implemented both in-situ and ex-situ approaches along
with policy and legal measures. Under such circumstances, the status of biological resources may change and several new
findings and information might have been added. Therefore, the status of biological resources needs to be reviewed and
updated regularly. In the present paper, effort has been focused on assessing the current status of biological resources, their
threat, and conservation measures adopted and achievement made so far. For the purpose, historical data pertinent to the
subject, recently published and unpublished documents produced by scholars or concerned institutions have been thoroughly
reviewed. The information updated would be useful for researchers, planners, policy makers, professionals and development
workers involved in the field of natural resource management, biodiversity conservation and climate change.

Introduction harat or Middle Hills), High Mountains (Lesser Hi-

malayas), and High Himalayas (LRMP, 1986) (Fig.
Nepal lies in the central part of the Himalaya be- 1). By area, Terai occupies about 17% of the total
tween 26o22’ and 30o27’ N latitudes, and 80o04’ area and consists of dense forests and fertile lands;
and 88o12’ E longitudes. The country covers an Hill region occupies about 68% of the land consist-
area of 147,181 sq. km with east-west elongated ing of hills, valleys, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, streams,
length of 800 km and average north-south width springs, etc.; and Mountain region occupies about
of about 200 km. The altitude varies from around 15% of the land with fully snow-capped moun-
70 meters above sea level in eastern Terai region to tains. These physiographic zones coincide with the
8,848 meters at the Mount Everest. Within this al- bioclimatic zones described by Dobremez (1976)
titudinal span, the country has been divided into (Table 1). The country receives an average annual
five major physiographic zones, viz. Terai, Siwaliks rainfall of approximately 1600 mm with mean an-
(Churia Range), Middle Mountains (the Mahab- nual minimum and maximum precipitation range

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 85

 Figure 1: Physiographic Zones of Nepal (modified MoFSC, 2014a) the High Mountains region, and a number of sea-
sonal streams mostly originating from the Siwalik
Hills (MoFSC, 2014a). The temperature varies
with topographic and orographic variation with the
record of maximum summer temperature fluctua-
tion from 25ºC to 46ºC and minimum winter tem-
perature fluctuation from -26ºC to nearly zero or
freezing point (MoFSC, 2009, & 2014). Due to its
unique topographic features, the country exhibits
wide range of climate variation from tropical hu-
mid condition in Terai to alpine cold semi-desert
condition in the trans-Himalayan region.
People in Nepal, especially in rural areas,
largely rely on natural ecosystems for their liveli-
hood. For example, substantial numbers of wild
plants are used as food crops. Moreover, they are
heavily dependent on traditional biomass fuels
such as fuel-wood, animal dung, agricultural
residues, etc. Substantial use of medicinal plants
in healing common ailments and non-timber
forest products (NTFPs) for making livelihood
have been reported by previous researchers. In
the present context of changing climate, growing
population and increased consumption patterns
show that tremendous increase in climate stress
from 165 mm in the rain-shadow areas (north of and anthropogenic pressure on the natural re-
the Himalaya near Tibetan plateau) to 5500 mm sources, especially in the developing world. Con-
in the Pokhara Valley of western Nepal (along the sequently, there is massive degradation of natural
southern slopes of the Annapurna Himalaya range). ecosystems with alteration in wildlife habitats
About 80% of rain falls between June and Septem- that are causing multiple threats to natural re-
ber in the form of summer monsoon. The east- sources and biodiversity. The present paper dis-
ern region is wetter than the western region. The cusses the existing status of biological resources,
country is drained by four major Himalayan river their threat, and conservation approaches adopt-
systems (Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali), ed so far in Nepal.
a few medium-sized perennial rivers arising from

Table 1: Physiographic and Climatic Conditions of Nepal

Biological Resources
Physiographic Zone Surface Area (%) Elevation (m) Bioclimatic Zones
According to Udvardy (1975), Nepal lies at the
Terai 14 Below 500 Tropical
crossroads between two bio-geographic realms:
Siwalik Hills 15 500-1000 Tropical
Palaeoartic in the north and Palaeotrophic in the
Mid Hills 29 1000-2000 Sub-tropical
south (Bhuju et al., 2007). Zoo-geographically,
2000-3000 Temperate monsoon
the country falls within two biogeographical
High Mountains 19 3000-4000 Sub-alpine
realms: Indo-Malayan and Palaeartic. Phyto-
4000-5000 Alpine
geographically, it lies at a transition zone of six
High Himalayas 23 Above 5000 Nival
floristic regions: Central Asiatic in the north, Si-
Source: Dobremez (1976); LRMP (1986); MoFSC (2014a)

86  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

no-Japanese in the east, Southeast Asia-Malaysia total, 5358 lakes have been recorded (Bhuju et al.,
in the south-east, Indian in the south, Sudano- 2010). These lakes are considered to be a favorable
Zambian in the south-west, and Irano-Turanian area for comparative studies on the influence of
in the west (Bhuju et al., 2007). This transitional altitude and climate on the biogeochemical prop-
location with altitudinal and climatic variation erties of water (Hickel, 1973). In addition, there
has made Nepal a thriving place of species origi- are 6000 rivers and rivulets in Nepal (WECS,
nating from these biographic regions and con- 2011). These wetlands harbor many threatened
tributed to high level of biodiversity at ecosys- and endemic species of flora and fauna and serve
tem, genetic and species levels. Although, the as resting places for many migratory and globally
country occupies only about 0.1% of global land threatened birds, thus they bear great ecological
area, it harbors 3.3% of world’s known flora and significances. Furthermore, the wetlands also play
1.1% of fauna (MoFSC, 2014b; Table 2& 3). a vital role in conserving floral diversity, as 25%
of Nepal’s vascular plants, including 26 endemic
Ecosystem Diversity species of flowering plants are believed to be whol-
Stainton (1972) delineated phytogeographic ly or significantly wetland dependant (MoFSC,
boundaries based on climate, vegetation and floris- 2014b). In connection to glacier ecosystem, 3,808
tic composition and classified 35 types of forest in glaciers with an area of 3,902 sq. km, and 1,466
Nepal. According to Dobremez (1972, 1976) and glacial lakes covering 64.78 sq. km have been iden-
Dobremez et al. (1970-1985), there are four do- tified (ICIMOD, 2011).
mains (western, northwestern, central, and eastern),
six levels, and 11 sub-levels of bioclimatic zones Floral and Faunal Diversity
and 136 ecosystems in Nepal (Bhuju et al., 2007). The history of botanical and zoological explora-
However, during the preparation of ecological map, tions in Nepal started from 1802 and 1820 AD
closely allied ecosystems were grouped together respectively (Bhuju et al., 2007; Shrestha, 1997)
and the number was reduced to 118 (BPP, 1995). and are mostly focused on higher level taxa and
Among the 118 ecosystems, 112 are forest (shrub- thus they appear to be well represented compared
lands, rangelands and alpine meadows) ecosystems, to the lower level taxa. The floral and faunal di-
four are cultivated ecosystems, one is water body versity is considered to be relatively high in Nepal.
ecosystem, and one is glacier/snow/rock ecosystem. These explorations have identified over 7004 spe-
The Middle Mountains have the highest (53) num- cies of flowering plants (including gymnosperms),
ber of ecosystems, followed by the High Himalaya 5481 species of non-flowering plants (Table 2),
and Mountain together (38), the Terai (14) and 1556 vertebrates and 10341 invertebrates (Table
Siwalik (12). The remaining one, water ecosystems 3). Among the plants, the global proportion of
occur in all zones, except the Siwalik (BPP, 1995). gymnosperms, bryophytes, pteridophytes and
The Tree Improvement and Silviculture Compo- lichens, and among the animals, proportion of
nent (TISC), further reduced this number to 36 in mammals, birds, and butterflies are relatively high.
order to present a simplified picture of vegetation
of Nepal (TISC, 2000). These ecosystems are of Agricultural Diversity
international importance in view of the number of In order to maintain the food security, the agricul-
globally threatened wildlife and floral elements as tural biodiversity is important for a mountainous
well as their diversity represented within these areas country like Nepal. Previous studies have shown
(Bhuju et al., 2007). 599 species of crop plants including both wild
With respect to aquatic ecosystem, Ne- and cultivated (Table 4). The data show that out
pal encompasses diverse forms of natural lakes of 599 food crop species reported in Nepal, 225
from the tropical low land of the Gangetic plain species are cultivated and 331 species are wild, in-
to the alpine Higher Himalaya within a north- dicating dependency of rural community to the
south horizontal distance of about 150 km. In natural ecosystem for their sustenance.

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 87

 Table 2: Diversity of Floral Species in Nepal Endemism in Nepal
S.N. Group No. of known No. of known Share in Reference
species in the species in Nepal
World Nepal (%) Among four hotspots viz. Himalaya, Indo-Burma,
1 Angiosperms 2316381 6973 3.0 UNEP-WCMC (2004) Mountains of South-West China, and Mountains
2 Gymnosperms 5292 31 5.9 Rajbhandari and Adhikari (2009) of Central Asia occurring in the region, Nepal is
3 Pteridophytes 103691 534 5.1 DPR (2002) andMoFSC (2002) a part of the Himalaya biodiversity hotspot. Out
4 Lichens > 17000 3
771 4.5 Sharma (1995); Sharma et al. of 7004 flowering plants, 284 species, and among
(2009)
non-flowering plants 255 species have been report-
5 Bryophytes >140003 1150 8.2 Pradhan and Joshi (2010)
ed to be endemic to Nepal (DPR, 2012). Among
6 Fungi > 70000 3
2025 2.9 Adhikari (2009)
the physiographic regions, the High Mountains
7 Algae > 400003 1001 2.5 Prasad (2013)
region has high (63%) plant endemism indicating
Total >383140 12480 3.3
more active speciation rate compared to the Mid-
1
UNEP-WCMC (2006); Wilson (1988; 1992); 3WCMC (1992) (Source: CBS. 2014)
Hills (38%) and the Terai/Siwaliks (6%) ende-
mism (Bhuju et al., 2007). Similarly, 160 animal
Table 3: Diversity of Faunal Species in Nepal species, including one mammal (Apodemus gur-
S.N. Group No. of known No. of known Share Reference
species in the
kha); one bird (Turdoides nepalensis) (MoFSC,
species in in Nepal
World* Nepal (%) 2005), 23 species of herpeto-fauna (Shah, 2013),
1 Mammals 4675 212 4.4 Baral and Shah (2008); Jnyawanli et and 16 species of fish (Rajbanshi, 2013; Shrestha,
al. (2011); Subba et al. (2014); Chetri 2013) are reportedly endemic to Nepal. Recently,
et al. (2014); NTNC (2014); Shrestha
et al. (2014)
additional 22 species of terrestrial gastropods have
2 Birds 9799 874 8.9 Bhuju et al (2007); BCN and DNPWC
been reported to be endemic to the country (Bud-
(2011) ha et al., 2015).
3 Reptiles 7870 123 1.6 Schleich and Kastle (2002)
4 Amphibians 4780 117 2.4 Bhuju et al. (2007)
5 Fishes 10000 230 2.3 Rajbansi (2013) Bio-resources in Socio-economy
6 Mollusks NA 217 NA Budha (2012); Budha et al. (2015)
7 Moths 160000 3958 2.5 Haruta (2006) The Nepalese economy is largely dependent on
8 Butterflies 17500 651 3.7 Bhuju et al. (2007) the natural resources including agricultural land,
9 Spiders 39490 175 0.4 Bhuju et al. (2007) forests, wetlands, and rangelands. Biodiversity is
10 Rotifer NA 61 NA Surana et al. (2005) closely linked to the livelihoods and economic
11 Crustaceans NA 59 NA Tiwari and Chhetry (2009) well being of most people (MoFSC, 2014b). Agri-
12 Other insects NA 5052 NA Thapa (1997) culture plays a vital role in Nepalese economy. Its
13 Platyhelminthes NA 168 NA Gupta (1997) contribution in fiscal year 2013/2014 remained
*CBS (2014) 33.1% of the Gross Domestic Production (GDP)
(Economic Survey, 2013/2014). In Nepal, 225
Table 4. Sources of Cultivated and Wild Food Crops species of crop plants are cultivated and 331 spe-
Group Total No. of species Cultivated species Wild species Imported Food Species cies of food crops are wild (Table 4). The substan-
tial number of wild food crops suggests dependen-
Dicotyledons 395 175 (44) 190 (48) 30 (7.6)
cy of livelihood in the natural ecosystem. Tourism
Monocotyledon 83 50 (60) 20 (24) 13 (15.7)
is the second most important source of foreign
Pteridophytes 11 NA 11 (100) NA
exchange and protected areas are major tour-
Thallophytes 108 NA 108 (100) NA
ist destination in Nepal. About 40% of the total
Gymnosperms 2 NA 2 (100) NA visitors to Nepal have visited protected areas (DN-
Total 599 225 (37.6) 331 (55.3) 43 (7.2) PWC, 2009). The increase in revenue from the
Source: MoFSC (2002) protected areas during the period from fiscal year
Figures in parenthesis refer to percent of the total crop species
2003/2004 to 2011/2012 (Figure 2) signifies sub-
stantial increase in number of tourist in those areas

88  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

(DNPWC, 2012). Out of the total revenue gener- Figure 2: Annual Revenue Generated from the Protected Areas
ated from the protected areas, 30% to 50% are
shared with the buffer zone committee for buffer
zone management and community development
(DNPWC, 2012). In addition, the wetlands also
have high cultural and economic significances, as
livelihoods of many ethnic groups are dependent
on wetlands. Furthermore, the local communities
as well as the nation are getting incredible ecosys-
tem services from the protected areas.
In international trade, Nepal’s bio-resourc-
es are considered mostly wild in origin. It has
been reported that 188 biomaterials commonly
found in international trade consists of various
Source: DNPWC, 2012
plant parts such as root and tubers (39 plants),
barks (seven plants), leaves (26 plants), flowers the main source of energy along with agricultural
(14 plants), fruits and seeds (61 plants), whole residue, animal dung and other biomass such as
plants (12 plants), gums and resins (eight plants), municipal solid waste, agro-based waste and forest
and miscellaneous parts of 11 plants (Bhuju et industry waste (Acharya, 2014).
al., 2007). Annual export value of biomateri-
als has been reported to range from USD 7 - 30
million with USD 16 million in 1997/1998. The Threat to the Biodiversity
five major species with the highest export value (>
52% of the total) are the Soap nut tree (Sapindus Nepal’s biodiversity is threatened by multiple fac-
mukorossi), Nepal pepper (Zanthoxylum arma- tors. Among them, the loss and degradation of
tum), lichens (Parmelia sp), Cotton paper (Persia habitats (forests, grasslands and wetlands) due
bombycina) and an indigenous medicinal plant to expansion of settlements, agriculture and in-
‘Chiraita’ (Swertia chirata) (Olsen, 2005). There frastructure, over exploitation, invasion by alien
are about 1800 medicinal and aromatic plant species, and pollution of water bodies are the pre-
species reported in Nepal (Shrestha et al., 2001; dominant threats to natural ecosystems (MoFSC,
Baral & Kurmi, 2006). The National Register of 2014b). Moreover, climate change can have pro-
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants has documented found impacts, particularly in the mountains with
and described 185 species of medicinal plants with the risk of biodiversity loss and species extinction
medicinal importance in Nepal (IUCN, 2004). in the future (MA, 2005; IPCC, 2007). Most
Likewise, DPR (2007) has reported 701 species threats are likely to increase in the days to come.
of medicinal plants in Nepal. Therefore, positive The interaction of multiple threats is speculated to
growth of Nepalese economy can be achieved by have increased pressure leading to further decline,
increasing the value of medicinal and aromatic degradation and loss of habitats. As a result of such
plants. threat, a number of species, including 9 plants, 55
Nepal relies heavily on biomass energy in mammals, 149 birds, 15 herpeto-fauna, and 21
the absence of fossil fuel deposits.. For instance, fish are included in the The International Union
in the year 2008/2009, out of 9.3 million tons for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(equivalent to 401 million G Joule) energy con- (IUCN) Red List (Table 5). Similarly, 474 plant
sumed, 87% was derived from traditional (bio- and 192 animal species have been included in the
mass) resources, 12% from commercial and less Convention on International Trade in Endan-
than one percent from the alternative resources gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
(WECS, 2010). Yet, the fuel-wood has remained Appendices (Table 6) (DNPWC, 2014/2015).

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 89

 Table 5: Number of Selected Group of Species in the IUCN Red List ment and regulation of the protected areas and
Category Plants Mammals Birds Herpeto-fauna Fish biodiversity (DNPWC, 2012; Thapa, 2014). At
Critically Endangered NA 8 61 1 3 present, DNPWC is the administrative authority
Endangered 2 26 38 3 1
of Ramsar Convention, management authority of
the fauna under the Convention on International
Vulnerable 5 14 50 7 4
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Near Threatened 2 7 0 4 13
Flora (short form is already mentioned above);
Total 9 55 149 15 21 and focal institution of the World Heritage Con-
Source: Bhuju et al. (2007); Jnyawali et al. (2011); BCN and DNPWC (2011); Shah (2013)
vention (UNESCO), Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
and Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) (DNPWC,
2012).
Table 6: Floral and Faunal Species of Nepal in the CITES Appendices
Appendix Plants Animals
In-situ Conservation
Mammals Birds/Aves Reptile Amphibia Butterfly The in-situ conservation such as the protected
Appendix-I 2 28 12 8 0 0 areas which allows preservation of not only wild-
Appendix-II 468 17 95 21 2 3 life species, but also ecological and evolutionary
Appendix-III 4 5 1 0 0 0 processes, habitats, ecosystems, biodiversity and
wilderness itself (Thapa, 2014) seems to be the
Total 474 50 108 29 2 3
dominant approach of biodiversity conservation
Source: DNPWC (2014/15)
in Nepal. The Chitwan and Lagntang National
Park, along with the World Heritage Sites (DoI,
Most of the threatened species of flora and fau-
2002; Annex I), are the first and second protected
na have been reported to be wetland dependent
areas of Nepal, established in 1973 and 1976 re-
(MoFSC, 2014b). Despite their ecological and so-
spectively. Since then, there has been a steady rise
cio-economic functions, the wetland biodiversity
in the number of protected areas. In between 1973
is also threatened by several factors like drainage
and 2010, the coverage of protected area has in-
and encroachment, diversion of water for irriga-
creased by more than 30 times (MoFSC, 2014a).
tion, unsustainable over exploitation, over mining
At present, protected areas cover 34,185.62 sq.
of gravel from streams and rivers beds, water pol-
km, i.e. 23.23% of the country’s total area (DN-
lution, invasion by alien species, illegal hunting
PWC, 2012; DNPWC, 2015) which is one of the
and trapping of birds and other wildlife, and silt-
highest in Asia. These protected areas include 10
ation.
National parks, three Wildlife reserves, one Hunt-
ing reserve, six Conservation areas, and 12 Buffer
zones (Table 7). The main focus of the National
Conservation Strategy parks and Wildlife reserves is conservation of flag-
ship wild fauna, such as tiger (Panthera tigris tigris),
In order to preserve the biological resources, the
rhinoceros (Rhinocerus unicornis), Asian elephant
Government of Nepal has adopted both in-situ
(Elephas maximus), snow leopard (Panthera un-
and ex-situ conservation approaches. Amongst
cia) and red panda (Ailurus fulgens). Furthermore,
the approaches, in-situ conservation, i.e. the pro-
keeping in view of global/local significance of the
tected area management approach seems to be the
wetlands, the Government of Nepal has declared
dominant one. The protected area management in
nine Ramsar sites in different parts of the country
Nepal began by enacting the National Parks and
for the better management and conservation of
Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 that allowed es-
wetlands per se and their biodiversity (Table 8). In
tablishment of the Department of National Parks
order to protect wildlife and their habitat in non-
and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) as a sepa-
protected areas, the Government of Nepal has
rate entity under the Ministry of Forest and Soil
adopted six types of management arrangement:
Conservation in 1980 for conservation, manage-

90  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

i) community, ii) collaborative, iii) leasehold, iv) Table 7: Distribution of Protected Areas in Nepal
religious, v) protection, and vi) government man- Declaration Area Physiographic Buffer zone
S.N. Protected Area
aged (MoFSC, 2014b). Year (sq. km) Zone area (sq. km)

National Parks
Establishment of Protected Forests 1 Chitwan National Park 1973 932 Terai/Siwalik 750
In addition to the protected areas, the Government 2 Langtang National Park 1976 1710 High Mountain 420
of Nepal has also formulated the provision of pro- 3 Rara National Park 1976 106 High Mountain 198
tected forest with the aim of enhancing biodiversity 4 Sagarmatha National Park 1976 1148 High Mountain 275
through rehabilitation of habitats of rare and im- 5 She-Phoksundo National Park 1984 3555 High Mountain 1349

portant species, biological corridors, and wetlands, 6 Khaptad National Park 1984 225 Middle Mountain 216
7 Bardia National Park 1976 , 1984 968 Terai 507
and also enhancing local livelihoods through im-
8 Makalu Barun National Park 1991 1500 High Mountain 830
plementation of income generating activities (DoF,
9 Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park 2002 159 Mid hills NA
2013). Under this provision, eight forests covering a
10 Banke National Park 2010 550 Terai 343
total area of 133,754.8 hectares have been declared Sub Total   10853  
as protected forests (Table 9). Among them, seven
Wildlife Reserves       
forests with a total area of 133,579 hectares have
been declared as protected forests just after 2010. 1 Shuklaphanta Wildfife Reserve 1976 305 Terai 243.5
2 Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve 1976 175 Terai 173
These forests are important wildlife corridors and
3 Parsa Wildlife Reserve 1984 499 Terai /Siwalik 298.17
are rich in biodiversity (Table 9).
Sub Total   979   5602.67
Hunting Reserve 
Ex-situ Conservation
1 Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve 1987 1325 Middle Mountain NA
In addition to in-situ conservation, efforts have Sub Total   1325    
also been given to ex-situ conservation such as Conservation Area
establishment of botanical gardens, conservation 1 Annapurna Conservation Area 1992 7629 Middle Mountain NA
centers (forest genetic resources, vulture), zoo, and 2 Kanchenjunga Conservation Area 1997 2035 Middle Mountain NA
breeding centre (elephant, & gharial). 3 Manasalu Conservation Area 1998 1663 High Mountain NA
4 Krishnasar Conservation Area 2009 16.95 Terai NA
Botanical Gardens and Herbarium 5 Gaurisankar Conservation Area 2010 2179 High Mountain NA
In the various ecological zones, 12 botanical gar- 6 Api Nampa Conservation Area 2010 1903 High Mountain NA
Sub Total   15425.95  
dens have been established by the Government
Grand Total    28582.95    34,185.62
of Nepal (Table 10). These botanical gardens are
managed by the Department of Plant Resources NA = Not applicable
Source: DNPWC (2015)
under Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation.
The botanical gardens conduct landscape devel- Table 8: Distribution of Ramsar Sites in Nepal
opment, ex-situ and in-situ conservation, as well S.N. Name of Ramsar Site Location Inclusion Date Area (ha.) Elevation
as conservation with educational programs and (m)
pilot productions. Among the gardens, the Na- 1 Koshi Tappu Koshi 17 December 1987 17500 75-81
tional Botanical Garden of Lalitpur spread over 2 Beeshazari and Associated Lake Chitwan 13 August 2003 3200 286
an area of 82 hectares with varied topography and 3 Ghodaghodi Lake Area Kailali 13 August 2003 2563 205
interesting landscapes, manages varieties of plants 4 Jagadishpur Reservoir Kapilvastu 13 August 2003 225 197
of medicinal and other importance (DPR, 2015).
5 Gokyo and Associated Lakes Solukhumbo 23 September 2007 7770 4700-5000
Government of Nepal has declared lunching cam-
6 Gosaikund and Associated Lakes Rasuwa 23 September 2007 1030 4000-4700
paign of constructing urban gardens for public
7 Phoksundo Llake Dolpa 23 September 2007 494 3611.5
land conservation and environment improvement
in urban areas (MoF, 2014/15). Likewise, the De- 8 Rara Lake Mugu 23 September 2007 1583 2990

partment of Plant Resources has prepared working 9 Mai Pokhari Ilam 28 October 2008 90 2100
plan for 10 urban gardens in Morang, Ilam, Kaski Source: Ramsar (2015)

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 91

 Table 9: Protected Forests and their Conservation Significance versity, established in 1965, manages a herbarium
Forest Year Area (ha) Location Conservation Significance (TUCH) that houses over 22,000 plant specimens
Established (District)
(S.K. Ghimire, personal communication, June 7,
Kankre Bihar 2002 175.5 Surkhet Historical; archeological and biodiversity 2015). In addition, Nepali herbarium specimens
Madhane 2010 13,761 Gulmi Biodiversity; ecotourism are also housed in 38 herbaria throughout the
Barandabhar 2011 10,466 Chitwan Biological corridor; wetland; habitat for world (Shakya, 2002).
several endangered species
Panchase 2011 5,775.7 Kaski, Parbat, Biodiversity; eco-tourism, religious
Syanja
Conservation Centers
Laljhadi-Mohana 2011 29,641.7 Kailali, Biological corridor; wetland
In order to conserve the genetic resources, the Sil-
Kanchanpur viculture Division under the Department of For-
Basanta 2011 69,001.2 Kailali Wildlife habitat and corridor est has established seed stand for 38 socially and
Khata 2012 4503.7 Bardia Wildlife habitat and corridor economically important tree species in various
Dhanushadham 2012 430 Dhanusha Historical; religious; biodiversity eco-regions. Likewise, the division has established
27 breeding seedling orchards, and has a plan for
Source: MoFSC (2014a)
in-situ gene pool conservation of Pterocarpus mar-
supium (Bijayasal) as its population in natural hab-
Table 10: Distribution of Botanical Gardens in Nepal itats, i.e. western Terai and Siwalik mixed hard-
S.N. Name Location (District) Altitude Established wood forest, is continuously declining. Farmers
(m) Year are also conserving considerable number of plants,
1 National Botanical Garden Godavari, Lalitpur 1515 1962 including threatened species such as Acacia cat-
2 Vrindaban Botanical Garden Hetauda, Makawanpur 500 1962 echu, Butea monosperma, Choerospondias axillaris,
3 Daman Botanical Garden Daman, Makawanpur 2320 1962 Elaeocapurs sphaericus and Michelia champaca, on
4 Tistung Botanical Garden Tistung, Makawanpur 1900 1962 their farms as part of their subsistence farming
5 Dhakeri Botanical Garden Dhakeri, Banke 130 1962 (MoFSC, 2013).
For the conservation of threatened animal species,
6 Mulpani Botanical Garden Kapurkot, Salyan 2000 1990
in 2008, the DNPWC has established a Vulture
7 Dhitachor Botanical Garden Dhitachaur, Jumla 2500 1990
Conservation and Breeding Center at Kasara in-
8 Maipokhari Botanical Garden Maipokhari, Ilam 2200 1992
side the Chitwan National Park for ensuring long
9 Dhanusha Botanical Garden Dhanushadham, Dhanusha 100 1998 term survival of two vulture species viz. Gyps
10 Godavari Botanical Garden Godavari, Kailali 130 1998 tenuirortris (slender billed vulture) and Gyps ben-
11 Deoria Botanical Garden Dhangadhi, Kailali 100 1998 galensis (oriental white-rumped vulture) (MoFSC,
12 World Peace Biodiversity Botanical Garden Pokhara, Kaski 1500 2013
2014a). Moreover, there are seven community-
managed ‘vulture restaurants’ in Nawalparasi, Ru-
Source: DPR (2014)
pandehi, Dang, Kailali, and Kaski Districts, estab-
(Pokhara), Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, lished by the Bird Conservation Nepal (BCN) and
Nuwakot, Chitwan, Dang and Baglung (DPR, Himalayan Nature at different locations, where
2014/2015). vultures are provided safe and diclofenac-free car-
In order to preserve the plant specimen, rion (BCN, 2015; MoFSC, 2014a).
the National Herbarium (KATH) has been es-
tablished in 1960 under the Department of Plant Central Zoo
Resources at Godavari, Lalitpur. The Herbarium The Central Zoo of Nepal is located at Jawalakhel
houses over 150,000 specimens of plants, includ- of Lalitpur District. The zoo was established in
ing 4443 species of flowering plants belonging to 1932 AD as a private zoo by the late Prime Min-
1403 genera and 203 families, and further 30,000 ister Juddha Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana. After
specimens are reported to be still identified and 1951’s political change, the Government of Nepal
housed (Rajbhandari, 2015). Besides KATH, took over the ownership; and after 1956, it was
Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan Uni- opened for public. Over the period, the zoo man-

92  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

agement has remained under various government unicolor), Monkey (Macaca mulata), Hog Deer
departments. However, after 1995, its manage- (Axis porcinus), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Snakes and
ment has been handed over to the National Trust all kinds of birds have been permitted for com-
for Nature Conservation (NTNC) for 30 years. mercial farming. However, the parties involved in
The zoo covers an area of about 6.5 hectares By farming, export and import of wildlife should be
2015, it has a collection of 957 animals belong- abided by CITES and other similar international
ing to 115 species, including 33 species of mam- laws (MoFSC, 2003).
mals, 61 species of birds, eight species of reptiles
and 17 species of fishes (NTNC-Central Zoo- Natural History Museum
information brochure). The successful results of The Natural History Museum (NHM), estab-
captive breeding of animal species including ti- lished in 1975 under Institute of Science and
gers and leopard have distinguished the zoo as a Technology, Tribhuvan University, is situated on
source of gene pool for some animals. In addition a hillock of the World Heritage Site of ancient
to the Central Zoo, Hetauda municipality has Swoyambhu stupa, Kathmandu. The museum
established a mini zoo in 1991 and maintained nurtures Nepal’s natural history and serves as a
thereafter. It covers an area of 0.3 hectare , and research and educational facility in Nepal for sci-
is integrated with the Public Park and picnic spot entists, teachers, students, and other scholars. The
(Bhuju et al., 2007). NHM serves as the scientific authority of fauna
for CITES implementation in Nepal. It houses
Captive Breeding about 35,332 specimens of Nepalese flora and
The Gharial Breeding Centre, established in 1978, fauna and manages their public exhibition. Fur-
has successfully carried out captive breeding of ther, the museum manages the Swoyambhu Envi-
crocodiles in the Gharial Farm located at Kasara, ronment Garden (representing medicinal plants of
Chitwan. Although, the population of gharial Nepal), which also consists of the public park, an
crocodiles was close to extinction, the breed- experimental park, and a nursery. The focus of the
ing effort has revived its population. By 2010, NHM is to trace, collect and preserve the holis-
761 captive bred gharials have been released into tic natural artifacts on the subjects of Anthropol-
the various rivers of Nepal (Acharya & Dhakal, ogy, Botany, Geography, Geology, Earth history,
2012). Crocodile breeding has also been initiated and many more like evolution, environmental is-
in Bardia National Park (Bhuju et al., 2007). Like- sues and biodiversity (TU, 2015). In addition to
wise, the Elephant Breeding Centre at Khorsor, these collections, Central Department of Zoology,
Chitwan, established in 1989, since then it has Tribhuvan University manages Central Depart-
been playing an important role in elephant con- ment Zoology Museum of Tribhuvan University
servation. The elephant stables in Shuklaphanta, (CDZMTU), particularly for animal specimens
Bardia, Chitwan, Parsa, and Koshitappu are note- (Budha et al., 2015).
worthy for elephant breeding.
In addition to these efforts, the Government of Table11: The Flora and Fauna Species Protected in Nepal
Nepal has approved the Working Policy on Wild Species Group Number of Species Reference
Animal Farming, Breeding, and Research in 2003. Fauna
Under this provision, the protected wild animal Mammals 27 (14.9) GoN, 1973
species, such as Gharial Crocodile (Gavialis gan- Birds 9 (1.0) GoN, 1973
geticus), Black Buck (Antelope cervicapra), Im-
Reptiles 3 (2.4) GoN, 1973
peyan Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), Crimp-
Flora
son-horned Pheasant (Tropan satyra) and Cheer
Angiosperms 14 (0.2) GoN (2001)
Pheasant (Catreus walllichii); and other wild
Gymnosperms 4 (15.4) GoN (2001)
animal species; Barking Deer (Muntiacus valgina-
Lichens 1 (0.1) GoN (2001)
lis), Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Samber Deer (Rusa
Figures in parenthesis refer per cent of total known species in Nepal

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 93

 Table 12: The Major Conventions and Agreements Signed and Wildlife Museums in the Protected Areas
Implemented by the Government of Nepal The protected areas maintain local museums for
Name of Convention Entry into force research as well as for educational purposes. They
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought 26 December 1996
mainly house wildlife parts collected within spe-
and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, 1994 cific protected areas. They also put on display ma-
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their 5 May 1997
terials confiscated from poachers and smugglers.
Disposal, 1989 Among these, the collections at the museums of
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985 22 September 1988 Khaptad, Bardia, Chitwan, Sagarmatha, Makalu-
Barun, Koshitappu National Parks, and Annapur-
Montreal Protocol Substance that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987 1 January 1989
na Conservation Area are considered to be men-
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 21 March 1994 tion worthy. The similar items have been reported
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 29 December 1993 to be housed in the Forest Guard Training Centers
Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety to the CBD, 2000 11 September 2003 at Tikauli, Chitwan under the Department of For-
est (Bhuju et al., 2007).
Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefit 12 October 2014
Arising from their Utilization to CBD, 2010
Protected Species
Agreement on the Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia and the Pacific Region, 1988 --
Under National Park and Wildlife Conservation
Convention on Wetland of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1971 21 December 1975
(NPWC) Act 1973 (as amended), the Govern-
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 1 July 1975 ment of Nepal has protected 19 species of plants
Plant Protection Agreement for Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region, 1956 -- and 39 species of animal (GoN, 1973; 2001)
Convention on the High Seas, 1958 30 September 1962
(Table 10, Annex II, Annex III). Likewise, under
the Forest Act 1993, the Government of Nepal
International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), 1983 1 April 1985
has banned the collection, use, sale, distribution,
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 30 August 1975 transportation, and export of three species: Dacty-
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001 17 May 2004 lorhiza hatagirea (Panch aunle in Nepali), Juglans
Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, 1997 16 February 2005
regia (Okhar) bark, and Picrorhiza scrophulariflora
(Kutki) from February 2001. The government has
The Convention on the Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979 1 November 1983
also banned the export of eight species of plants
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 1994 and rock exudes (shilajit) except for their pro-
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, 2001 29 June 2004 cessed products. and upon the permission of the
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stock-pilling of Bacteriological 26 March 1975
Department of Forest, and transportation, export,
and Toxic Weapons and on their Destruction, 1972* and felling of seven three species for commercial
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resource of the High Sea, 1958* 20 March 1966 purposes (Annex II).
Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958* 10 June 1964

*Only signed

BOX 1: THE MAJOR CROSS-SECTORAL POLICIES AND LEGAL FRAMES LINKED TO BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Biotechnology Policy, 2006 Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007

Climate Change Policy, 2011 National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationali-
ties Act, 2002
Eleventh Three Year Interim Plan, 2007-2010
National Land Use Policy, 2012
Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework, 2013
Rural Energy Policy, 2006
National Bio-safety Framework, 2006
Science and Technology Policy, 2005
Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal, 2003
Twelfth Three Year Plan, 2010-2013
Tenth Five Year Plan, 2002-2007

94  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 BOX 2. THE MAJOR SECTORAL POLICIES AND LEGAL FRAME RELATED TO BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Plan/Policies Act
Agro-biodiversity Policy, 2007 Aquatic Animal Protection Act, 1960
Domesticate Elephant Management Policy, 2003 Environment Protection Act, 1997
Forest Encroachment Control Strategy, 2012 Forest Act, 1993
Forest Fire Management Strategy, 2010 Local Self-Governance Act, 1999
Forestry Sector Policy, 2000 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973
Herbs and Non-Timber Forest Products Development Policy, National Trust for Nature Conservation Act, 1982
2004 Pasture Land Nationalization Act, 1974
Industrial Policy, 2011 Plant Protection Act (2007)
Irrigation Policy, 2013 Private Forest Nationalization Act, 1957
Leasehold Forest Policy, 2002 Seed Act, 1988
Master Plan for the Forestry Sector, 1989 Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 1982
National Agricultural Policy, 2004 Tourism Act, 1978
National Conservation Strategy for Nepal, 1988 Water Resource Act, 1992
National Wetland Policy, 2003 Rules/Regulations
Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan, 2006 Bardia National Park Regulation, 1997
Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, 2002 Buffer Zone Management Regulation, 1996
Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan I, 1993 Chitwan National Park Rules, 1974
Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan II, 1998 Conservation Area Government Management Regulation, 2000
Plan for Conservation of Ecosystems and Genetic Resource, 1988 Conservation Area Management Rules, 1997
Protected Area Management Plan, Environment Protection Rules, 1997
Rangeland Policy, 2012 Forest Regulation, 1995
Revised Forest Policy, 2000 Kanchenjungha Conservation Area Management Regulation, 2007
Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal, 2003 Khaptad National Park Regulation, 1988
TAL Implementation Plan, 2006 (2004-2014) Mountain National Parks Regulation, 1980
Terai Arc Landscape Strategy, 2004 (2004-2014) Mountaineering Expedition Regulations, 2002
Three Years Interim Plan, 2007/2008-2009/2010) National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Regulation, 1974
Tourism Policy, 2009 Plant Protection Rules, 2010
Water Resource Strategy, 2002 Water Resource Rules, 1993
Working Policy on Construction and Operation of Development Wildlife Reserve Regulation, 1978
Projects in Protected Areas, 2008
Working policy on Wild Animal Farming, Breeding and Research, 2003 Guidelines/Directives
Buffer Zone Management Guideline, 1999
Conservation Management Guideline, 1999
Wildlife Damage Relief Guideline, 2009

International Commitments and adopt standards and stringent legal measures. They
Agreements can also help enhance national capacity for setting
conservation agenda and its effective implemen-
Nepal strives to attain sustainable economic tation. Nepal has made considerable efforts and
growth through wise use of natural resources. The achieved successes in the implementation of sev-
country is committed to manage its rich biologi- eral international commitments, including CBD
cal resources as per the national need and accord- (1992), CITES (1973), Ramsar (1971), World
ing to the spirit of Multilateral Environmental Heritage Convention (1972), and Millennium
Agreements (MEAs) to which it is a Party (Table Summit (2000). In addition, Nepal is committed
12). The MEAs provide important opportunities to other global affiliations pertinent to biodiver-
as well as bring obligation to the country. These sity conservation and sustainable development,
conventions and agreements help improve and including the World Trade Organization(WTO),
harmonize conservation legislation and environ- IUCN, the Global Tiger Forum, the World Con-
mental governance within and among countries to servation Strategy 1980, and the World Charter

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 95

 for Nature 1982. Though, Nepal has signed sev- agreements concerning biodiversity conservation
eral international agreements, some of them are in which Nepal is a Party.
yet to be ratified including Nagoya Protocol on
Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing
(2010). Therefore, there are some gaps in the im- Conclusion
plementation of agreements.
Nepal is rich in biodiversity and shares a high pro-
portion of global biodiversity. Nepalese economy
Policies, Strategies and Regulatory and livelihood are largely based on the biological
Framework resources. The rural people are still using substan-
tial number of wild plants as their food crops and
Nepal is rich in biodiversity and livelihood is for healing common ailments. In addition, the
largely dependent on biological resources. There forest has remained the dominant source of ener-
lies tremendous potential of achieving sustainable gy for rural inhabitants. Despite these ecosystems
conservation-friendly economic development by services and socioeconomic benefit that people are
wise use of natural biological resources as per the getting from natural biological resources, these re-
spirit of Multilateral Environmental Agreements. sources are under pressure of unsustainabilities of
Over the past few decades, there has been consid- exploitation due to increased anthropogenic activ-
erable change and transformation of policies on ities with the growing population. Several species
biodiversity conservation sectors. The concept of flora and fauna have been listed under the cat-
of conservation-friendly economic growth seems egories of threatened species in IUCN red list and
to be translated since the Five Year Plan (1997- CITES Annexes. These pressures are likely to fur-
2002) that was further refined and internalized in ther hasten climate change and variability. Keep-
the sebsequent Five Year Plan (2002-2007). In the ing in view the multiple stresses leading to envi-
present ongoing Three Years Plan (2013-2016) ronmental degradation and habitat destruction,
approach paper, biodiversity has been featured the Government of Nepal has adopted both in-si-
prominently. Over the years, the Government tu and ex-situ conservation approaches along with
of Nepal has formulated and enacted various legal policy and regulation measures for the con-
enabling plans, policies, strategies and legisla- servation of biodiversity, unique landscapes and
tions (Box, 1,2) to facilitate sustainable economic wilderness. Amongst the conservation approach-
growth with further enhanced local participation es, the in-situ approach such as establishment of
in biodiversity conservation and natural resources protected areas can be the dominant approach.
management. Several cross-sectoral (Box 1) as well However, the distribution of protected areas are
as sectoral (Box, 2) policies have been formulated. not proportionate to the ecological zones. In order
Among others, policies and legislations pertaining to have improved and harmonized policy and legal
to community-based forest management and pro- measures and conservation governance within and
tected area management have been observed to be between the countries, Nepal is committed to the
effective in bringing success. However, some poli- international conventions and agreements and ac-
cy gaps still remain. For instance, one of the major cordingly has formulated policies, laws and rules
gaps in the existing laws relates to sustainable uti- and duly monitored the achievements made so
lization of biological resources and equitable shar- far. Yet, there still exist some gaps in implementa-
ing of the benefits accrued from the conservation tion of International conventions. With respect to
of genetic resources. Likewise, strategy to activate policy measures, the policy/regulation pertinent to
and capacitate local bodies (DDCs, VDCs, mu- community forest management with the partici-
nicipalities) for biodiversity management is still pation of local community has been found to be
in lacking (MoFSC, 2014a). The lack of required effective in managing forest successfully in recent
legislation has also affected effective implementa- decades. Though there is a fairly comprehensive
tion of a number of multilateral environmental set of biodiversity related policies and strategies in

96  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

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DNPWC, (2014/15). Flora and Fauna of Nepal in CITES Annexes. De-
not encouraging.
partment of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Minis-
try of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu.
DNPWC, (2015 May 22). Protected Areas in Nepal. Retrieved from
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* Dr. Khadka is Lecturer of Amrit Campus, T.U.

98  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Annex I

The World Heritage Sites in Nepal

S.N. World Heritage Site Place of Establishment Existed Year (AD)
1 Haunumandhoka Durbar Square Kathmandu 613
2 Patan Durbar Square Lalitpur 1565
3 Bhaktapur Durbar Square Bhaktapur 1427
4 Pashupatinath Temple Kathmandu 5th Century
5 Swayambhunath Stupa Kathmandu 5th Century
6 Bouddhanath Stupa Kathmandu 5th Century
7 Changunarayan Temple Bhaktapur 306
8 Chitwan National Park Chitwan 1974
9 Sagarmatha National Park Solukhumbu 1975
10 Lumbini Rupandehi 1997

Annex II

Protected Floral Species in Nepal

S.N. Scientific Name English Name Local Name Potential Use

I. Banned for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation and export  

Angiosperms
1 Dactylorhiza hatagirea Orchid Panchaunle Tonic
2 Picrorhiza scrophulariifolia Gentian Kutki Medicine
3 Juglans regia Walnut* Okharko bokra Medicine
II. Banned for export except for processed with permission of Department of Forest 
Angiosperms
4 Cinnamomum glaucescens Sugandakokila
5 Cordyceps sinensis Yarsagumba
6 Rauvolfia serpentina Serpentine Sarpagandha Medicine
7 Valeriana jatamansi Spike nard Jatamansi Medicine
8 Valeriana wallichii Vallerian Sugandhwal Medicine
Gymnosperms
9 Abies spectabilis  Himalayan Fir Talispatra Medicine
10 Taxus baccata Himalayan yew Lauth salla Medicine
11 Taxus wallichiana East Himalayan yew  ?? 
12 Taxus contorta West Himalayan yew  ??
Lichen
13 Parmelia spp. Lichen Jhyaau Medicine
III. Banned for harvest, transportation and export for commercial purpose
Angiosperms
14 Acacia catechu Cutch tree Khayar Medicine
15 Bombax malbaricum Silk Cotton tree Simal Medicine
16 Dalbergia latifolia Rose Wood Satisaal Timber
17 Michelia champaca Magnolia Champ medicine , timber
18 Pterocarpus marsupium Indian Kino tree Bijayasal Timber
19 Shorea robusta Common sal Sal Timber

Source: GoN (2001) *Protection of walnut is from National Forest only.

CHAPTER 7  Biological Resources | 99

 Annex III

Protected Faunal Species in Nepal

S.N. Scientific name Common English name Local name
Mammals
1 Macaca assamensis Assam Macaque Asami Rato Bandar
2 Manis pentadactyla Chinese Pangolin Kalo Salak
3 Manis crassicaudata Indian Pangolin Tame Salak
4 Caprolagus hispidus Hispid Hare Laghukarna Kharayo
5 Canis lupus Grey Wolf Bwanso
6 Ursus arctos Brown Bear Himali Rato Bhalu
7 Ailurus fulgens Red Panda Habre
8 Prionodon pardicolor Spotted Linsang Silu Biralo
9 Felis bengalensis (Prionailurus bengalensis) Leopard Cat Chari Bagh
10 Felis lynx (Lynx lynx) Lynx Pahan Biralo
11 Neofelis nebulosa Clouded Leopard Dhwanse Chituwa
12 Panthera tigris Royal Bengal Tiger Pate Bagh
13 Panthera uncial (Uncia uncial) Snow Leopard Hiun Chituwa
14 Elephas maximus Asian Elephant Hatti
15 Rhinoceros unicornis Greater One-horned Rhino Gainda
16 Sus salvanius Pygmy Hog Pudke Bandel
17 Moschus chrysogaster Alpine Musk Deer Kasturi Mriga
18 Cervus duvauceli Swamp Deer Bahrasingha
19 Bos gaurus Gaur Gauri Gai
20 Bos grunniens Wild Yak Chauri Gai
21 Bubalus arnee Wild Water Buffalo Arna
22 Ovis ammon Great Tibetan Sheep Nayan
23 Pantholops hodgsoni Tibetan Antelope Chiru
24 Antelope cervicapra Blackbuck Krishnasar
25 Tetraceros quadricornis Four-horned antelope Chauka
26 Hyaena hyaena Stripped Hyaena Hundar
27 Platanista gangetica River Dolphin Shons
Birds
1 Buceros bicornis Giant Hornbill Gaj Dhanesh
2 Catreus wallichii Cheer Pheasant Cheer
3 Houbaropsis bengalensis (Eupodotis bengalensis) Bengal Florican Khar Mayur
4 Lophophorus impejanus Impeyon Pheasan Danphe
5 Ciconia nigra Black Stork Kalo Bhundiphor
6 Ciconia ciconia White Stork Seto Bhundiphor
7 Tropan satyra Crimpson-horned Pheasant Munal
8 Sypheotides indica (Eupodotis indica) Lesser Florican Sano Khar Mayur
9 Grus antigona Saras Crane Saras
Reptiles
1 Gavialis gangeticus Gharial Crocodile Gharial Gohi
2 Python molurus Asiatic Rock Python Ajingar
3 Varanus flavescens Golden Monitor Lizard Sun Gohoro
Source: GoN (1973)

100  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 8

Solid Waste Management:

Status and Challenges in Nepal
Kedar Rijal, Ph.D. *    Saroj Adhikari**

The current concern regarding the solid waste is the changing amount and types of waste produced, and methods of its
management. Solid Waste Management (SWM) was initially the lowest priority in the country but with increase in the level of
public awareness about its need, it has now come to the top of the priorities and is being considered as an important issue of
environmental protection. The study conducted by Solid Waste Management Resources Mobilization Center (SWMRMC) in 2008
in 58 municipalities of the nation showed that 61.6% of the municipal waste constitutes organic waste and still the composition
of its part is more or less in increasing trend reflecting the increasing trend of generation of solid waste in recent years, except
the slight decrease for the year 2012/2013. The generation of solid waste in other newly declared 133 municipalities may
reflect similar conditions due to inadequate technical, infrastructural and financial resources to tackle the problems of waste
management. The household waste composition analysis of 58 municipalities made by Asian Development Bank in 2013
indicates that the highest waste fraction is organic matter (66%), followed by plastics (12%), paper and paper products (9%),
others (5%), and glass (3%). Metal, textiles, and rubber and leather each accounted for 2%, 2% and 1% respectively. In recent
years, e-waste management has also been a very important concern in Nepal and there has been increasing trend of consuming
electrical and electronic goods. Health care waste management is yet another pertinent issue in waste management as the
health care institutions have not provided adequate attention. The common practice of management in the municipalities are
street sweeping and waste collection (door to door collection and collection from storage points), transport (transporting waste
by tippers, trucks, tractors and trailers and small pickups) and final disposal. Solid waste management has become a challenge
mainly due to the increasing rate of generation of wastes, limited (municipal) budget as a result of the high costs associated to its
management and lack of understanding over a diversity of factors that affect the processes of waste management. Strengthening
the capacity of municipalities and Village Development Committees (VDCs) with sufficient infrastructures, technical, financial
and human resource coupled with strict enforcement of policies will help for effective management of solid waste. Similarly,
development of regulations dealing with the specific waste stream should get a clear priority. The comprehensive policies and
strategies are required in specific sectors (e-waste and radioactive waste) of solid waste management.
Background Waste means the solid, liquid, gas, slurry,
smoke, dust, radiated element or substance or
Urban population growth and changing consump- similar other materials disposed in a manner to
tion pattern have resulted in the increased genera- degrade the environment (GoN, 1996). Waste
tion of wastes. Increase in resource consumption comprises of discarded substances from house-
and use of readymade packaged food items are ex- holds, industries, chemical industries and health
amples of elevated amount of generation of solid care services. If any other substance exists, found
waste problems in Nepal. Similarly, haphazard or disposed in an environment that could cause
management of healthcare wastes with the increas- adverse effect on environment are also dealt as
ing number of health care institutions is also caus- waste (GoN, 2011).
ing problems in some of the urban areas of Nepal. CHAPTER 8  Solid Waste Management: Status and Challenges in Nepal  | 101
 Solid waste is any material discarded by its (Manfredi et al., 2010). Additionally, if economic
users perceiving that it has no more economic val- incentives are clearly recognized then it will add
ue. Although human or animal excreta often end a milestone to manage waste by sorting for par-
up in the solid waste stream, generally the term ticulars that have a value for selling. It has been
solid waste does not include such materials. Syn- already proven that waste remains no more waste
onyms to solid waste are terms such as “garbage”, if it is properly managed and valued. Besides this,
“trash”, “refuse” and “rubbish”. effective local governance system, level of aware-
Solid waste is not a new issue as humans ness and sharing of responsibility are also equally
have always produced and managed trash in some important for effective and efficient solid waste
ways, but the current concern is the change in management (Vergera & Tchobanoglous, 2012).
amount and types of waste produced, and meth- Measures such as at-source segregation, recycling
ods of its management. Urban population growth and reusing of waste are also equally important,
together with the economic development leads but these require major efforts to raise the aware-
to increasing generation of municipal solid waste ness of the community and develop participation
(MSW). Improper disposal of biomedical waste (Practical Action Nepal, 2008).
also contributes to pollution and public health As a first attempt to collect SWM baseline
hazards in the localities (ADB, 2013). Solid Waste information at national level, SWM and Resource
Management (SWM) is the discipline associated Mobilization Centre carried out baseline survey
with controlling the generation, storage, collec- of the municipalities in Nepal in 2003.The Solid
tion, transfer and transport, processing and fi- Waste Management and Resource Mobilization
nally disposal of solid waste in a manner that is Center (SWMRMC)and others made efforts to
in accordance with the best principles of health, update these data, but due to lack of consistent
economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, scientific methods and the different assumptions
and other environmental considerations (Organi- made to quantify the waste generated from differ-
zation, 2007). ent sources, the findings of these waste quantity and
Because of higher demand for rest of the quality studies were inconsistent (ADB, 2013).
public services in most of the municipalities in
Nepal, solid waste management accords a low
priority in the country. Due to the lack of SWM Waste Generation in Urban (Municipalities) Areas
baseline information, local bodies have not been
able to produce the waste management plans and Management of solid waste is a major challenge
data related to the functional elements of SWM. in urban areas throughout the world including
For the sound management of solid waste, it is im- Asian cities. Waste generated from various human
portant to know the waste characteristics (Dangi activities, both industrial and domestic, can result
et al., 2010) which are controlled by culture, cli- negative consequences on the environment and ul-
mate, socio-economic variable and institutional timately to human health. The average per capita
setting (Vergera&Tchobanoglous, 2012). waste generation of major Asian cities (Table 1)
In the recent years, human beings have shows that generation of solid waste in Kathmandu
been exploring and using more and more resourc- is less compared to other Asian cities but the prob-
es that have continuously added more and more lem in reality is severe due to inadequate manage-
wastes into the environment. With increase in ment interventions.
level of public awareness about the need of solid In Nepal, solid waste management is one
waste management, it has now come to the top of the major environmental issues, especially in
of the priorities. So, waste management has been the urban areas (Rijal and Sapkota, 2014). Waste
an important issue of environmental protection. segregation, though has been started in most of
In this context, integrated and participatory ap- the hospitals, other aspects of healthcare waste
proach to tackle with the solid waste is needed management such as transportation and disposal

102  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

are not taken into consideration adequately; in Table 1: Average Per Capita Waste Generation of Major Asian Cities
many cases are being disposed along with munici- Country City Generation
(kg/capita/day)
pal solid waste. Similarly, increase in production
Bangladesh Gazipur 0.25
of electrical and electronic wastes and hazardous
waste are also the emerging concerns in urban Bhutan Thimphu 0.54

areas. Solid waste being dumped in riverbanks, China Beijing 0.80

roadsides, or other low-lying lands, or in open India Doddaballapur 0.28
pits or temporary open piles of the municipalities, Indonesia JogJakarta 0.90
without significant technical and socio-economic *Nepal Kathmandu 0.23
studies is also one of the problems in solid waste Pakistan Lahore 0.84
management in the municipalities of Nepal. Philippines Quezon City 0.67
The survey conducted by Solid Waste Sri Lanka Balangoda 0.83
Management Technical Support Center (formerly Thailand Bangkok 1.10
Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobiliza- Source: Guerrero et al., 2013; *ADB, 2013
tion Center) has determined different waste frac-
tions in terms of percentage composition by wet
weight obtained from the analysis of waste samples Figure 1: Average Value (by wet weight) of Waste in Municipalities
of each municipality. Average physical composi-
tion of household waste of 58 municipalities in
four major waste components, i.e. organic waste,
recyclable, inert and others (with average values by
wet weight %), that play a vital role in treatment
and recycling/resource recovery aspects of waste
management has been represented graphically
in Figure 1.The study showed that 61.6% of the
municipal waste constitutes organic waste (SWM-
RMC, 2008). Though initiatives have been taken
for management of organic fraction of solid wastes
in urban centers like Kathmandu, the composi-
tion of its part is more or less in increasing trend Source: SWMRMC, 2008
(Figure 2; Table 3).

Figure 2: Organic Fraction in Solid Waste in Kathmandu Valley

Characteristics of the Solid Waste

Figure 3 shows waste production from 2006/07

to 2012/13 by 58 municipalities, reflecting the
increasing trend of generation of solid waste in re-
cent years, except the slight decrease for the year
2012/2013. The generation of solid waste in oth-
er newly declared 133 municipalities may reflect
similar conditions due to related circumstances
faced by all the municipalities with inadequate
technical, infrastructural and financial resources
to tackle the problems of waste management.
A study by ADB on solid waste of differ-
ent municipalities in different ecological regions
shows the variation in composition of average
Source: SWMRMC, 2008

CHAPTER 8  Solid Waste Management: Status and Challenges in Nepal  | 103

 Figure 3: Average Waste Generation by Municipalities of Nepal materials (i.e., plastic, paper and paper products,
metal, glass, rubber and leather, and textiles) com-
prised 29% on average.

Healthcare, E-waste and Chemical Wastes

Waste generated during the process of examining

and treating patients, immunization and conduct-
ing research in health care facilities (hospitals, clin-
ics, medical research centres, and laboratories) is
known as healthcare waste. About 80 percent of
such waste is normally ordinary or non-hazardous
in nature, while about 20 percent is hazardous (in-
fectious waste, pathological waste, chemical waste
Source: CBS, 2013; Rijal and Sapkota, 2014 and sharps) and it is important to think that al-
though only about 20 percent of the health care
waste is hazardous, if all the waste is mixed to-
Table 2: Average Household Wastes Generation and Composition (%) gether, all of the waste becomes hazardous (http://
in Different Ecological Regions swmtsc.gov.np).
Composition Ecological regions Healthcare waste management is ranked as
Mountain Hill Terai the highest priority need for capacity-building in
municipality municipality municipality
Nepal (http://www.unep.org). Most of the hospi-
Average daily waste generation (kg/households) 0.49 0.72 0.88
tals practice disposing of healthcare waste along-
Organic waste 51 65 69
side municipal solid waste. Waste segregation
Plastics 11 13 10
though have been initiated, must be improved by
Paper and paper products 11 9 9
the majority of healthcare institutions, as well as
Glass 3 4 2
special consideration should be given on scientific
Metals 3 2 2
basis of transportation and disposal of such cat-
Textiles 4 3 2
egory of wastes.
Rubber and leather 1 1 1
ENPHO (2001) has reported an average
Others 16 3 6
health care waste generation of 1.7 kg/person/
(Source: ADB, 2013) day and 0.48 kg/person/day of Health Care Risk
Waste (HCRW) at an average bed occupancy rate
daily household waste (Table 2). Terai municipali- of around 65%. Out of 24 Health Care Institutes
ties generate the largest amount of per capita daily (HCIs) studied by Joshi 2013, information on
waste (ADB, 2013). The household waste com- amount of waste generation was available only
position analysis of 58 municipalities made by the from 3 Health Care Institutions (Patan Hospital,
study indicates that the highest waste fraction is National Kidney Center and Koshi Zonal Hospi-
organic matter (66%), followed by plastics (12%), tal; Table 4)
paper and paper products (9%), others (5%), and From above statistics, more than 50% of
glass (3%). Metal, textiles, and rubber and leather the waste in the hospitals were observed to be of
each accounted for 2%, 2% and 1% respectively general category type so waste segregation and
(ADB, 2013). The high organic content indicates collection are the most important process during
a need for frequent collection and removal, as well the process of health care waste management that
as good prospects for organic waste resource recov- minimize the volume of waste as well as separate
ery. The content of major reusable and recyclable nature of medical waste generated from health

104  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 3: Characteristics of Solid Waste in Kathmandu Valley
Components Waste composition (% wt)
a1976 a1981 a1985 a1988 a1995 a1999 b1997 c2000 d2003 e2013
Organic materials 67.8 60 67.5 58.1 65.0 67.5 65.5 69.84 70 73.22
Paper 6.5 19.3 6 6.2 4 8.8 7.3 8.5 8.5 6.89
Plastics 0.3 3.6 2.6 2.0 5 11.4 5.4 9.17 9.5 11.43
Glass 1.3 3.4 4 1.6 1 1.6 3.1 2.5 2.5 2.10
Metals 4.9 3.4 2.2 0.4 1 0.9 2.2 - - 1.06
Textiles 6.5 5.3 2.7 2 3.0 3.6 1.7 3.02 3 1.61
Rubber and leather 0 0 0 0.4 1 0.3 1.6 0.6 - 0.62
Wood 2.7 1.6 0 0.5 3 0.6 1.4 0.73 - -
Dust/construction debris 10 3.4 15 28.9 17 5.3 9.1 - 4.5 -
Others - - - - - - 1.7 0.23 2 3.07

a - UNEP, 2001
b - Jindal et al., 1997 (cited in Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2005)
c - http://www.fern.org.np/topics/swaste.htm#swaste, 2000 (cited in Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2005)
d - Joshi, 2003 (cited in Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2005)
e – ADB, 2013

care institutions. Health care institutions can sim- Table 4: Classification of Health Care Wastes
ply segregate waste on the basis of nature of waste Hospitals/Wastes Patan Hospital National Kidney Center Koshi Zonal Hospital
as prescribed on health care waste management Waste production per day (average, kg) 594.0 28 441.14
guidelines but only few hospitals have adopted the General waste 377 (63.5%) 14 (50%) 302 (68.4%)
process. Hazardous waste 165 (27.8%) 5 (17%) 125 (28.4%)
Most of health care institutions (govern- Sharps 52 (8.8%) 9 (33%) 14 (3.1%)
mental or non-governmental) are yet to carry with (Source: Joshi, 2013)
systematic segregation of waste at the place of
generation. National Health Care Waste Manage- few hospitals of Nepal have used containers as
ment Guidelines guides for practicing the system guided by guidelines of Nepal government, the
of color coding and labeling of waste containers training protocol and education mechanism in
but most of the hospitals were not found with most of the hospitals have not been functioning
such practice. though they have committed to apply legislation
The major problem of management of (Joshi, 2013).
health care waste in Nepal is the mixing of in- In recent years, e-waste management has
fectious hospital waste with municipal waste. also been a very important concern in Nepal (Pho-
Practice has been made for segregating wastes in tographs 1 and 2). There has been increasing trend
different colored bins but the wastes have been of consuming electrical and electronic goods, yet
transported by the sweepers (cleaners) to the cen- research focusing on the waste characterization
tral storage facility, either in plastic bags or in the and effects have to be undertaken in detail in Ne-
waste collection bucket and in most of health care pal (http://ipen.org/sites; Table 5). The responses
institutions, locations of the temporary storage are therefore conclude that Nepal needs to identify
not satisfactory and are close to water bodies or the e-waste concerns it faces. Specific policies on
premises of hospital (Joshi, 2013). The temporary e-waste are again absent, and the enactment of leg-
storage location, storage containers and storage islation is another priority (http://www.unep.org).
management have a direct impact on the result- The findings of the study conducted by
ing environmental and health risks at the hospital, Upadhyaya, 2015 in Kathmandu Metropolitan
which must be well sanitized and secured for ac- City (KMC) regarding the quantification of e-
cess only to authorized personnel. Though, very waste has been presented as follows as a case:

CHAPTER 8  Solid Waste Management: Status and Challenges in Nepal  | 105

 Table 5: Import of Major Eelectronic Products (in numbers) in Nepal Similarly, excessive use of pesticides and fertiliz-
Major electronic products Fiscal year ers contamination has impacted rivers and lakes.
2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 Heavy metals such as mercury and lead and chem-
Televisions 109,194 145,577 245,908 icals discharged from industries like cement and
Computers 46,566 25,238 216,713 textile have also contaminated natural environ-
Electric bulb, board and accessories 8,074,565 13,655,080 - ment. Other wastes which are hazardous in nature
Pager, mobiles, wireless phones - 26,208 28,661 are wastes produced from industries like dry cell,
Printers 12,854 52,003 - foam, iron galvanizing, paint, paper and pulp,
Photocopy machines 2,402 2,597 28,858 pesticides, pharmaceuticals, soap, tannery, dying,
Source: PACE Nepal, 2007
vegetable oil.

Kathmandu Metropolitan City, which contributes

Photograph 1: E-wastes Dumped after Recovery (Maharjgunj)
70% of the total MSW generation in the nation, pro-
duces 2,968 tons of e-waste annually. Taking into
consideration the total population of 1,744,240,
the annual per capita e-waste generation of KMC
is 1.70 kg. The cost associated with this fraction of
waste generation which is evaluated on the basis
of material recovery of those wastes is about 190
million Nepali rupees.

Waste Management Systems

Prior to 1950, solid wastes in Nepal were man-

aged locally. Almost all the wastes were used as
organic manure. In due course of time, significant
change in both volume and character of the wastes
generated led to haphazard disposal and dump-
ing in nearby open spaces. With good initiation
Photograph 2: E-wastes at the Scrap Dealers (Kalanki) at some municipalities to keep themselves in har-
mony with environment, still there are haphazard
disposal of wastes in other municipalities. Until
1980s, municipal solid waste management prob-
lems were negligible other than in Kathmandu
Valley. At present, solid waste management in
both industrial and domestic sectors has been a
great concern in urban areas.
After the establishment of Solid Waste
Management Technical Support Center (the then
Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobili-
zation Center: SWMRMC) in 1980s, with assis-
tance from GTZ, collection segregation at transfer
stations, transportation and final disposal in the
sanitary landfill at Gokarna was initiated. Even
now, municipal solid waste of the valley are col-
lected, transported and disposed off through in-

106  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

stitutional efforts of Solid Waste Management Photograph 3: Waste Collected at Teku Transfer Station
Technical Support Center (SWMTSC) and the
municipalities. The common practices of manage-
ment in the municipalities are street sweeping and
waste collection (door to door collection and col-
lection from storage points), transport (transport-
ing waste by tipper, trucks, tractors and trailers
and small pickups) and final disposal (dumping of
wastes) (Photographs 3 and 4).
The methods of final disposal carried out
in previously existing 58 municipalities of Nepal
vary among municipalities (Table 6). Some of the
wastes generated are recycled and recycling of ma-
terial separated by waste pickers has been an im-
portant part of solid waste management. In few of
the cases, wastes are composted at the household
level (composting and vermi-composting). In ad-
dition solid wastes should be managed in the inte- Photograph 4: Waste being Loaded for Transfer to Landfill from Teku
grated approach for sustainable management and
solutions (Figure 4). Nowadays, attempts have
also been made for resource recovery from solid
wastes.

Existing Legal Provisions for Solid Waste

Management

Existing organizational and legislative provisions

for guiding solid waste management in Nepal
have been outlined. It appears that legislative
framework for management of specific category of
solid waste needs to be framed.

SWM related Policies and Legislations

Enactment of Solid Waste Management Act in Figure 4: Strategy for Integrated Solid Waste Management
2011 is a major step towards improving SWM
practices in Nepal. Similarly, Solid Waste Manage- Efficient transfer and
transportation
ment Rules, 2070 (2013) has been framed which
Maximize composting
has emphasized about the responsibility of genera- Effective collection and recycling
tor in managing the chemical and harmful solid Environmentally sound, cost effective
waste. Effective management and efficient integrated solid waste Sanitary land filling of
and monitoring management system with maximum non-recyclables
Solid Waste Management Act, 2011was community and private participation
enacted by Nepal Government with the ma- Public education Hazardous waste
jor objective of maintaining a clean and healthy management
environment by minimizing the adverse effects
Appropriate policy/
of solid waste on public health and the environ- law and enforcement
ment. The local bodies, such as municipalities, (Source: http://www.wateraid.org)

CHAPTER 8  Solid Waste Management: Status and Challenges in Nepal  | 107

 Table 6: Waste Disposal Methods in Municipalities of Nepal 5. Local Self Governance Regulation, 1999
SN Types of disposal methods Number of municipalities 6. Environment Protection Act, 1996
(N=58)
7. Environment Protection Rules,1997 (with
1 Sanitary landfill 6
amendments)
2 Controlled dumping 5
8. Industrial Enterprises Act, 1992
3 Open dumping 25
9. Labor Act, 1991
4 Riverside dumping 13
10. Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 1982
5 Open dumping and riverside dumping 6
6 Roadside dumping 1
ii) Policies
7 No municipal system 2
1. Solid Waste Management National Policy,
1996
(Source: ADB, 2013)
2. Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan,
have been made responsible for the construction, 1993
operation, and management of infrastructure for 3. National Urban Policy, 2007
collection, treatment, and final disposal of MSW. 4. Industrial Policy, 2010
The Act mandates local bodies to take the neces- 5. National Health Policy, 1991
sary steps to promote reduce, reuse, and recycle
iii) Guidelines
(3R), including segregation of MSW at source. It
1. Health Care Waste Management Guidelines,
also provides for the involvement of the private
2008/09
sector, community-based organizations (CBOs),
2. Environment Friendly Local Governance
and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) in
Framework, 2013
SWM through competitive bidding. Procedures
for bidding, selection of the successful bidder, iv) International Legislations
and authority of the bidder in collecting tipping 1. Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-
fees (tariffs) against SWM services are provided. boundary Movements of Hazardous Waste,
In addition, the act authorizes the imposition and 1989
collection of service fees against SWM services, 2. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
and prescribes the basis for fixing such fees and Pollutants, 2001
procedures for their collection and usage. It also 3. Strategic Approach to International Chemi-
authorizes the local bodies to formulate rules, by- cals Management (SAICM)
laws, and guidelines, with the approval of the mu-
nicipal board. As provisioned in the act, the SWM Organizational Framework
Technical Support Center under the Ministry of Existing organizational mechanism for waste
Urban Development shall provide technical sup- management in Nepal scopes from planning level
port to all local bodies for effective and sustainable governmental body to local bodies. The ministries
SWM and advance research and development in directly responsible for solid waste management
this sector. are Ministry of Science, Technology and Environ-
Other policies, acts, rules and guidelines to ment, Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Devel-
govern municipal waste management and settle opment and Ministry of Health and Population.
the disputes that can arise during management The ministries are responsible for guiding and
and disposal of wastes which provide basic provi- supporting local bodies including municipalities
sions on the related aspects are: and VDCs. Similarly, the role of CBOs, NGOs
i) Acts and Regulations and private sectors working in grassroots level are
1. Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007 also noteworthy. However, plans and programs in
2. Solid Waste Management Act, 2011 this sector needs to be strengthened for integrated
3. Solid Waste Management Regulation, 2013 sustainable waste management.
4. Local Self Governance Act,1998

108  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Conclusion • Cooperation and coordination among private/
public sector organizations, CBOs, NGOs
Solid waste management has become a challenge and INGOs should be further promoted.
mainly due to the increasing rate of generation of • Almost all of the municipalities do not have
wastes, limited (municipal) budget as a result of the adequate financial, technical, human and
high costs associated to its management and lack managerial resources. Therefore, empower-
of understanding over a diversity of factors that ment of the municipalities in these regards is
affect the processes of waste management. Urban- essential.
ization, population increase and higher consumer • MSW in Nepal has a larger fraction of organic
demand are some of the many factors for increas- waste and hence 3R should be promoted to
ing the generation of solid waste in municipalities reduce the amount of waste to be finally dis-
in Nepal. This review found that the major per- posed off.
centage of the waste in the municipalities in Nepal • Integrated approach of waste management is
included organic waste that could be composted. needed for segregation, collection and final
Regarding solid waste in Nepal, various methods disposal.
of reduction of the waste such as reuse and recy- • Information and communication campaigns
cling can be further promoted in the municipal- should be prioritized to ensure the commu-
ity. The major concern is the generation of large nity participation for enhancing cleaner pro-
amounts of MSW and the challenges faced by duction and green productivity.
local authorities in its management. Strengthen- • Enforcement of legal/economic instruments
ing the capacity of municipalities and VDCs with is required along with policies formulation
sufficient infrastructures, technical, financial and for specific wastes like e-waste and radioactive
human resource coupled with strict enforcement wastes.
of policies will help for effective management of • Solid waste management options should be
solid waste. strengthened by enhancing research and de-
Similarly, development of regulations deal- velopment.
ing with specific waste stream should get a clear
priority. The comprehensive policies and strategies
are required in specific sectors (e-waste and radio- References
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Jindal R., Harada H., Shikura S., 1997. Solid waste management in Practical Action Nepal, 2008. Best Practices on Solid Waste Manage-
some Asian countries. In: Environmental Systems Reviews, ment of Nepalese Cities, Kathmandu, Practical Action.
Published by Environmental Systems Information Center (EN- Rijal K. and Sapkota R. P., 2014. Human Population and Environmen-
SIC), Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. tal Problems in Nepal, Population Monograph of Nepal, Vol-
Joshi P.S., 2003. Okarpauwa is not a solution. In: Himal a biweekly ume 3, Central Bureau of Statistics, Thapathali, Kathmandu.
magazine (in Nepali), 2–16 November, pp. 36–37. SWMRMC, 2008. A Diagnostic Report on the State of Solid Waste
Joshi, 2013. Health care waste management practice in Nepal, J. Management in Municipalities of Nepal, Pulchowk, Nepal.
Nepal Health Res Counc 23: 102-108. UNEP, 2001. Nepal: state of the environment 2001. Published by
Manfredi E. C., Flury B., Viviano G., Thakuri S., Khanal S. N., Jha P. K., United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in collabo-
Maskey R. K., Kayastha R. B., Kafle K. R., Bhochhibhoya S., Ghi- ration with MoPE HMGN, SACEP, ICIMOD and NORAD.
mire N. P., Shrestha B. B., Chaudhary G., Giannino F., Cartenı F., Upadhyaya K.., 2015. Electric and Electronic Wastes: Generation, Re-
Mazzoleni S. & Salerno F., 2010. Solid Waste and Water Quality cycling and Management in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. A
Management Models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buf- Master’s thesis submitted to Central Department of Environ-
fer Zone, Nepal, Mountain Research and Development, 30, mental Science, Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
127-142. Vergara S. E. and Tchobanoglous G., 2012. Municipal Solid Waste
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view of Environment and Resources, 277–309.

* Dr. Rijal is Professor and Head, Central Department of Environment Science, T.U.
** Mr. Adhikari is Lecturer of Central Department of Environment Science, T.U.

110  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 9

Human Settlement Situation in Nepal

Bhim Prasad Subedi, Ph.D.*

Despite long history of human settlement within the territory of Nepal, research works on settlement history, its development
and salient features are very scanty. Even in the contemporary times ever since the country began to collect, compile and publish
population and other data at various scales, i.e., since 1950s, settlements have been overlooked as unit of data compilation and
publication. The lowest unit of data reporting in the census publications is the Village Development Committee (VDC). At the most,
the total figures of population and households are available at ward level i.e., subdivisions of the VDC but not beyond. In this context
this document discusses the human settlement situation in Nepal. For lack of settlement level information, the analysis has been
largely limited to spatial analysis of population at various levels of scale. These various levels of scale are assumed to represent one
or other levels of settlement units. Older settlements in Nepal developed along river basins and along the spurs of the hills. Permanent
settlements in the lowlands of Terai are rather recent ones. As the population has grown rapidly in the country so has the expansion
of settlements from highland to the lowlands. Growth is reflected in the size of population, its growth and density and in these entire
components regional dimension is evident with lowlands and Terai demonstrating more prominence. At present about 62 percent
population live in rural settlements and a little over 38 percent in urban settlements of various categories. Demographically, urban
settlements demonstrate high growth rates, density and level of increase (change). Urban settlements are relatively better with
respect to literacy, human development, and basic facilities such as electricity, drinking water, sanitation and road lengths. Likewise,
urban areas are more developed with respect to housing related indicators such as types of houses, number of floors, construction
materials for outer wall and roofs. However, in terms of the age of the houses, differences by rural urban categories were marginal. In
the case of Jumla district for which data at the settlement hamlet level was available, suggests predominance of smaller settlements,
their locations guided by river valleys and safer sites plus larger settlements along river basins. On the whole, measured on the basis
of available information, human settlement situation in the country is not satisfactory in respect to locational characteristics and basic
service provisions and with respect to knowledge about the settlements per se. The need for more information at the settlement
hamlet level and consideration of such settlement units as basis for local level planning as well as for research and development is
immediately warranted for the local and regional development of the country.

Introduction regions - both ecological and development regions,

and in a limited case, the districts. Not all informa-
This chapter discusses human settlement situation tion is available at all four levels of scale. Therefore,
in Nepal based on the available information from the discussion is based on the scale of availability of
census reports and other accessible sources. The lat- information. Wherever, information is not available
est census report i.e., Population and Housing Cen- at lower scale, the discussion is limited to national
sus 2011 has been taken as the main source but in- and/or regional scale only.
formation from earlier censuses have also been used This chapter is divided into 11 sections. The
as and when considered appropriate. The unit of first section introduces the Chapter by providing the
analysis has been nation, urban rural categories, the main purpose, source of data and organization of the

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  111

 study. The second section places the concept of set- analyzed at various geographic scales ranging from
tlement in the Nepalese context and provides a flavor the world, through national and regional and the
of how Nepalese have conceptualized the concept local level.
of settlement. The third section focuses on popula- Research works on the history of develop-
tion size and growth in the country. The fourth sec- ment of settlements in Nepal are absolutely scanty.
tion concentrates on the spatial aspect of population Whatever literature exists is based on the books of
and discusses spatial pattern of population growth, history and mostly about Kathmandu valley (see
household size, sex ratio, size-class distribution of Sharma, 1989; Haffner, 1981/82). Notable old-
population, growth rate and population density and est settlements in Nepal such as Kathmandu, and
changes therein. The fifth section primarily focuses Pokhara are located along the river valleys but else-
on urban settlements. As far as possible, information where in the hills, the ridges and the elevated pla-
is based on 191 municipalities but in some cases lack teau like areas appear to be the preferred locations
of updated information has limited some discussions for settlements in the earlier days. The elevated
to 58 municipalities only. plateaus like areas are called “Tar” in vernacular
The sixth section provides a brief note on Nepali and thus settlements on these lands are re-
refugee population in Nepal. The seventh section ferred accordingly. Settlements such as Tumlingtar
presents details of housing conditions in the settle- (Sankhuwasabha), Jarayotar (Bhojpur), Rumjatar
ments by concentrating on foundations, materials (Okhaldhunga), Beltar (Udayapur), Palung-
used, roof, floors and the year of construction. The tar (Gorkha), Kharanitar (Nuwakot), Kalikatar
eighth section presents a brief account of sources of (Makwanpur), Majhimtar (Dhading) are a few
lighting and use of fuel-wood in the houses. The examples of settlements from Eastern and Western
Ninth section is about road network situation in the hills developed on such lands. On the other hand,
district and in urban areas. It also presents a brief of many settlements have developed on the plain-like
vehicle registration trend in the country. The tenth lands in the hills that are likely to be level land cre-
section is a case of settlement situation in Jumla dis- ated as the flood plain in the geological time. Such
trict where demographics and size class distributions settlements are variably refereed as Patan such as
of settlements in all village development committees Patan (Baitadi), Lekhpatan(Jajarkot), Dhorpatan
(VDC) have been discussed and this is the first time (Baglung), Malepatan and Chhorepatan (Kaski).
such information is provided by the census returns. Elevated plain-like lands in the hills are also called
The last section presents conclusion of the chapter Madi (Palpa and Chitawan), Sindhulimadi (Sind-
with a plea to pay attention to settlement studies and huli) and Madi in Sankhuwasabha. Normally, set-
their situations and clarity on the concept of “urban” tlements on such plain lands are referred as Patan
so as to make it internationally comparable. in the west and as Madi in the east.
Along the hills of Nepal, human settle-
ments have been developed on all sections: along
Placing the Concept of Settlement in the the ridges or hilltops, in the middle part and at
Nepalese Context the foothills. Those located on the hill tops or
ridges have nomenclature of “pur” or “gadhi/
Settlements are central to human beings and it kot.” These are settlements with sizeable num-
is through settlements that human beings adapt ber of houses to be referred as townships. Settle-
to the environment to suit his/her needs. Settle- ments with such geographic locations are spread
ments are also the most visible signs of human all along the hills. For example, Silgadhi (Doti),
interventions on natural earth. Location, distri- Amargadhi (Dadeldhura), Chainpur (Bajhang),
butions, forms, patterns and sizes of settlements Galkot (Gulmi), Rukumkot (Rukum), Ram-
are very important aspects for understanding the pur (Palpa), Kaskikot (Kaski), Bhirkot (Tanahu),
natural and social setting of any portion of the Charikot (Dolakha), Bhojpur (Bhojpur), Chain-
globe. Therefore, settlements can be studied or pur (Sankhuwasabha), and Jitpur (Ilam). Gadhi

112  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

are fort settlements whereas the purs are regular late 1970s and 1980s. Population growth, family
settlements. In Kathmandu valley and adjacent separation (inheritance related), a sense of secu-
hills, settlements developed on elevated open land rity (from wildlife and malaria) and relatively im-
have khel as their suffix; Jawalakhel, Jhamsikhel, proved access collectively encouraged their shift of
Bhuinkhel, Jhaukhel, Dhulikhel etc. residence from upland to the lowlands. This trend
Along the hills, villages such as Dan- continues to date and it would not be an overstate-
dagaun and Gairigaun reflect the development ment to mention that there are more settlements
of settlements on the ridges/hill tops and on the in valley floors of the hill region than there are set-
middle/lower sections of the undulating hill ter- tlements in the uplands at present. Nonetheless,
rain. Similarly, villages such as Jhulaghat (Baitadi), this needs to be further investigated.
Arughat, Benighat (Gorkha), Ramdighat (Palpa), In the mountain regions, settlements are
Dolalghat (Sindhupalchok), Tamaghat (Kavre), relatively small and compact. They are largely
Moolghat (Dhankuta) clearly demonstrate that found along safe grounds and/or close to the river
settlements developed in the river-crossings and/ basins where there is availability of drinking water
or along the river banks. More importantly, newly and where there is possibility for farming through
developed flood plains and/or river basins have be- terracing. Settlements of Manang (along Marsy-
come common sites for human settlements in the angdi river), Mustang (along Kaligandaki river),
recent decades. Settlements such as Dhunibesi, Humla (along Karnali river), Jumla (along Karnali
Mahadevbesi (Dhading), Manthalibesi (Ramech- river), and Dolpa (along Suligad river) are excel-
hap), Mai/Majuwabesi (Ilam), signify that they lent examples. The isolated dwellings and seasonal
have developed on the basins of small rivers. settlements in the pastures are there in the moun-
A conjecture on succession of settlement tains but their population size and their role in the
development can be made. Until 1950s and even societal affairs are relatively less prominent
till 1960s, human settlements in Nepal were pri- In the Terai region, settlements have been
marily confined to the ridges and middle sections developed in the elevated flood plains that are
of the hill slopes. It is after the opening of the Te- relatively older. Nagars, and purs are the com-
rai in the late 1950s and the campaign of malaria mon terminologies to denote notable settlements
eradication in the country that encouraged hill there. A few examples of nagar include Biratnagar,
villagers to settle in the basins. Until then, the hill Hanumannagar, Mechinagar, Gitanagar, Hari-
people normally preferred to live in the upland nagar, Jayanagar (Rautahat), Srinagar (Sarlahi),
(hills) rather than in the lowlands (basins). Basins and Krishnanagar. Most common settlements in
were largely used for farming and not for perma- the Terai have their suffixes such as pur or pura.
nent settlement due to unfavorable local environ- Such names also signify the terrain characteristics
ment. Temporary sheds were constructed to be of the settlements. Settlements with their identity
used during planting and harvesting seasons. Re- as pur or pura are distributed throughout Terai
garding migration pattern, hill to Terai migration from east to west. Bhadrapur, Chandranigahpur,
became notable at the national level in the 1960s Lalpur, Kanchanpur (Saptari), Janakpur, Bharat-
and 1970s, and the highland (uphill) to lowland pur, Basantapur (Kapilvastu), Motipur, Kohalpur,
(basin) migration became like a normal practice at Bhagwanpur, Kirantpur, Tikapur are some of the
the local level (see Subedi 2015). The terms such notable settlements demonstrating that settle-
as Gaun-besi garne, lek-besi, besi jarne commonly ments have developed in the uplands of the Terai
used in local conversation in the hills exemplifies plains. Likewise, Gunj, Gadi and Baas are also
this. The alignment of highways along the rivers common terminologies denoting notable settle-
and the foothills together with construction of lo- ments on the safer (having low risk of natural di-
cal roads (including durable bridges) by the gov- saster and wildlife) locations. Birgunj, Gaurigunj,
ernment provided impetus for highland residents Amalekhgunj, Bahadurgunj, Nepalgunj are a few
to permanently settle in the lowlands during the examples of gunj as settlements in safer locations.

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  113

 Likewise, Gadhi/Gadhs (or fort settlements) have and disease epidemics. It is only by 1941 that to-
also developed in the plain-lands of Terai. Kich- tal population showed an increase. The 1952/54
hakgadh, Simroungadh, Langgadhi, Dhangadhi count is taken as the first scientific census since
etc are examples of gadhi settlements. Bardibaas, it followed the UN standard in the content and
Khasibaas (Siraha), Dumkibas (Nawalparasi) and enumeration process. Onwards, Nepal has expe-
Koilabas (Dang) are also good examples of older rienced a rapid population growth till 2001. In
settlements in the Terai. a period of 100 years, Nepal’s population has in-
Overall, Nepalese landscape demonstrates creased by almost five fold i.e., from 5.6 million to
regional dimension of settlement evolution and 26.5 million (Table 1).
choice of locations for living. Much of the terrain The inter-censal rate of population growth
characteristics of settlements can be drawn from has been over 2 percent per-annum since 1952/54
their names and suffixes used therein. While the till 2001 (1961 is an exception). The doubling
settlements in the hills, show more of historicity, time of population between these years has been a
those in Terai show more of recent development. little over 33 years on an average. The latest cen-
Important point to note in the case of Terai settle- sus shows a low growth rate compared with the
ments is that there are so many nagars and they past 6 decades. But this small figure of growth
definitely signify better locations and better sites rates needs to be understood cautiously since the
but not all of them are urban settlements as per total population figure of 2011 i.e., 26,494,504
contemporary use of the term nagarpalika for mu- does not include total absentee population of
nicipalities. 1,921,494 in its arithmetic. Nevertheless, this low
growth rate demonstrated by 2011 census suggests
a positive scenario when rapid growth in the past
The Population Size and Growth had been blamed for sluggish development and
environmental degradations in the country. Socio-
The first official head count was made in 1911 demographically, it also suggests that investment
which recorded a total of 5.6 million people in on population should now be directed towards
the country. Since then data on total population quality development of population from an em-
of the country has been available on a decennial phasis on quantity control to date.
basis. In between 1911 to 1930, the population of
the country decreased due to World War casualty
Spatial Aspects of Population
Table 1: Population Trends, Inter-censal Growth Rates and Doubling Time
Area Coverage, Population and Density
Census Total Change in population size Inter-censal Doubling
year population annual growth rate time With respect to territorial units three ecological re-
Number Percent
gions namely mountain, hill and Terai have been
1911 5,638,749 - - - -
recognized in Nepal. Similarly, five development
1920 5,573,788 -64,961 -1.2 -0.13 -
regions namely Eastern, Central, Western, Mid-
1930 5,532,574 41,214 0.7 -0.07 -
western, and Far-western are also recognized for
1941 6,283,649 751,075 13.6 1.16 60
political-administrative reasons. The country is di-
1952-54 8,256,625 1,972,976 31.4 2.27 31
vided into 75 districts for administrative purposes.
1961 9,412,996 1,156,371 14.0 1.64 42
Table 2 presents the area, population and density
1971 11,555,983 2,142,987 22.8 2.05 34
of population by ecological and development re-
1981 15,022,839 3,466,856 30.0 2.62 26
gions of the country. Kathmandu, the capital city
1991 18,491,097 3,468,258 23.1 2.08 33
lies in the hill region. Since the valley has unique
2001 23,151,423 4,660,326 25.2 2.25 31
demographic and social characteristics, it has been
2011 26,494,504 3,343,081 14.4 1.35 51.3
treated as separate category.
Source: Respective population Censuses.

114  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 With respect to area coverage, Terai is the Table 2: Area, Population and Density by Regions
smallest region but with respect to population it Regions No. of Area coverage Population Density
is the largest region. On the contrary, with respect districts (p/km2)
Total area Percent Total size Percent
to area coverage, hill is the largest region and with (km2) share share

respect to population the mountain region is the Ecological

smallest. Population size by ecological regions in- Mountain 16 51817 35.2 1,781,792 6.7 34.4

creases from north to south and so is the density of Hill excluding Kath- 36 60446 41.1 8,876,984 33.5 146.9
mandu valley
population. The average density of population is
Kathmandu valley 3 899 0.6 2,517,023 9.5 2799.8
180 persons per sq km in the country. Terai region
Terai 20 34,019 23.1 13,318,705 50.3 391.5
shows the highest density with respect to three
Development
fold classifications of mountain, hill and Terai but
Eastern 16 28,456 19.3 5,811,555 21.9 204.2
when Kathmandu valley is treated separately it has
Central 19 27,410 18.6 9,656,985 36.4 352.3
the highest density demonstrating 2,800 persons
Western 16 29,398 20.0 4,926,765 18.6 167.6
per sq km.
Mid-western 15 42,378 28.8 3,546,682 13.4 83.7

Households, Sex Ratios and Population Growth Far-western 9 19,539 13.3 2,552,517 9.6 130.6

Table 3 shows the household size, sex composition Nepal 75 147,181 100 26,494,504 100 180.0

and population growth rates by ecological and Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2012.

development regions. Population and Housing

Table 3: Household Size, Sex Ratio and Population Growth Rate
Census (PHC) 2011 reported a total of 5,427,302
Regions Households Sex composition of population Population
households and household size of 4.9 persons. growth rate
Total HH size Male Female Sex ratio
Differences by regions are evident and Hill shows
the largest number of households. But Terai dem- Ecological

onstrates largest household sizes i.e., 5.3 persons Mountain 364,120 4.9 862,592 919,200 93.8 0.54

per household. The hill region shows the smallest Hill excluding 1,919,653 4.6 4,134,100 4,742,884 87.2 0.31 (1.06)
Kathmandu valley
household size.
Results of PHC 2011 showed more fe- Kathmandu valley 614,777 4.1 1,305,967 1,211,056 107.8 4.25

males than males among usual resident people in Terai 2,528,752 5.3 6,546,382 6,772,323 96.7 1.72

the country. However, the census also reported Development

1,921,494 absent population from the country: Eastern 1,231,505 4.7 2,790,483 3,021,072 92.4 0.84
of which males constituted 87.6 percent. The av- Central 1,964,045 4.9 4,841,624 4,815,361 100.5 1.84
erage sex ratio was 94.2 (males per 100 females). Western 1,066,362 4.6 2,292,597 2,634,168 87.0 0.75
The hill demonstrated lowest sex ratio (91.4) Mid-western 695,419 5.1 1,706,450 1,840,232 92.7 1.63
although Kathmandu valley showed otherwise.
Far-western 469,971 5.4 1,217,887 1,334,630 91.3 1.53
Terai has the highest sex ratio among ecological
NEPAL 5,427,302 4.9 12,849,041 13,645,463 94.2 1.35
regions. These regional difference in sex ratios in
general and that of ratios less than 100 are reflec- Source: Central Bureau of Statistics 2012.

tions of large exodus of males from the country. of national population are associated with one or
Table 4 presents population, sex ratio, more larger urban settlements. For example Cen-
households and household sizes by eco-develop- tral Terai has urban settlements such as Birgunj
ment (sub-regions) regions. Of all the sub-regions, and Bharatpur. Kathmandu lies in the Central hill
Western Mountain has the lowest share of popula- while Western Hill’s larger share is associated with
tion and Central Terai shares the largest propor- the presence of Pokhara sub-metropolitan. In Te-
tion. Likewise Central Hill, Eastern Terai and rai, migration was the main impetus of population
Western Hill are among sub-regions that share growth in the past (see Gurung, 1989).
large proportion of population. More impor- Household sizes differ by sub-regions.
tantly, sub-regions that share larger proportion Generally sub-regions of Terai demonstrate larg-

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  115

 Table 4: Nepal: Population, Sex Ratio and Household Size by Eco- there was rapid growth of population at the na-
development Region, 2011 tional level. Between 1961 and 2001, the average
Regions Population Number of Household annual growth rate has been consistently over 2
households size percent per annum. This roughly means with re-
Total Percent Sex ratio

Mountain spect to total population size there is likelihood of

Eastern 392,089 1.5 91.2 84,918 4.6
another Nepal in every 35 years. However, the lat-
Central 517,655 2.0 91.1 122,154 4.2
est census has suggested otherwise and if the rate
Western 19,990 0.1 116.4 4,834 4.1
of growth of population continues as per census
2001, we may have another Nepal only in 52 years
Mid-western 388,713 1.5 101.5 68,902 5.6
which probably is a positive note amidst rapid
Far-western 463,345 1.7 92.1 83,312 5.6
growth in the past. Table 5 presents the annual
Hill
growth rates of population for the last five inter-
Eastern 1,601,347 6.0 89.5 346,571 4.6
censal periods.
Central 4,431,813 16.7 100.5 1,016,181 4.4
Regional differences are but quite natural
Western 2,811,135 10.6 81.3 677,498 4.1
in the growth rate of population in the country.
Mid-western 1,687,497 6.4 90.2 332,153 5.1
The mountain region has always demonstrated
Far-western 862,215 3.3 87.0 162,027 5.3
low population growth rates and census results of
Terai
the last five decades have clearly shown this. The
Eastern 3,818,119 14.4 93.7 800,018 4.8 hill as it occupies middle position in its location
Central 4,707,517 17.8 101.7 825,710 5.7 shows the similar intermediate position in annual
Western 2,095,640 7.9 95.1 384,030 5.5 population growth rates. Both these regions have
Mid-western 1,470,472 5.6 93.5 294,364 5.0 shown growth rates lower than the national aver-
Far-western 1,226,957 4.6 94.0 224,632 5.5 age in all these inter-censal periods. Terai has re-
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2012. mained very dynamic in its demography and in
all inter-censal periods noted above, it has dem-
er household sizes than the national average but onstrated far higher growth rates than the national
Eastern Terai is an exception. Mid-western and average. This consistent high growth rate in Terai
Far-western mountains show larger household siz- can largely be explained by large scale in-migration
es. In the case of hills, the sub-regions clearly show from the hills and the mountain until recently.
regional difference from east to west. Household
sizes in the Eastern, Central and Western sub-re- Size Class Distribution of Population and Change
gions are smaller than those in the Mid-west and by Districts
Far-west. Districts differ in their population sizes as they dif-
fer in area coverage. In 1971, the average popula-
Inter-censal Growth Rates of Population tion per district (75) was 154,080. Manang (the
Inter-censal annual growth rates of population smallest district in population) had a total popula-
over the last six censuses shows that until 2001 tion of 7,436 and none of the districts had popu-
lation over 400,000. Forty one districts belong
Table 5: Population Growth Rates by Ecological regions to the size class between 100,000 and 200,000
 Inter-censal Periods Average Annual Growth Rate of Population 1961-2011 population. Only 7 districts had population more
 
Mountain Hill Terai National total than 300,000. In 1981 the average population per
1961-1971 - - 2.39 2.05 district increased to 200,304. Manang remained
1971-1981 1.35 1.65 4.11 2.62
at the bottom falling in the size class of less than
10,000 people. Largest number of districts had
1981-1991 1.02 1.61 2.75 2.08
population in the size classes between 100,000
1991-2001 1.57 1.97 2.62 2.25
and 200,000. One district (Kathmandu) had
2001-2011 0.54 1.06 1.72 1.35
population above 500,000 and three others had
Source: Respective Censuses.

116  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 6: Change in Size Class Distribution of Population by Districts
Size class Number of District Population Size

1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Less than 10,000 1 1 1 1 1 7,436 7,021 5,363 9,587 6,538

10,000-19,999 3 1 1 1 1 45,644 12,930 14,292 14,981 13,452

20,000-29,999 3 2 1 1 - 82,186 42,346 25,013 29,545 -

30,000-39,000 - 1 3 - 1 - 30,241 107,491 - 36,700

40,000-49,999 - 1 - 3 1 - 43,705 - 129,263 43,300

50,000-59,999 1 - - - 2 57,946 - - - 106,144

60,000-69,999 3 1 - - - 199,073 68,797 - - -

70,000-79,999 - 1 1 - - - 74,649 75,964 - -

80,000-89,999 2 3 1 1 - 171,279 262,736 88,805 89,427 -

90,000-99,999 2 4 2 - - 190,986 378,888 189,210 - -

100,000-199,999 41 28 25 16 20 5,802,698 4,433,030 3,842,156 2,240,152 3,014,094

200,000-299,999 12 18 20 23 19 2,752,028 4,293,871 5,034,279 5,570,510 4,816,345

300,000-399,999 7 10 6 11 6 2,245,707 3,505,384 2,092,131 3,920,048 2,014,279

400,000-499999 - 3 9 4 6 - 1,334,549 4,006,670 1,913,623 2,749,844

500,000 or more - 1 5 14 18 - 534,692 3,009,723 9,234,287 13,693,808

 Total (Nepal) 75 75 75 75 75 11,554,983 15,022,839 18,491,097 23,151,423 26,494,504

Source: Respective Population Censuses.

between 400,000 and 500,000 people (Table 6). Population Density

In 1991, the average population of the Since density reflects a relationship between area
district was 246,548. A large number of districts and population a brief discussion of relative sta-
belonged to the size class over 200,000. Fourteen tus of regions and sub-regions by their area is a
out of 75 districts had their population above precursor. Table 7 presents the area coverage and
400,000. More importantly, five districts reached relative status of 15 sub-regions (eco-development
the ladder of size class more than 500,000. In- regions). Relative status of major regions, ecologi-
crease in population in 2001 census resulted into cal and development, have already been discussed
shift of many districts from lower size classes to above. Of all the sub-regions, Mid-western region
higher size classes. Largest number of districts is the largest and Far-western Terai is the smallest.
belonged to the size class between 200,000 and The average areal size of sub-regions is 9812 sq
300,000 population. The average population of km. In the hill region, Far-western sub-region is
the district increased to 308.686.
The census results of 2011 showed an in- Table 7: Area Coverage by Regions and Sub-regions
crease of 44,574 people in the average district Ecological Regions Development Regions (area in km2) Total
population compared with 2001 census. The av- Eastern Central Western Mid- Far- Area Percent
Western western
erage population per district increased to 353,260.
Mountain 10,438 6,277 5,819 21,351 7932 51,817 35.2
Twenty four districts demonstrated their popula-
Hill 10,749 11,805 18,319 13,710 6762 61,345 41.7
tion sizes over 400,000 and there were 18 districts
Terai 7,269 9,328 5,260 7,317 4845 34,019 23.1
with population sizes over 500,000 people. By
Total Area 28,456 27,410 29,398 42,378 19539 147,181 100
now largest chunk of population lived in districts
with their population sizes over 500,000 popula- Percent 19.3 18.6 20.0 28.8 13.3 100

tions. Source: Department of Survey, Ministry of Land Reform and Management.

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  117

 Table 8: Changing Population Density by Regions and Sub-regions the smallest and Western sub-region the largest.
Ecological regions Year Development Regions (density in persons/sq km) Total On the whole, regional disparity in the areal ex-
  tent of sub-regions is quite evident.
Eastern Central Western Mid Far
Western Western As the country is characterized by high
Mountain 1981 32 66 3 11 36 25 population growth till lately, the density of pop-
1991 34 75 3 12 42 28 ulation in the sub-regions have also changed or
2001 38 88 4 14 50 33 increased accordingly. All sub-regions have ex-
2011 38 82 3 18 58 34 perienced change in population density. Table 8
Hill 1981 117 179 117 76 89 117 demonstrates changing population density by 15
1991 133 227 132 89 99 137
sub-regions. The country as a whole had a popu-
lation density of 102 persons per sq km in 1981
2001 153 300 152 107 118 167
which increased to 126 in 1991, 157 in 2001 and
2011 149 375 153 123 128 186
180 in 2011. By major ecological regions, Terai
Tarai 1981 291 256 182 92 88 193
has always demonstrated higher density. Given
1991 366 325 253 127 140 254
the terrain condition, the density of population
2001 454 422 333 168 205 330
gradually increases from north to south and this is
2011 525 505 398 201 253 392 true of all the census results. Likewise, Central de-
Nepal 1981 130 179 106 46 68 102 velopment region shows high density consistently
1991 156 226 128 57 86 126 in all censuses.
2001 188 293 155 71 112 157 In all four censuses i.e., 1981, 1991, 2001
2011 204 352 168 84 131 180 and 2011, the population density in the Eastern
Source: Respective population Censuses.

Table 9: Population, Households and Population Density by District, 2011

District Population 2011 Annual Growth Sex Ratio Number of Average Area in Population Density
Rate ( %) Household Household Size Sq.km. (persons / km2)
Total Male Female

Taplejung 127,461 60,552 66,909 -0.55 90 26,509 4.81 3,646 35

Panchthar 191,817 90,186 101,631 -0.52 89 41,196 4.66 1,241 155

Ilam 290,254 141,126 149,128 0.26 95 64,502 4.50 1,703 170

Jhapa 812,650 385,096 427,554 1.66 90 184,552 4.40 1,606 506

Morang 965,370 466,712 498,658 1.35 94 213,997 4.51 1,855 520

Sunsari 763,487 371,229 392,258 1.99 95 162,407 4.70 1257 607

Dhankuta 163,412 76,515 86,897 -0.19 88 37,637 4.34 891 183

Terhathum 101,577 47,151 54,426 -1.08 87 22,094 4.60 679 150

Sankhuwasabha 158,742 75,225 83,517 -0.03 90 34,624 4.58 3,480 46

Bhojpur 182,459 86,053 96,406 -1.07 89 39,419 4.63 1,507 121

Solukhumbu 105,886 51,200 54,686 -0.17 94 23,785 4.45 3,312 32

Okhaldhunga 147,984 68,687 79,297 -0.57 87 32,502 4.55 1,074 138

Khotang 206,312 97,092 109,220 -1.15 89 42,664 4.84 1,591 130

Udayapur 317,532 149,712 167,820 0.99 89 66,557 4.77 2,063 154

Saptari 639,284 313,846 325,438 1.14 96 121,098 5.28 1,363 469

Siraha 637,328 310,101 327,227 1.07 95 117,962 5.40 1,188 536

Dhanusa 754,777 378,538 376,239 1.17 101 138,249 5.46 1,180 640

Mahottari 627,580 311,016 316,564 1.26 98 111,316 5.64 1,002 626

Sarlahi 769,729 389,756 379,973 1.91 103 132,844 5.79 1,259 611

Sindhuli 296,192 142,123 154,069 0.57 92 57,581 5.14 2,491 119

118  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

District Population 2011 Annual Growth Sex Ratio Number of Average Area in Population Density
Rate ( %) Household Household Size Sq.km. (persons / km2)
Total Male Female

Ramechhap 202,646 93,386 109,260 -0.47 85 43,910 4.62 1,546 131

Dolakha 186,557 87,003 99,554 -0.91 87 45,688 4.08 2,191 85

Sindhupalchok 287,798 138,351 149,447 -0.61 93 66,688 4.32 2542 113

Kavrepalanchowk 381,937 182,936 199,001 -0.10 92 80,720 4.73 1396 274

Lalitpur 468,132 238,082 230,050 3.26 103 109,797 4.26 385 1216

Bhaktapur 304,651 154,884 149,767 3.01 103 68,636 4.44 119 2560

Kathmandu 1,744,240 913,001 831,239 4.78 110 436,344 4.00 395 4416

Nuwakot 277,471 132,787 144,684 -0.39 92 59,215 4.69 1,121 248

Rasuwa 43,300 21,475 21,825 -0.33 98 9,778 4.43 1,544 28

Dhading 336,067 157,834 178,233 -0.08 89 73,851 4.55 1,926 174

Makwanpur 420,477 206,684 213,793 0.69 97 86,127 4.88 2,426 173

Rautahat 686,722 351,079 335,643 2.31 105 106,668 6.44 1,126 610

Bara 687,708 351,244 336,464 2.07 104 108,635 6.33 1,190 578

Parsa 601,017 312,358 288,659 1.90 108 95,536 6.29 1,353 444

Chitawan 579,984 279,087 300,897 2.06 93 132,462 4.38 2,218 261

Gorkha 271,061 121,041 150,020 -0.61 81 66,506 4.08 3,610 75

Lamjung 167,724 75,913 91,811 -0.55 83 42,079 3.99 1,692 99

Tanahu 323,288 143,410 179,878 0.25 80 78,309 4.13 1,546 209

Syangja 289,148 125,833 163,315 -0.93 77 68,881 4.20 1,164 248

Kaski 492,098 236,385 255,713 2.57 92 125,673 3.92 2,017 244

Manang 6,538 3,661 2,877 -3.83 127 1,480 4.42 2,246 3

Mustang 13,452 7,093 6,359 -1.08 112 3,354 4.01 3,573 4

Myagdi 113,641 51,395 62,246 -0.07 83 27,762 4.09 2,297 49

Parbat 146,590 65,301 81,289 -0.74 80 35,719 4.10 494 297

Baglung 268,613 117,997 150,616 -0.01 78 61,522 4.37 1,784 151

Gulmi 280,160 120,995 159,165 -0.57 76 64,921 4.32 1,149 244

Palpa 261,180 115,840 145,340 -0.28 80 59,291 4.41 1,373 190

Nawalparasi 643,508 303,675 339,833 1.34 89 128,793 5.00 2,162 298

Rupandehi 880,196 432,193 448,003 2.17 96 163,916 5.37 1,360 647

Kapilbastu 571,936 285,599 286,337 1.71 100 91,321 6.26 1,738 329

Arghakhanchi 197,632 86,266 111,366 -0.53 77 46,835 4.22 1,193 166

Pyuthan 228,102 100,053 128,049 0.71 78 47,730 4.78 1,309 174

Rolpa 224,506 103,100 121,406 0.67 85 43,757 5.13 1,879 119

Rukum 208,567 99,159 109,408 1.01 91 41,856 4.98 2,877 72

Salyan 242,444 115,969 126,475 1.27 92 46,556 5.21 1,462 166

Dang 552,583 261,059 291,524 1.78 90 116,415 4.75 2,955 187

Banke 491,313 244,255 247,058 2.42 99 94,773 5.18 2,337 210

Bardiya 426,576 205,080 221,496 1.09 93 83,176 5.13 2,025 211

Surkhet 350,804 169,421 181,383 1.95 93 72,863 4.81 2,451 143

Dailekh 261,770 126,990 134,780 1.50 94 48,919 5.35 1,502 174

Jajarkot 171,304 85,537 85,767 2.39 100 30,472 5.62 2,230 77

Dolpa 36,700 18,238 18,462 2.17 99 7,488 4.90 7,889 5

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  119

 District Population 2011 Annual Growth Sex Ratio Number of Average Area in Population Density
Rate ( %) Household Household Size Sq.km. (persons / km2)
Total Male Female

Jumla 108,921 54,898 54,023 1.97 102 19,303 5.64 2,531 43

Kalikot 136,948 68,833 68,115 2.60 101 23,013 5.95 1,741 79

Mugu 55,286 28,025 27,261 2.30 103 9,619 5.75 3,535 16

Humla 50,858 25,833 25,025 2.25 103 9,479 5.37 5,655 9

Bajura 134,912 65,806 69,106 2.15 95 24,908 5.42 2,188 62

Bajhang 195,159 92,794 102,365 1.56 91 33,786 5.78 3,422 57

Achham 257,477 120,008 137,469 1.07 87 48,351 5.33 1,680 153

Doti 211,746 97,252 114,494 0.22 85 41,440 5.11 2,025 105

Kailali 775,709 378,417 397,292 2.29 95 142,480 5.44 3,235 240

Kanchanpur 451,248 216,042 235,206 1.77 92 82,152 5.49 1,610 280

Dadeldhura 142,094 66,556 75,538 1.19 88 27,045 5.25 1,538 92

Baitadi 250,898 117,407 133,491 0.68 88 45,191 5.55 1,519 165

Darchaula 133,274 63,605 69,669 0.88 91 24,618 5.41 2,322 57

Source: Population and Housing Census (PHC), 2011.

Terai has remained the highest. On the contrary, far, shows the highest annual population growth
Western mountain has the lowest density. Among rate. All three districts of Kathmandu valley dem-
sub-regions of the mountain, the highest change onstrate their population growth rates exceeding 3
has been noted in Mid-western region between percent per annum. If these growth rates for Kath-
1981 and 2011 and the Far-western region comes mandu valley districts continue, the valley popula-
next. Western mountain shows almost no change tion is likely to double in less than 24 years.
in the density of population over the last 20 years.
In the hill region, largest change (increase in den-
sity has been observed in the central region and Population in Urban Settlements
this is primarily the impact of migration of people
to the capital city. A gradual change in density is In Nepal, as elsewhere, there is a tendency of dividing
observed in the Eastern and Western hill. and discussing population into spatial categories of
urban and rural. Urban population refers to people
District Scenario of Population, Growth Rates and living within the municipalities designated by the
Densities government of Nepal. Rest of the population i.e.,
Table 9 provides the district level scenario of to- people living within the village development com-
tal population by sex composition, annual popu- mittees are categorized as rural population. In 2011
lation growth rates, number of households and at the time of census enumeration, there were 58
density of population in 2011. Districts have been municipalities. Thus, in 2011, there were a total of
arranged in the previous zonal order starting from 4,523,820 individuals living in the municipalities
the districts of Mechi zone and ending with dis- and this constituted 17.2 percent of the total popula-
tricts of Mahakali zone. Population composition tion of the country. On May 8, 2014, The Govern-
needs no further mention. The annual growth rate ment of Nepal had declared 72 municipalities and
figures are interesting. Of the 75 districts, 27 dis- by this declaration, the proportion of population liv-
tricts demonstrate negative growth rates and most ing in urban settlements by the middle of 2014 had
of such districts are from the hills and mountains. reached 27.2 percent (for detail see Subedi, 2014)
Fifteen districts show their average annual growth In 2014, The Government of Nepal de-
rates over 2.0 percent per annum. Kathmandu by clared 133 new municipalities incorporating sev-

120  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

eral VDCs. By the end of 2014, there were 191 Table 10: Urban Population Distribution by Regions 2011
municipalities and the total urban population Ecological Development Regions Total
reached 10,125,986. Thus, by 2014, of the total Regions

population enumerated by 2011 census, 37.2 per- Eastern Central Western Mid- Far- No. %
western western
cent live in designated urban settlements. Likewise
a total of 16,368,518 people live in rural settle- Mountain 95,838 80,746 0 19,047 59,284 254,915 2.5

ments of various sizes and the proportion living in Hill 341,536 2,849,075 884,467 281,970 157,735 4,514,783 44.6
rural settlements constitutes 61.8 percent.
Tarai 1,547,360 1,636,834 897,677 618,365 656,052 5,356,288 52.9

Regional Pattern of Urban Population No. 1,984,734 4,566,655 1,782,144 919,382 873,071 10,125,986 100
Table 10 presents the distribution of urban popula- Total
% 19.6 45.1 17.6 9.1 8.6 100
tion by ecological and development regions. There
is a relative concentration of urban population in Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, unpublished records 2014

Terai and almost 53 percent of the total urban pop-

ulation lives in Terai. The share of Hill region is less Table 11. Urban Area by Ecological and Development Regions 2014
than 45 percent. More importantly, the mountain Region EDR CDR WDR MWDR FWDR Total

region that shares 6.7 percent of total population of No. %

the country, shares only 2.5 percent urban popu- Mountain 669.4 296.0 0.0 102.0 550.4 1,617.8 9.3

lation. Compared with the share of total national Hill 1,429.0 1,858.5 1,460.2 956.5 1,003.5 6,707.7 38.4

population, Terai region is over represented and Tarai 1,992.7 2,833.8 1,736.8 1,190.1 1,369.5 9,122.8 52.3
both, the hill and the mountain region, under-rep- Total 4,091.1 4,988.3 3,197.0 2,248.6 2,923.3 17,448.3 100
resented with respect to urban population. % 23.4 28.6 18.3 12.9 16.8 100
Among five development regions, the Cen- Source: Calculation based on Survey Department, Ministry of Land Reform and Management, GoN.
tral region shares the highest proportion of urban
population. 45 percent of total urban population gion shares 9.3 percent of total urban area and this
lives in Central development region. This is pri- proportional share of mountain is higher than its
marily because this region has large urban areas share in total urban population (Table 11).
such as Kathmandu -the capital city, Lalitpur, Development regions differ in their share
Birgunj, Bharatpur and Hetauda. Eastern devel- of urban area but the interregional difference is
opment region shares about one-fifth of total ur- far lower compared with regional difference in the
ban population. This region also has a relatively share of population. Central development region
large urban areas such as Biratnagar, Dharan and shares the highest and is followed by Eastern de-
Itahari among others. Western development re- velopment region. The Mid-western region shares
gion shares about 18 percent of the urban popula- the least proportion. The proportional share of ur-
tion. Pokhara – the second largest city in the na- ban area is related to the total number of munici-
tion belongs to Western development region. The palities in the respective regions. The Mid-western
share of urban population in Mid-western and region has the lowest number of municipalities
Far-western development regions is fairly small (19) and the Central region the highest (68). The
compared with other regions. Eastern, Western and Far-western regions have 47,
36 and 21 municipalities respectively. Their stand-
Urban Area and Its Regional Dimension ings in the proportional share of urban areas are
Total municipal area covered by 191 municipali- also in accordance with their respective numbers.
ties in the country is 17,448 sq km. This consti-
tuted 11.9 percent of the total area in the country. Level of Urbanization
Similar to the proportional share in population, the With declaration of 133 new municipalities (72 on
share of total urban area is also the highest in the May 8, 2014 and 61 on December 2, 2014) Ne-
Terai. 52 percent of municipal area lies in the Terai pal’s urbanization level has reached to 38.2 percent.
and the hill shares 38 percent. The Mountain re- With this level of urbanization, Nepal ranks second

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  121

 Table 12: Urbanization Level by Regions and Sub-regions (eco-devel- Mountain the least urbanized one. With an excep-
opment regions) 2014 tion of central hill, all sub-regions of Terai dem-
Region Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total onstrate higher level of urbanization. A trend of
Mountain 24.4 15.6 0.0 4.9 12.8 14.3 decrease in level of urbanization is evident as we
Hill 21.3 64.3 31.5 16.7 18.3 39.6 move from south to north along ecological regions.
Tarai 40.5 34.8 42.8 42.1 53.5 40.2 Eastern region appears as an exception where the
Nepal 34.2 47.3 36.2 25.9 34.2 38.2
hill (sub-region) is the less urbanized than the
mountain. For example, the level of urbaniza-
Source: PHC 2011.
tion is more than 24 percent in eastern mountain
in South Asia. The only country to exceed Nepal’s and its corresponding hill’s urbanization level is
urbanization level is Maldives. India, Bangladesh, only slightly over 21 percent. In a similar man-
Sri Lanka and Pakistan are far behind Nepal in this ner, among sub-regions of Terai, Far-western Terai
matter. This comparison is simply based on per- shows highest level of urbanization where more
cent of population living in defined nagarpalika than half of its population lives in designated ur-
(municipalities). The issue of quality of urban life, ban settlements. Much of these differences noted
availability of urban facilities and urbanism among have to do with number game i.e., number of de-
residents of urban settlements are different matters fined municipalities rather than actual urbanism
and this is beyond the scope of this paper. demonstrated by these regions and sub-regions.
Urbanization by broad regions has been dis- However, given lack of other succinct measures of
cussed earlier. To reiterate, Terai is the most urbanized urbanization, the declared numbers of municipali-
region, where more than 40 percent of its population ties in a particular sub-region and population liv-
live in urban settlements and mountain is the least ing within this defined urban area have remained
urbanized region. With respect to level of urbaniza- the main indicators of measuring and comparing
tion, the hill and Terai are fairly similar and Hill is inter-regional urbanization in Nepal at this time.
behind only by 0.6 percentage point. Similarly, Cen-
tral development region is the most urbanized region Density of Population in Urban Settlements and
and it far exceeds others by a large margin. Western Their Change
and Eastern regions that rank second and third are In 2011, the urban population density was 580 per-
not much distant apart in their level of urbanization. sons per sq km. This refers to an overall man-land
Table 12 presents the level of urbanization by 15 (all) ratio of 191 municipalities. Urban areas in the
sub-regions in the country. Western Mountain does hills in general have higher densities than those in
not have any municipality and urban settlements are the mountain and the Terai areas. However, this av-
non-existent there to date. erage high density in the hill municipalities is largely
Of all the sub-regions, Central hill is the because of the dense population in the municipali-
most urbanized sub-region and Mid-western ties of Kathmandu valley. When Kathmandu valley,
which comprises 21 out of total 191 municipalities
Table 13: Urban Population Density and Change between 2001 and 2011 is considered separately, it shows the urban density
Regions 2011 2001 Change of 3738 persons per sq km. It is almost 6.5 times
Urban Population Density Urban Population Density in density greater than the national average density of urban
area (person/ area (person/ (%)
(km2 ) km2) km2 ) km2) area. On the other hand, the population density of
Mountain 1617.8 254,915 157.6 156 43,705 280.0 -43.7 urban areas in the hills excluding Kathmandu valley
Hill (all) 6,707.7 4,514,783 673.1 1,598 1,716,277 479.9 40.3 is only 351 persons per sq km. Table 13 presents
Kathmandu valley 636.98 2,381,302 3,738.4 97 995,966 10,262.4 -63.6
(KV)
the population density of urban areas by regions for
Hill (excl. KV) 6,070.72 2,133,481 351.4 1,501 720,311 479.9 -26.8 2001 and 2011 and their inter-censal change.
Terai 9,122.8 5,356,288 587.1 1,522 1,467,897 961.3 -38.9 Of all the municipalities Terai region has
Nepal 17,448.3 10,125,986 580.3 3,276 3,227,879 985.3 -41.1 96. Urban density in Terai municipalities is slight-
Source: PHC 2011 and Department of Survey, Ministry of Land Reform and Management. ly higher than the national average but lower than

122  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

that of the average for the hill region. The moun- Table 14: Urbanization Trends and Proportions of Population Living
tain region that has 13 municipalities has very in Urban and Rural Settlements
low urban population density compared with the Year No. of urban places Population size Percent of population living in
national average. This is because municipalities of (municipalities)
Urban settle- Rural settlements
the mountain region cover larger areas but they ments

have small population size. 1952/54 10 238,275 2.9 97.1

In 2001 the average urban population den- 1961 16 336,222 3.6 96.4

sity was 985 persons per sq km. By then, only 2.2 1971 16 461,938 4.0 95.8
percent area of the country was urban and there 1981 23 956,721 6.4 93.6
were only 58 municipalities. Terai had the highest 1991 33 1,695,719 9.2 89.9
urban density followed by the hill and the moun- 2001 58 3,227,879 13.9 83.8
tain. Of course, when 5 municipalities of Kath- 2011 58 4,523,820 17.1 82.9
mandu valley are treated separately, average urban 2014* 191 10,125,986 38.2 61.8
density was as high as 10,262 persons per sq km. Note: *The government of Nepal declared 133 new municipalities in by re-organizing more than 665 existing
Except hill, average urban density was high in Terai village development committees. It also annexed 98 VDCs to the existing municipalities in the same year.
Source: Based on respective censuses.
and the mountain in 2001 compared with 2011.
Inter-censal change in urban density is neg-
ative between 2001 and 2011. It is only the hill ing in urban and rural settlements. Over the last
(all) that shows a positive change of 40 percent. 62 years, the number of urban places has increased
Otherwise, all regions show negative change. This from 10 to 191. Likewise, the population living
is an interesting scenario and is largely a reflection in urban settlements has increased from 238,275
of government’s decision of reclassifying rural ar- in 1952/54 to 10,125,986 in 2014. This is an in-
eas into municipalities without due consideration crease of 42.5 times.
of population density as one of the criteria for de- By 2014, more than 38 percent people in
fining urban area. the country live in urban places of different sizes.
The proportion of total nation’s population liv-
Urban Population Growth and Urbanization ing in rural settlements is 62 percent. This sug-
Available data suggests that Nepal is rapidly ur- gests that though Nepal is still dominated by rural
banizing and the proportion of people living in population, the level of urbanization is rapidly in-
urban areas is increasing rapidly. Whether all 191 creasing. The rate of growth of urban population is
municipalities have basic urban facilities or not is consistently high compared with the rate of growth
a different issue but given that the government of of nation’s total population. Figure 1 shows the
Nepal has declared them as nagarpalika and that
Figure 1: Growth Rate of Urban and Total National Population
all those designated nagarpalika are considered as (1961-2014)
urban areas, one would get an impression that in
recent years, Nepal has progressed very well in its
development. This is because, level of urbaniza-
tion is normally taken as one of the indicators of
development and 38.2 percent population in this
country lives in municipalities. In 1952/54, the
country had only 10 prominent localities and the
proportion of people living in these urban settle-
ments was only 2.9 percent. The urban scenario
has changed significantly over the years. Table 14
shows the trends of urbanization and percent of
people living in rural and urban settlements. There
has been an increase in number of municipalities,
total urban population and percent of people liv-

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  123

 Table 15: Metropolitan and Sub-metropolitan Cities and Their Popu- minimum of 100,000 population, annual revenue
lation in Nepal 2011 of at least NRs. 100 million and facilities such as
Name of the urban Category Total population Location electricity, drinking water, communication, paved
area roads, high standard education & health services,
District Sub-region
Mahanagarpalika (Metropolitan city) infrastructure for national & international sports,
Kathmandu Metropolitan City 975,453* Kathmandu Central hill parks, city hall and other similar urban facilities.
mahanagarpalika Likewise, an upa-mahanagarpalika becomes eli-
Upa-mahanagarpalika (Sub-metropolitan city) gible for mahanagarpalika when this urban entity
Pokhara Sub-metropolitan 313,841 Kaski Western hill has: i) minimum of 300,000 population, ii) an
Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan 254,308 Lalitpur Central hill average annual revenue at least NRs. 400 mil-
Birgunj Sub-metropolitan 202,240 Parsa Central Terai lion and iii) facilities such as electricity, drinking
Biratnagar Sub-metropolitan 201,125 Morang Eastern Terai
water, communication, paved roads, University,
specialized health services, infrastructure for inter-
Bharatpur Sub-metropolitan 199,867 Chitawan Central Terai
national sports, adequate urban facilities and all
Janakpur Sub-metropolitan 168,617 Dhanusha Central Terai
other facilities specified for upa-mahanagarpalika.
Hetauda Sub-metropolitan 152,875 Makwanpur Central hill
In 2014, the government of Nepal not only de-
Nepalgunj Sub-metropolitan 141,700 Banke Mid-western Terai
clared 133 new municipalities, it also designated
Itahari Sub-metropolitan 140,517 Sunsari Eastern Terai a number of ordinary municipalities to the status
Butwal Sub-metropolitan 138,742 Rupandehi Western Terai of sub-metropolitan city. As a result, there are 179
Dharan Sub-metropolitan 137,705 Sunsari Eastern Terai ordinary nagarpalika, 11 upa-mahanagarpalika
Note: *excluding institutional population.
and one mahanagarpalika in the country at pres-
Source: Based on PHC 2011. ent. Table 15 presents name, district, sub-region
of mahanagarpalika and upa-mahanagarpalika to-
gether with their total population in 2011. Kath-
growth rates of urban and total population for the mandu is the only metropolitan city and there are
last 62 years. It is to be noted that the 2014 in figure no comparable municipalities in the country un-
is given not because data pertain to this yeas but til the date. Out of 11 upa-manaarpalikas, eight
because 133 municipalities were added during this of them are in the Terai and only three in the
year using 2011 census data. Thus, the calculation hills. Among them, four namely Pokhara, Lalit-
is based on the population census 2011 and not pur, Birgunj and Biratnagar, where the later three
2014. Overall the growth rate of urban population have their population of more than 200,000 and
is very high especially in recent years. Pokhara has population over 300,000.
Table 16 provides the municipal level sce-
Urban Population, Growth Rates and Densities by nario of total population by sex composition, an-
Municipalities nual population growth rates, number of house-
Three categories of municipalities are recognized holds and density of population in 2011 for 58
in the country. These are mahanagarpalika (met- municipalities. Municipalities have been arranged
ropolitan city), upa-mahanagarpalika (sub-metro- in the previous zonal order starting from the dis-
politan city) and nagarpalika (ordinary munici- tricts of Mechi zone and ending with districts of
pality). An area having populations of more than Mahakali zone. Total household sizes of the mu-
20,000 people in Terai and more than 10,000 nicipalities range from a minimum of 3,795 for
people in the hill and mountain and the annual Dasharathchand to 254,764 for Kathmandu. Fe-
revenue of NRs. 5 million or more in the Terai and males outnumber males in 30 out of 58 munici-
NRs. 500,000 or more in the hill and mountain palities and 29 municipalities have sex ratios over
with minimum urban facilities is eligible for des- 100 and two municipalities (Bhadrapur and Bane-
ignation as nagarpalika. An ordinary nagarpalika pa) show almost an even number of males and
is eligible for upa-mahanagarpalika when it has females. All municipalities show positive growth

124  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

rates except Dasharathchand. Damak and Itahari between years, some of them are still living in sev-
are two municipalities that demonstrate highest eral camps in the cities of Kathmandu, Pokhara
inter-censal growth rates (more than 6 percent and other places. At present, the number of Ti-
per annum). Other municipalities showing high betan refugees in Nepal is reported to be 12,540
growth rates include Madhyapur Thimi, Pokhara, according to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Nepal.
Birendranagar, Bharatpur and Kirtipur. During 1970s, Nepal also faced the problem of
Population densities are high in the munic- Bangladeshi refugees when there was internal in-
ipalities of Kathmandu valley and those of Terai stability in East Pakistan (then) during the process
region. Municipalities located in the mountain re- of independence of Bangladesh. But eventually
gions have low population densities. Kathmandu all these Bangladeshi refugees are said to have re-
demonstrates the highest urban density of 20,289 turned back from Nepal.
persons per sq km. Amargadhi, Kamalamai and The latest problem of refugees that Nepal
Triyuga are among the urban settlements having faced is that of Bhutanese refugees since 1990s.
the lowest population densities. These Bhutanese of Nepalese origin (BONO)
were settled in seven camps of Jhapa and Morang
with an assumption of repatriation to their home
Refugee Population in Nepal country. Their number was small in the begin-
ning but by the year 2000, the number of refu-
In the 1960s, a large number of Tibetan refugees gees living in the seven camps had already reached
entered Nepal due to unrest in Tibet (China). around 100,000 (see, Subedi, 2001). Despite
While many of them made their way to India in several rounds of bilateral talks between Bhutan

Table 16: Population, Households, Area, Density and Growth Rates of Municipalities as of 2011
Municipality Household Population Growth Rate Area (km2) Household Size Sex ratio Density (p/
(2001-2011) km2)
Total Male Female
Ilam 4,740 19,427 9,674 9,753 1.79 26.6 4.1 99.2 729.5
Bhadrapur 4,260 18,646 9,324 9,322 0.27 10.6 4.4 100.0 1,765.7
Damak 18,123 75,743 35,824 39,919 7.72 70.6 4.2 89.7 1,072.4
Mechinagar 13,196 57,909 27,856 30,053 1.66 55.7 4.4 92.7 1,039.3
Biratnagar SM 45,228 204,949 104,935 100,014 2.07 58.5 4.5 104.9 3,504.6
Dharan 27,796 119,915 57,562 62,353 2.29 103.4 4.3 92.3 1,159.9
Inaruwa 6,199 28,923 14,638 14,285 2.20 22.4 4.7 102.5 1,293.5
Itahari 18,306 76,869 37,606 39,263 6.23 42.4 4.2 95.8 1,814.2
Dhankuta 7,220 28,364 14,199 14,165 3.17 48.2 3.9 100.2 588.3
Khandbari 6,295 26,658 12,826 13,832 2.02 91.0 4.2 92.7 292.8
Triyuga 15,938 71,405 34,284 37,121 2.56 319.9 4.5 92.4 223.2
Rajbiraj 7,751 38,241 20,044 18,197 2.31 12.0 4.9 110.2 3,197.4
Lahan 6,483 33,927 17,536 16,391 2.04 20.2 5.2 107.0 1,677.1
Siraha 5,404 28,831 14,226 14,605 1.84 23.8 5.3 97.4 1,212.4
Janakpur 19,195 98,446 52,481 45,965 2.83 24.6 5.1 114.2 4,000.2
Jaleshwor 4,208 24,765 12,888 11,877 1.16 15.5 5.9 108.5 1,598.8
Malangawa 4,464 25,143 12,988 12,155 3.08 9.4 5.6 106.9 2,677.6
Kamalamai 9,320 41,117 20,360 20,757 2.25 208.0 4.4 98.1 197.7
Bhimeshwor 6,092 23,337 11,238 12,099 0.63 65.0 3.8 92.9 358.8
Banepa 5,546 24,894 12,446 12,448 4.53 5.6 4.5 100.0 4,477.3

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  125

 Municipality Household Population Growth Rate Area (km2) Household Size Sex ratio Density (p/
(2001-2011) km2)
Total Male Female
Dhulikhel 3,291 16,263 8,392 7,871 3.45 12.1 4.9 106.6 1,346.3
Panauti 5,956 28,312 13,768 14,544 1.02 31.7 4.8 94.7 892.3
Lalitpur SM 54,748 226,728 117,932 108,796 3.30 15.2 4.1 108.4 14,965.5
Bhaktapur 17,655 83,658 42,678 40,980 1.43 6.6 4.7 104.1 12,752.7
Madhyapur Thimi 20,337 84,142 43,510 40,632 5.67 11.1 4.1 107.1 7,573.5
Kathmandu M 254,764 1,003,285 533,127 470,158 4.01 49.5 3.9 113.4 20,288.9
Kirtipur 19,464 67,171 37,485 29,686 4.98 14.8 3.5 126.3 4,550.9
Bidur 6,279 27,953 13,608 14,345 2.77 33.5 4.5 94.9 834.9
Hetauda 19,890 85,653 42,981 42,672 2.24 47.8 4.3 100.7 1,793.0
Gaur 5,639 35,370 18,697 16,673 3.32 21.5 6.3 112.1 1,642.8
Kalaiya 6,852 43,137 22,686 20,451 2.91 19.0 6.3 110.9 2,272.8
Birgunj SM 24,180 139,068 75,382 63,686 2.12 21.2 5.8 118.4 6,569.1
Bharatpur 36,987 147,777 74,205 73,572 5.03 162.2 4.0 100.9 911.3
Ratnanagar 10,861 46,607 22,373 24,234 2.10 35.6 4.3 92.3 1,308.5
Gorkha 8,810 33,865 15,895 17,970 2.73 60.3 3.8 88.5 561.8
Byas 11,326 43,615 20,005 23,610 4.34 60.0 3.9 84.7 726.7
Putalibazar 8,190 31,338 14,122 17,216 0.55 70.1 3.8 82.0 446.8
Waling 5,959 24,199 10,987 13,212 1.70 34.8 4.1 83.2 696.2
Lekhnath 14,958 59,498 27,394 32,104 3.63 77.5 4.0 85.3 768.2
Pokhara SM 68,398 264,991 133,318 131,673 5.28 55.2 3.9 101.2 4,798.8
Baglung 7,859 30,763 14,710 16,053 3.89 18.4 3.9 91.6 1,676.5
Tansen 8,433 31,161 15,332 15,829 4.22 21.7 3.7 96.9 1,434.7
Ramgram 4,982 28,973 15,505 13,468 2.47 34.7 5.8 115.1 834.5
Butwal 29,687 120,982 60,870 60,112 4.73 69.3 4.1 101.3 1,746.3
Siddharthanagar 12,513 64,566 32,671 31,895 2.06 36.0 5.2 102.4 1,792.0
Kapilvastu 5,136 30,890 15,654 15,236 1.28 37.2 6.0 102.7 830.4
Ghorahi 15,517 65,107 32,149 32,958 4.12 74.5 4.2 97.5 874.5
Tulsipur 12,223 52,224 25,293 26,931 4.33 92.2 4.3 93.9 566.3
Nepalgunj 15,200 73,779 38,113 35,666 2.49 12.5 4.9 106.9 5,897.6
Gulariya 11,230 57,232 29,399 27,833 2.18 95.1 5.1 105.6 601.6
Birendranagar 12,045 52,137 27,221 24,916 5.08 35.0 4.3 109.3 1,491.8
Narayan 4,681 21,995 10,733 11,262 1.23 67.0 4.7 95.3 328.2
Dipayal Silgadhi 5,509 26,508 13,686 12,822 1.84 74.0 4.8 106.7 358.3
Dhangadhi 21,059 104,047 53,237 50,810 4.34 103.7 4.9 104.8 1,003.1
Tikapur 11,639 56,983 27,640 29,343 3.86 67.1 4.9 94.2 849.1
Bhimdatta 20,695 106,666 53,098 53,568 2.77 171.2 5.2 99.1 622.9
Amargadhi 4,786 22,241 10,963 11,278 1.90 139.0 4.6 97.2 160.1
Dasharath chand 3,795 17,427 8,295 9,132 -0.51 55.0 4.6 90.8 316.8

Note: M stands for metropolitan city and SM stands for sub-metropolitan city. This Table lists municipalities that existed during the time of census enumeration in 2011. Therefore, the population figures
and designations are as of 2011 i.e., before the government of Nepal annexed many VDCs to upgrade some of the municipalities to the status of sub-metropolitan and added new municipalities.

Source: PHC 2011.

126  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

and Nepal, their repatriation could not happen. Table 17: Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal
As a result, they have now been resettled in the Year Male Female Total Sex ratio
third countries such as USA, Australia and Scan- 2006 54,486 52,261 106,747 104.3
dinavian countries and other European countries. 2007 55,217 52,965 108,182 104.3
Table 17 shows the number of Bhutanese refugees 2009 48,014 46,429 94,443 103.4

living in Nepal from 2006 to 2013 by sex. Males 2010 40,987 39,526 80,513 103.7
2011 34,168 32,819 66,987 104.1
outnumber female and the sex ratio is quite high
2012 22,252 21,205 43,457 104.9
compared with the sex ratio of the host country
2013 18,175 16,993 35,168 107.0
(94.2 males per 100 females). Since 2009, their
number is decreasing because of their participa- Note: There are a total of 12,540 Tibetan refugees in Nepal in 2013 according to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Nepal.
Source: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal.
tion in the third country resettlement. By 2013,
the number of these refuges has gone down to al-
most one-thirds in Nepal. such as Pokhara and Lalitpur in the hill. It is in
Given refugee’s acceptance on third coun- these large cities that a large number of migrants
try resettlement, facilitation of this process by In- are present and majority of them live in rented
ternational Organization of Migration (IOM) and houses. Central and Western development regions
the willingness to receive them by host countries show sizeable proportion of houses/housing units
noted above, it is likely that the number of Bhuta- under rental use. As noted above the existence of
nese refugees in Nepal will further decrease in the larger cities such as Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bharat-
years to come. pur, Birgunj, Hetauda in the central region and
Pokhara, Butwal, Siddharthanagar in the Western
region has resulted into sizeable presence of rental
Housing Condition of Settlements and Regions use of housing there.

Ownership of House/Housing Units Used

PHC 2011 reported a total of 5,423,297 hous- Table 18: Households by Type of Ownership of House/housing Units
ing units used in the country. Among them more Used, 2011
than 85 percent was owned and 13 percent rent- Ownership of house/housing unit (in percent)
Spatial Unit Total Housing
ed. Table 18 summarizes the ownership of housing Owned Rented Institutional Others
units used by settlement categories and by ecologi-  Nepal 5,423,297 85.3 12.8 0.6 1.3
cal and development regional categories. There
 Settlement category
was a clear difference in the ownership and rent-
Urban 1,045,575 56.8 40.2 1.7 1.3
ing of housing units used by settlement categories.
In rural settlements more than 92 percent houses Rural 4,377,722 92.1 6.3 0.4 1.3

were owned by the users but in urban settlements  Ecological Region

only 57 percent had owned the housing unit used Mountain 363,698 92.3 5.6 0.6 1.5
by them currently. Likewise, more than 40 percent Hill 2,532,041 78.8 19.3 0.6 1.2
houses used by current residents in urban settle-
Tarai 2,527,558 90.7 7.3 0.6 1.4
ments are rented. Nearly 2 percent houses were
 Development Region 
under institutional use in urban settlements.
In the mountain and Terai region, more Eastern Dev. Region 1,230,743 89.1 8.2 0.8 1.9

than 90 percent housing units currently under Central Dev. Region 1,962,238 77.8 20.4 0.7 1.2
use are owned and less than 10 percent are ei- Western Dev. Region 1,065,599 85.4 12.7 0.6 1.3
ther rented or under other kind of ownerships. In Mid-western Dev. Region 695,014 93.0 5.8 0.4 0.8
the hills, nearly 20 percent houses/housing units
Far-western Dev. Region 469,703 94.7 3.9 0.4 1.0
used are rented. This difference is attributed to
the presence of capital cities and other large cities Source: PHC 2011.

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  127

 Foundation of House/Housing Units Used with wooden pillar foundation but such propor-
Of the total houses/housing units used, mud tion was less than 9 percent.
bonded bricks/stone was the foundation for 42 Regional difference in the type of founda-
percent and about 18 percent had cement bonded tions of houses/housing units used was obvious. In
bricks/stone as foundations. Difference by settle- Terai, wooden pillar was the foundation of housing
ment categories was clearly notable. In rural settle- units for about 46 percent houses and only less than
ments, about 50 percent houses/housing units had 17 percent houses had mud bonded brick/stone
mud bonded bricks/stone as their foundations and foundation. On the contrary, 93 percent houses
the corresponding proportion in the urban settle- in mountain and 65 percent in the hill had their
ments was only 22 percent. Rather largest propor- foundation of mud bonded brick/stone. Moreover,
tion of houses had cement bonded bricks/stone as of the three ecological regions, Terai had the largest
their foundations in the urban settlements. Table proportion of house/housing units having cement
19 presents the distribution of households by bonded bricks/stone foundation (i.e., 24 percent).
type of foundations of house/housing for various Among development regions, Eastern
spatial units. In urban settlements RCC with pil- region had largest proportion of houses with
lar was the foundation for more than 28 percent wooden pillar, whereas in the Mid-western and
houses and in rural settlements, the correspond- Far-western region, overwhelming majority hous-
ing proportion was less than six percent. On the es had mud bonded bricks/stone as their founda-
contrary, wooden pillar as the foundation was tions. Furthermore, type of foundation of house/
recorded for 29 percent houses/housing units in housing unit was much more diversified in central
rural settlements. The urban areas also had houses region than any other development regions.

Table 19: Distribution of Households by Foundation of House/Housing Unit, 2011 (in percent)
Type of foundation of house/housing unit
Spatial Unit
Total Mud bonded Cement bonded bricks/ stone RCC with pillar Wooden pillar Others Not stated
bricks/ stone

Nepal  5,423,297 44.2 17.6 9.9 24.9 2.3 1.1

Settlement Category

Urban* 1,045,575 22.0 38.2 28.4 8.5 1.0 1.8

Rural 4,377,722 49.5 12.6 5.5 28.8 2.6 0.9

Ecological Region

Mountain 363,698 92.8 2.2 0.8 3.2 0.3 0.7

Hill 2,532,041 64.8 13.6 12.8 7.4 0.3 1.1

Terai 2,527,558 16.6 23.8 8.4 45.5 4.7 1.1

Development Region

Eastern 1,230,743 28.8 15.2 8.0 41.2 5.9 0.8

Central 1,962,238 32.6 23.3 15.3 26.5 0.8 1.6

Western 1,065,599 59.4 19.2 10.5 8.9 1.2 0.8

Mid-western 695,014 72.3 6.6 3.4 13.6 3.3 0.7

Far-western 469,703 56.8 12.5 1.2 28.4 0.3 0.8

Note: * Figures in this category refer to 58 municipalities only.

Source: PHC 2011.

128  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Houses by Types of Outer Wall Difference in the use of materials for outer
PHC 2011 provides information on six catego- wall is also notable by ecological regions. In the
ries of houses/housing units based on materi- mountain, nearly 90 percent houses had their out-
als used in the outer wall of the house structure. er wall material made up of mud bonded bricks/
These include: mud bonded bricks/stone, cement stone and the corresponding proportion in the hill
bonded bricks/stone, wood/planks, bamboo, un- was 62 percent. On the contrary, less than 14 per-
baked brick, and other materials. Of all these mud cent houses in the Terai had used this material for
bonded bricks/stone appear to be more common outer wall of their houses. Rather bamboo came
and 41 percent houses had their outer wall made out as the outer wall material for largest propor-
up of mud-bonded bricks/stone. Cement bonded tion of houses in Terai. In the case of development
bricks/stone as material used for outer wall ranked regions, with an exception of central region (urban
second and 29 percent houses had used this mate- influence), the pattern of use of outer wall materi-
rial for outer wall. The use of bamboo as outer als were fairly similar.
wall material was also notable and one in every five
houses had used bamboo as outer wall material in Distribution by Year of Construction of Houses
the nation as a whole. Table 20 displays the distri- Distribution of households by year of construc-
bution of households by outer wall of the house/ tion of their houses suggests that about 27 percent
housing unit. Of all the spatial units the difference houses were constructed over the last 11-20 years.
by settlement categories are paramount. In the ru- Similarly, almost 22 percent were constructed over
ral settlements, more than 47 percent houses used the last 6-10 years and 21 percent for less than
mud bonded bricks/stone as their outer wall ma- 5 years. Very limited proportions of houses were
terial. On the contrary, in the urban settlements, constructed more than 50 years ago (3.3 percent).
more than 69 percent houses used cement bonded Table 21 provides detail distribution of house-
bricks/stone as their outer wall material. holds by year of construction of house/housing

Table 20: Households by Outer Wall of House/Housing Unit, 2011

Spatial Unit Type of outer wall
Total Mud bonded bricks/ Cement bonded bricks/ Not stated
Wood/ planks Bamboo Unbaked brick Others
stone stone

Nepal 5,423,297 41.4 28.8 5.3 20.2 1.1 2.1 1.1

Settlement category

Urban 1,045,575 17.5 69.4 2.4 7.1 0.7 1.0 1.9

Rural 4,377,722 47.1 19.0 6.0 23.4 1.2 2.3 1.0

Ecological region

Mountain 363,698 89.5 4.6 1.5 3.0 0.2 0.5 0.8

Hill 2,532,041 62.4 28.8 3.5 3.5 0.4 0.4 1.1

Terai 2,527,558 13.4 32.2 7.7 39.5 2.1 4.0 1.2

Development region

Eastern 1,230,743 26.8 21.8 6.5 42.9 0.2 1.0 0.9

Central 1,962,238 30.4 40.0 4.1 22.5 0.5 0.9 1.7

Western 1,065,599 56.7 32.7 2.3 4.3 0.6 2.6 0.8

Mid-western 695,014 66.2 11.9 4.4 5.3 5.8 5.6 0.8

Far-western 469,703 54.1 16.1 15.7 9.4 0.4 3.5 0.9

Source: PHC 2011.

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  129

 Table 21: Distribution of Households by Year of Construction of House/Housing Unit, 2011 (in percent)
Spatial Unit Total Age of the houses by year of Construction

Less than 5 6-10 11-20 21-50 51-100 101-150 151-500 More than 500 Not stated

Nepal 5,423,297 21.2 21.7 26.5 17.3 2.9 0.2 0.2 0.0 9.9

Settlement category

Urban 1,045,575 20.8 22.4 26.7 17.0 3.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 9.6

Rural 4,377,722 21.3 21.5 26.5 17.4 2.9 0.2 0.2 0.0 10.0

Ecological region

Mountain 363,698 16.7 17.9 28.7 23.8 5.2 0.4 0.3 0.0 7.1

Hill 2,532,041 17.7 19.1 27.7 23.0 4.6 0.3 0.2 0.0 7.5

Terai 2,527,558 25.5 24.8 25.1 10.7 1.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 12.7

Development Region

Eastern 1,230,743 24.1 22.6 25.7 15.5 2.6 0.2 0.2 0.0 9.2

Central 1,962,238 18.4 21.6 27.0 16.7 2.9 0.2 0.2 0.0 13.0

Western 1,065,599 18.2 19.6 27.9 22.4 3.8 0.2 0.2 0.0 7.8

Mid-western 695,014 25.1 23.4 27.1 15.4 1.9 0.2 0.1 0.0 6.8

Far-western 469,703 26.7 21.9 23.1 16.0 3.4 0.2 0.2 0.0 8.6

Source: PHC 2011.

unit used for various spatial units. Unlike materi- roofs of tile/slate and 23 percent with that of RCC.
als used, the foundations and ownerships where Nearly one out of every five houses in the country
large differences were found, the difference by ur- has thatch/straw roof. Table 22 presents distribu-
ban rural settlements was very small in the case of tion of households by roof of houses by settlement
year of construction of houses. categories and regions. The proportions of houses
Among ecological regions, Terai had rela- with roofs of tile/slate, galvanized iron, and thatch/
tively larger proportion of households whose straw are far higher in rural settlements than in urban
houses were constructed within less than 5 years. settlements. On the contrary, three out of every five
More than 75 percent household had their hous- houses in urban settlements has RCC roof and one-
es constructed within the last 20 years and more fourths had galvanized iron roofs.
than 50 percent over the last 10 years. However, in Very limited houses in mountain region
the Hill the corresponding proportions were 64.5 have RCC roof but the proportion with mud roof
percent and 36.8 percent respectively. The scenar- is considerably high (13 percent). Houses with
io of mountain region was similar to that of the their roofs of galvanized iron and tile/slate are
hill. The proportion of houses constructed over common in all three ecological regions. Of all five
the last 10 years was higher in the Far-western, development regions Far-western region is unique
Mid-western and Eastern region compared with in roof of houses where 65 percent houses have
Central and Western region. tile/slate roof.
Table 23 presents the distribution of households
Distribution by Roofs and Number of Floor of House by number of floor of house/housing unit. Nor-
Seven categories of roof of houses have been reported mally one or two floor houses are common.
by PHC 2011. These are: i) thatch/straw, ii) galva- Houses with more than two floors are limited to
nized iron, iii) tile/slate, iv) RCC, v) wood/planks, 19 percent at the national level. Obviously largest
vi) mud and vii) others. At the national level, larg- proportion of houses in rural settlements has one
est proportion of houses has roofs of galvanized iron floor. In the urban settlements one-thirds of the
(28.3 percent). Likewise 27 percent houses have their total houses have three or more floors.

130  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 Table 22: Distribution of Households by Roof of House/Housing Unit, 2011 (in percent)
Spatial Unit Total Roof of the house (in percent) 

Thatch/ straw Galvanized iron Tile/ slate RCC Wood / planks Mud Others Not stated

Nepal 5,423,297 19.0 28.3 26.7 22.5 0.8 1.1 0.4 1.2

Urban/rural 

Urban 1,045,575 3.6 25.2 8.7 59.8 0.3 0.0 0.3 2.1

Rural 4,377,722 22.7 29.0 31.0 13.6 0.9 1.3 0.4 1.0

Ecological region 

Mountain 363,698 20.4 24.9 32.9 2.4 4.2 13.0 1.4 0.9

Hill 2,532,041 19.0 31.6 22.1 24.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 1.2

Terai 2,527,558 18.9 25.4 30.3 23.2 0.6 0.0 0.4 1.3

Development region

Eastern 1,230,743 33.2 44.0 8.5 11.5 1.0 0.0 0.8 0.9

Central 1,962,238 10.0 22.6 31.5 32.9 0.9 0.0 0.2 1.8

Western 1,065,599 13.7 37.2 18.7 28.4 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.9

Mid-western 695,014 31.6 15.7 31.8 11.3 0.8 7.6 0.5 0.8

Far-western 469,703 13.3 8.9 64.6 10.7 0.5 0.5 0.6 1.0

Source: PHC 2011.

Table 23: Percentage Distribution of Households by Number of Floor of House/Housing Unit, 2011
Spatial unit Total Number of floor (distribution in percent)
One Two Three Four to five Six to seven 8 and above
Nepal 5,423,297 44.0 37.0 15.2 3.5 0.2 0.0
Settlement category 
Urban 1,045,575 37.9 28.3 19.3 13.4 1.0 0.1
Rural 4,377,722 45.5 39.1 14.2 1.2 0.0 0.0
Ecological region 
Mountain 363,698 10.6 47.5 40.8 1.1 0.0 0.0
Hill 2,532,041 19.1 48.6 24.9 6.9 0.4 0.0
Terai 2,527,558 73.7 23.9 1.8 0.5 0.0 0.0
Development region 
Eastern 1,230,743 57.0 32.4 9.8 0.7 0.0 0.0
Central 1,962,238 39.3 32.9 18.6 8.5 0.5 0.1
Western 1,065,599 43.0 44.1 11.8 1.1 0.0 0.0
Mid-western 695,014 41.2 40.3 18.1 0.4 0.0 0.0
Far-western 469,703 36.1 45.0 18.6 0.4 0.0 0.0

Source: PHC 2011.

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  131

 An overwhelming majority of houses in 2015 has made people realize the importance of
Terai has one floor but in the hill and mountain. implementation of building codes seriously in ur-
the largest proportions of houses had two floors ban settlements.
(nearly 50 percent). With respect to develop-
ment regions, central region has relatively higher
proportion of houses with three or more floors. Source of Lighting and main Fuel used for
In Eastern region majority of houses has one floor Cooking
only.
Electricity, kerosene, bio-gas and solar are the
National Building Code usual sources of lighting in the households. Of all
Department of Housing and Urban Development the households, electricity is the usual source of
has developed several building codes for construc- lighting for 67 percent. Kerosene and solar power
tion of houses. Table 24 gives the list of Nepal na- are reported as usual source of lighting by 18.3
tional Building Codes that are meant for adopted percent and 7.4 households respectively. Table 25
in the construction of housing. It has also specified provides information on usual source of lighting
the monitoring requirements together with speci- for settlement categories and regions. Despite 61
fication of contents. However, its implementation percent households reporting electricity as usual
has not been as successful as expected. The recent source of lighting in rural settlements the propor-
earthquake disaster of April 25, 2015 and May 12, tion using kerosene is also significant. Almost 22

Table 24: Nepal National Building Code, 2003

S. N. Building Code No. Contents Remarks

1 NBC 000 Requirements for State of the Art Design: An Introduction Building for Foreign Donor Organizations
2 NBC 001 Materials Specifications > 1,000 sq. ft. plinth area and more than 3 flats. Building designer and
3 NBC 002 Unit Weight of Materials monitoring by Architecture Engineer

4 NBC 003 Occupancy Load (Imposed Load)

5 NBC 004 Wind Load
6 NBC 005 Seismic Design of Building
7 NBC 006 Snow Load
8 NBC 007 Provisional Recommendation on First Safety
9 NBC 008 Site Consideration for Seismic Hazards
10 NBC 009 Masonry : Unreinforced
11 NBC 010 Plain and Reinforced Concrete
12 NBC 011 Steel
13 NBC 012 Timber
14 NBC 013 Aluminum
15 NBC 014 Construction Safety
16 NBC 201 Mandatory Rule of Timber : Reinforced Concrete Buildings with Masonry Infill < 1,000 sq. ft plinth area and less than 3 flats. Building designer and moni-
17 NBC 202 Mandatory Rule of Timber : Load Bearing Masonry toring by Architecture Sub-Engineer

18 NBC 203 Guidelines for Earthquake Resident Building Construction : Low Strength Masonry
19 NBC 204 Guidelines for Earthquake Resident Building Construction : Earthen Building ( EB)
20 NBC 205 Mandatory Rule of Thumb : Reinforced Concrete Buildings without Masonry Infill
21 NBC 206 Architectural Design Requirements > 1,000 sq. ft plinth area and more than 3 flats. Building designer and
22 NBC 207 Electrical Design Requirements for ( public Buildings) monitoring by Architecture Engineer

23 NBC 208 Sanitary and Plumbing Design Requirements

Source: Department of Housing and Urban Development.

132  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 25: Distribution of Households by Type of Lighting facilities, 2011 (in percent)
Spatial unit Total Usual source of lighting (%)
Electricity Kerosene Bio-gas Solar Others Not stated
Nepal 5,423,297 67.3 18.3 0.3 7.4 6.1 0.6
Settlement category
Urban 1,045,575 94.1 4.0 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.8
Rural 4,377,722 60.8 21.7 0.3 9.2 7.4 0.6
Ecological region 
Mountain 363,698 49.2 14.0 0.2 20.8 15.2 0.5
Hill 2,532,041 67.3 11.9 0.3 11.0 9.0 0.5
Terai 2,527,558 69.8 25.3 0.3 2.0 1.8 0.8
Development region
Eastern 1,230,743 63.6 25.8 0.4 7.3 2.4 0.6
Central 1,962,238 77.1 17.4 0.2 3.2 1.2 0.9
Western 1,065,599 78.0 15.0 0.2 4.5 1.7 0.5
Mid-western 695,014 42.3 13.8 0.2 20.0 23.2 0.5
Far-western 469,703 48.1 16.4 0.4 13.7 20.7 0.6

Source: PHC 2011.

Table 26: Distribution of Households by Type of Main Fuel Used for Cooking, 2011 (in percent)
Spatial unit Total Usual type of fuel used for cooking (%)
Wood / firewood Kerosene LP gas Cow dung Bio gas Electricity Others Not stated
Nepal 5,423,297 64.0 1.0 21.0 10.4 2.4 0.1 0.4 0.6
Urban/rural 
Urban 1,045,575 25.7 2.0 67.7 1.5 1.8 0.1 0.4 0.8
Rural 4,377,722 73.1 0.8 9.9 12.5 2.6 0.1 0.4 0.6
Ecological region 
Mountain 363,698 94.8 0.5 3.1 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.5
Hill 2,532,041 67.0 1.1 29.4 0.1 1.6 0.1 0.2 0.5
Terai 2,527,558 56.5 1.0 15.2 22.1 3.5 0.0 0.7 0.8
Development region 
Eastern 1,230,743 60.9 1.0 13.6 20.7 2.6 0.1 0.6 0.6
Central 1,962,238 50.3 1.6 33.9 11.0 1.6 0.1 0.6 0.9
Western 1,065,599 65.4 0.7 22.0 7.6 3.6 0.1 0.2 0.5
Mid-western 695,014 87.8 0.4 7.7 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.1 0.5
Far-western 469,703 91.1 0.5 4.1 0.2 3.3 0.0 0.2 0.6

Source: PHC 2011.

percent houses in rural settlements still use kero- of lighting and this is against 2 percent reporting
sene as usual source of lighting . In urban settle- the same in Terai and 11 percent in the hill respec-
ments, 94 percent houses use electricity for light- tively.
ing and 4 percent use kerosene for the same. Firewood, kerosene, LP gas, cow dung,
The use of kerosene for lighting is more bio-gas and electricity are the types of main fuel
evident in Terai region than the other two regions. used for cooking. Table 26 presents the distribu-
Solar is more notable in the mountain region and tion of households by main fuel used for cook-
21 percent houses use solar as their usual source ing for various spatial units. At the national level
CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  133
 wood/fuel wood has been the main fuel used for Dailekh, Ilam and Gorkha rank among the top
cooking for 64 percent households. Likewise LP five districts.
gas has been the main fuel for cooking for 21 per- The district scenario is different with re-
cent households. Furthermore, as yet, more than spect to population influenced per km. road.
10 percent households use cow dung as their main Parsa, Kathmandu, Rautahat Rupandehi and Mo-
fuel for cooking. rang appear on the list of top five districts with
The proportion using wood/firewood as their values of 13,177, 7,896, 7,819, 5,377 and
main fuel used for cooking increases from south 4,465 persons respectively. Manang, Mustang,
to north with mountain region showing 95 per- Rasuwa, Panchthar and Dadeldhura are at the
cent dependent on firewood for cooking. In Terai, bottom respectively.
22 percent households still use cow dung as main Of all the districts road density is highest in
fuel for cooking. With an exception of Central Bhaktapur. It has 94 km road per 100 sq km of its
region, the proportion of households using wood/ total land area. Kathmandu ranks second with 56
firewood as main fuel for cooking increases from km road per 100 sq km land area. Lalitpur ranks
east to west. LP gas is more common in the Cen- third with corresponding figure of 34 km road.
tral region than any other regions. Mahottari, Saptari and Dhanusha came next with
corresponding values of 18 km each for the former
two and 17 km for the later. Of the rest, Dailekh,
Road Network Panchthar, Sunsari and Dhankuta are among oth-
er top 10 districts.
Road Length, Influenced Population and Road Density
According to Statistics of Strategic Road Network Urban Settlements by Road Length
2009/10, there is a total road network of 10,835 The average road length of 58 municipalities was
kilometer in the country. Dolpa and Mugu did 97 km. Table 28 presents the urban settlements
not record any length of strategic road network by road lengths and respective urban population.
(SRN) by then. Of the total network 45.7 percent Of all the municipalities, road length was highest
road is blacktopped, 19.1 percent gravel, and 35.2 in Biratnagar (468 km). Butwal, Ilam, Bharatpur
percent is earthen road. The figure for population and Dhangadhi are among others belonging to
influenced per kilometer road is 2,445 persons. top 5 municipalities on road length respectively.
The road density is 7 km per hundred sq km of Similarly Pokhara, Hetauda, Itahari, Ghorahi and
the national territory. Table 27 shows the length Mechinagar are among the remaining top 10 mu-
of total strategic road network, influenced popula- nicipalities in road length. No black topped and/
tion and road density by districts. Of all the dis- or gravel road is recorded for Dasharathchand.
tricts Dang, Kailali and Makwanpur are among Khandbari, Madhyapur Thimi, Dipayal, Bhaktaa-
the top ranking districts with their total length of pur and Amargadhi appear on the bottom in the
strategic road network of 361 km, 302 km and list of road lengths respectively.
290 km respectively. Kathmandu and Morang Urban population per kilometer of road
ranked 12th and 13th respectively. On the other is 804 persons for all 58 municipalities. Madhy-
hand Manang, Humla and Myagdi are at the bot- pur records the highest value and Ilam records the
tom with total road lengths of 29 km, 30 km and lowest. There are 22,201 urban people per km in
31 km respectively. Madhyapur Thimi. With urban people of 12,117
With respect to black-topped road length and 10,405 per km, Khandbari and Kathmandu
Makwanpur, Kailali and Nawalparasi appear in rank second and third respectively. Among others
the forefront and Morang Banke and Kathmandu in the list of top 10 include Bhaktapur, Lalitpur,
follow them respectively. Eighteen districts did Dipayal, Damak, Tansen, Amargadhi and Pan-
not record any blacktopped road network. In the auti. Among municipalities with least number of
case of earthen road length Khotang, Sindhuli, urban people per km road include, in addition to

134  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 27: Total Strategic Road Network Length, Influenced Population and Road Density by District
District Total Population Total Area in Type of Road Population Influenced Road Density
2011 Sq.km. per km. Road (km./100 sq.km.)
Black Topped Graveled Earthen Total
Taplejung 127,461 3,646 0.00 25.50 7.60 33.10 3,851 1

Panchthar 191,817 1,241 34.86 57.00 107.00 198.86 965 16

Ilam 290,254 1,703 108.75 12.10 127.10 247.95 1,171 15
Jhapa 812,650 1,606 139.92 39.68 17.00 196.60 4,134 12
Morang 965,370 1,855 150.52 25.50 40.20 216.22 4,465 12
Sunsari 763,487 1,257 115.03 66.00 10.00 191.03 3,997 15
Dhankuta 163,412 891 76.68 49.00 9.00 134.68 1,213 15
Terhathum 101,577 679 8.42 0.00 76.25 84.67 1,200 12
Sankhuwasabha 158,742 3,480 47.70 25.00 62.00 134.70 1,178 4
Bhojpur 182,459 1,507 0.00 7.50 108.50 116.00 1,573 8
Solukhumbu 105,886 3,312 0.00 0.00 37.20 37.20 2,846 1
Okhaldhunga 147,984 1,074 0.00 8.79 62.91 71.70 2,064 7
Khotang 206,312 1,591 0.00 0.00 196.76 196.76 1,049 12
Udayapur 317,532 2,063 90.86 42.00 111.00 243.86 1,302 12
Saptari 639,284 1,363 135.00 65.50 46.00 246.50 2,593 18
Siraha 637,328 1,188 111.93 19.00 14.00 144.93 4,397 12
Dhanusa 754,777 1,180 104.15 47.50 43.50 195.15 3,868 17
Mahottari 627,580 1,002 99.79 59.00 26.50 185.29 3,387 18
Sarlahi 769,729 1,259 58.22 85.20 38.00 181.42 4,243 14
Sindhuli 296,192 2,491 42.50 29.60 129.90 202.00 1,466 8
Ramechhap 202,646 1,546 2.00 25.70 49.30 77.00 2,632 5
Dolakha 186,557 2,191 86.68 30.00 20.00 136.68 1,365 6
Sindhupalchok 287,798 2,542 107.31 19.84 69.10 196.25 1,466 8
Kavrepalanchowk 381,937 1,396 111.09 33.73 4.30 149.12 2,561 11
Lalitpur 468,132 385 61.37 36.04 33.20 130.61 3,584 34
Bhaktapur 304,651 119 81.50 23.09 7.00 111.59 2,730 94
Kathmandu 1,744,240 395 149.59 34.10 37.20 220.89 7,896 56
Nuwakot 277,471 1,121 94.71 21.00 25.00 140.71 1,972 13
Rasuwa 43,300 1,544 0.00 50.50 15.70 66.20 654 4
Dhading 336,067 1,926 114.88 20.00 30.20 165.08 2,036 9
Makwanpur 420,477 2,426 174.97 44.57 70.20 289.74 1,451 12
Rautahat 686,722 1,126 71.83 9.00 7.00 87.83 7,819 8
Bara 687,708 1,190 83.34 68.00 16.00 167.34 4,110 14
Parsa 601,017 1,353 30.61 13.00 2.00 45.61 13,177 3
Chitawan 579,984 2,218 136.25 54.00 39.00 229.25 2,530 10
Gorkha 271,061 3,610 23.84 34.00 119.40 177.24 1,529 5
Lamjung 167,724 1,692 19.17 1.00 51.87 72.04 2,328 4
Tanahu 323,288 1,546 118.09 9.32 34.08 161.49 2,002 10
Syangja 289,148 1,164 97.94 10.00 57.00 164.94 1,753 14
Kaski 492,098 2,017 87.46 5.00 20.50 112.96 4,356 6
Manang 6,538 2,246 0.00 0.00 29.00 29.00 225 1
Mustang 13,452 3,573 0.00 0.00 59.00 59.00 228 2
Myagdi 113,641 2,297 0.00 10.00 21.00 31.00 3,666 1
Parbat 146,590 494 24.11 0.00 26.50 50.61 2,896 10

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  135

 District Total Population Total Area in Type of Road Population Influenced Road Density
2011 Sq.km. per km. Road (km./100 sq.km.)
Black Topped Graveled Earthen Total
Baglung 268,613 1,784 6.34 5.79 89.00 101.13 2,656 6
Gulmi 280,160 1,149 44.54 0.00 79.00 123.54 2,268 11
Palpa 261,180 1,373 108.59 0.00 39.00 147.59 1,770 11
Nawalparasi 643,508 2,162 151.07 23.80 29.00 203.87 3,156 9
Rupandehi 880,196 1,360 130.19 19.00 14.50 163.69 5,377 12
Kapilbastu 571,936 1,738 139.97 54.00 29.00 222.97 2,565 13
Arghakhanchi 197,632 1,193 58.91 3.00 84.00 145.91 1,354 12
Pyuthan 228,102 1,309 68.00 12.00 80.43 160.43 1,422 12
Rolpa 224,506 1,879 33.40 61.00 94.02 188.42 1,192 10
Rukum 208,567 2,877 0.00 20.00 38.90 58.90 3,541 2
Salyan 242,444 1,462 4.00 101.66 70.00 175.66 1,380 12
Dang 552,583 2,955 148.22 169.00 44.00 361.22 1,530 12
Banke 491,313 2,337 149.81 42.50 34.10 226.41 2,170 10
Bardiya 426,576 2,025 121.43 60.99 29.00 211.42 2,018 10
Surkhet 350,804 2,451 112.14 66.70 56.30 235.14 1,492 10
Dailekh 261,770 1,502 78.09 37.77 128.37 244.23 1,072 16
Jajarkot 171,304 2,230 0.00 0.00 89.00 89.00 1,925 4
Dolpa 36,700 7,889 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0
Jumla 108,921 2,531 0.00 0.00 85.00 85.00 1,281 3
Kalikot 136,948 1,741 0.00 0.00 77.00 77.00 1,779 4
Mugu 55,286 3,535 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0
Humla 50,858 5,655 0.00 0.00 30.00 30.00 1,695 1
Bajura 134,912 2,188 0.00 0.00 43.00 43.00 3,137 2
Bajhang 195,159 3,422 15.60 14.82 48.36 78.78 2,477 2
Achham 257,477 1,680 42.00 0.00 85.00 127.00 2,027 8
Doti 211,746 2,025 115.46 6.00 28.00 149.46 1,417 7
Kailali 775,709 3,235 165.35 61.25 75.00 301.60 2,572 9
Kanchanpur 451,248 1,610 44.32 89.00 22.10 155.42 2,903 10
Dadeldhura 142,094 1,538 77.08 0.00 64.00 141.08 1,007 9
Baitadi 250,898 1,519 136.53 1.10 43.29 180.92 1,387 12
Darchaula 133,274 2,322 0.00 0.00 75.42 75.42 1,767 3
Nepal 26,494,504 147,184 4,952.11 2,065.14 3,817.76 10,835.01 2,445 7

Source: PHC 2011 and Department of Roads (Statistics of Strategic Road Network SSRN 2009/10.

Ilam municipality, Butwal, Ghorahi, Mechinagar and micros were registered till then. Over the last
and Dhangadhi municipality. 25 years, the vehicle registration has increased
from 84,248 to 1,557,478. This is an increase of
Vehicle Registration Trend almost 19 fold.
Vehicle registration trend is increasing and so is Of the total vehicles registered to date,
the number of vehicles in the country. Table 29 motorcycles constituted 77.3 percent and car/
provides registration details of various types of jeep/van constituted 9 percent. The year 2009/10
vehicles plying on the roads since 1989/90 to appeared as special and it recorded an abrupt up-
2012/13. Up to 1989/90 a total 84,248 vehicles surge in the registration of vehicles. For example,
were registered and among them the number of during 2008/09 a total of 102,570 vehicles were
motorcycle was highest (42.5 percent) and car/ registered but in 2009/10 this figure almost dou-
jeep/van came next (28.6 percent). No pick-ups bled and reached 201,787. Again in the following

136  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Table 28: Road Lengths in Urban Settlements, 2013
Municipality Type of Road (length in km) Population 2011 Urban Population per km Road
Black Topped Graveled Total
Biratnagar 148 320 468 204,949 438
Butwal 307.6 133.5 441.2 120,982 274
Ilam 8.0 350.0 358.0 19,427 54
Bharatpur 182.8 160.4 343.1 147,777 431
Dhangadhi 118.4 193.9 312.3 104,047 333
Pokhara 241.9 0.2 242.1 264,991 1094
Hetauda 107.5 112.3 219.8 85,653 390
Itahari 36.8 179.9 216.6 76,869 355
Ghorahi 30.5 167.0 197.5 65,107 330
Mechinagar 20.8 153.5 174.3 57,909 332
Tikapur 24.9 132.5 157.4 56,983 362
Birgunj 53.9 80.7 134.6 139,068 1033
Siddharthanagar 48.8 85.1 133.9 64,566 482
Triyuga 41.3 88.7 129.9 71,405 550
Bhimdatta 25.2 96.2 121.3 106,666 879
Janakpur 70.0 50.0 120.0 98,446 820
Dharan 85.3 28.8 114.1 119,915 1051
Gulariya 23.2 77.5 100.7 57,232 569
Kathmandu 96.1 0.3 96.4 1,003,285 10405
Tulsipur 4.8 81.0 85.8 52,224 609
Nepalgunj 30.8 48.6 79.4 73,779 929
Ratnanagar 13.7 64.5 78.2 46,607 596
Birendranagar 19.0 58.9 77.9 52,137 669
Byas 30.5 42.0 72.5 43,615 602
Kapilvastu 30.7 39.4 70.1 30,890 441
Lalitpur 57.1 10.8 67.9 226,728 3340
Inaruwa 28.4 37.9 66.4 28,923 436
Kalaiya 17.5 46.6 64.1 43,137 673
Kirtipur 31.4 30.1 61.5 67,171 1092
Kamalami 17.0 43.2 60.2 41,117 683
Lahan 20.6 35.2 55.7 33,927 609
Bhadrapur 38.2 10.7 48.8 18,646 382
Siraha 5.8 42.6 48.4 28,831 596
Gorkha 29.8 18.6 48.3 33,865 701
Bhimeshwor 36.1 11.0 47.1 23,337 496
Lekhnath 20.1 23.8 43.9 59,498 1355
Gaur 24.4 17.6 42.0 35,370 841
Banepa 22.3 19.4 41.8 24,894 596
Ramgram 9.4 31.1 40.4 28,973 717
Rajbiraj 8.6 31.6 40.1 38,241 954
Baglung 25.3 13.2 38.5 30,763 799
Putalibazar 15.6 16.9 32.5 31,338 965
Malangawa 7.7 22.4 30.1 25,143 836
Damak 10.7 17.4 28.1 75,743 2696

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  137

 Municipality Type of Road (length in km) Population 2011 Urban Population per km Road
Black Topped Graveled Total
Jaleshwor 12.4 11.0 23.4 24,765 1058
Dhankuta 18.9 3.1 22.0 28,364 1287
Dhulikhel 8.7 12.6 21.3 16,263 764
Bidur 7.1 10.3 17.4 27,953 1606
Waling 13.9 2.4 16.3 24,199 1481
Panauti 7.2 8.6 15.8 28,312 1791
Narayan 12.9 0.0 12.9 21,995 1710
Tansen 10.9 1.5 12.4 31,161 2515
Amargadhi 5.6 5.0 10.6 22,241 2098
Bhaktapur 5.6 3.0 8.6 83,658 9728
Dipayal 6.7 1.5 8.2 26,508 3233
Madhyapur Thimi 1.5 2.3 3.8 84,142 22201
Khandbari 1.7 0.5 2.2 26,658 12117
Dasharathchanda 0.0 0.0 0.0 17,427 0
Total 2339.4 3286.5 5625.9 4523820 804

Source: Ministry of Federal Affairs & Local Development and PHC 2011.

Table 29: Number of Vehicles Registered, 1989/90 - 2012/13

Year Number of Vehicles Registered by Type
Bus Mini bus Truck/Crane/ Car/Jeep/ Van Pick-up Micro Tempo Motor-cycle Tractor/ Power Others Total
Dozer/ Excavator Tailor
Up to 1989/90 4159 2064 8969 24050 - - 2359 35776 6769 102 84248
1990/91 458 226 800 1893 - - 856 4954 788 1549 11524
1991/92 413 148 1524 2115 - - 1207 8154 548 358 14467
1992/93 606 185 1491 2266 - - 62 7608 262 381 12861
1993/94 1168 77 1740 3049 - - 154 8653 1396 372 16609
1994/95 850 83 1629 3043 - - 241 9401 1814 353 17414
1995/96 486 82 1151 5261 - - 117 13855 2183 58 23193
1996/97 608 175 907 2993 - - 185 12633 1257 352 19110
1997/98 899 130 1291 4139 - - 344 12306 1265 51 20425
1998/99 872 19 978 2507 - - 388 17090 2248 37 24139
1999/00 494 122 829 3647 - - 789 19755 2542 102 28280
2000/01 1203 250 1271 5152 - - 232 29291 3519 77 40995
2001/02 868 475 1798 4374 - - 248 38522 3189 86 49560
2002/03 432 298 1212 2906 581 232 17 29404 2485 43 37610
2003/04 732 237 1477 7079 478 884 16 26547 2191 58 39699
2004/05 753 285 1592 4781 - 584 48 31093 1374 21 40531
2005/06 1528 663 2263 5114 36 66 60 45410 635 - 55775
2006/07 1564 806 3278 5156 736 138 12 72568 2942 1535 88735
2007/08 1419 1179 3594 4741 1588 31 18 69666 3297 206 85739
2008/09 1843 593 3643 6857 1287 128 20 83334 4663 202 102570
2009/10 1888 780 4524 12268 1975 145 9 168707 11460 31 201787
2010/11 1610 1370 1969 8510 3087 115 2 138907 7937 133 163640
2011/12 2085 1170 1333 8711 2981 155 10 145135 8413 91 170084
2012/13 3263 1328 3332 9595 5422 158 57 175381 9795 152 208483
Total No. 30201 12745 52595 140207 18171 2636 7451 1204150 82972 6350 1557478
% 1.9 0.8 3.4 9.0 1.2 0.2 0.5 77.3 5.3 0.4 100
Source: Department of Transport Management.

138  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

year the total registration went down to 163,640. persons. Census records 19,303 households and
In fact it is only in 2012/13 that the recorded fig- the average household size is 5.64 persons. The
ure of 2009/10 has been exceeded. government of Nepal has declared Chandannath
With increasing number of vehicles in the municipality by incorporating Chandannath and
country and limited road length especially in the other VDCs. During 2011 census administration
urban settlements of Kathmandu valley, the prob- and its publication, there was no municipality in
lem of traffic congestion, accidents, air and noise the district and thus the discussion below consid-
pollution have become serious issues especially in ers all settlements there as rural settlements. Jumla
the built-up areas of urban settlements. is expected to provide a general picture of settle-
ment pattern in the mountain region and similar
studies for districts of other regions are expected in
Rural Settlement Situation: A Case of Jumla the near future.

This section presents a case of settlement situation Setting the Context

in Jumla district. For the purpose of this paper, The lowest recognized unit of public dwelling in
the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) has pro- Nepal is gaun or basti. This translates as village or
vided its preliminary data on settlements of this settlement. A geographic area comprising one or
district. CBS is the state authority for collecting, more gaun or basti is called a Ward of a Village
compiling and publishing population data. Its lat- Development Committee. This is a common prac-
est census operation is Population and Housing tice in the hills and the Terai/Madhesh and these
Census (PHC) 2011. It has published population Wards are the subdivisions of officially recognized
and housing data at the national, regional, district politico-administrative division known as VDC.
and VDC level. The lowest unit for publication In the mountain region of the country, sometimes
of data is the VDC/Municipality. At the ward a single settlement may be divided into more than
level, the household and population disaggregated one Ward and this happens in VDCs with limited
by male and female are reported and no further number of households and/or population. Because
details are published. More importantly, for vari- data made available is preliminary, a few missing
ous technical and practical reasons, it has not been cases are reported. Further works by the CBS is ex-
able to bring all these settlement level data to the pected to address such limitation. For the purpose
public. The PHC 2011 household questionnaire of presenting an overall picture of the district at the
contains space to report information of the re- settlement level, the available information is con-
spondent households by small village (gaun) or sidered to be adequate. This is the first time that
settlement (basti) or tole but according to CBS settlement level analysis is being done based on in-
sources, this information is yet to be processed. A formation available from census returns.
VDC is divided into 9 Wards but wards do not Before analyzing the settlement situation,
have any administrative setting and formal role a note on conceptual aspect of data is essential.
except there are representatives from the wards in The concept of settlement (as a unit) is based on
the VDC level political set-up. In the mean time the naming of a particular village or basti or tole.
their completeness are not regorously verified be- Within the boundary of VDC or municipality,
cause these information are not published yet. single dwellings or assemblage of dwellings within
Ecologically, Jumla district lies in the moun- a particular place have their place names and peo-
tain region. Politico-administratively, it is part of ple from outside recognize the place or settlement
Mid-western Development Region. It is one of by this name. Likewise, the residents normally use
the five districts of Karnali zone. With an area of this place name in their personal documents and to
2,531 sq km, the district has a total of 108,921 refer their place identity in their daily lives. Some-
people according to PHC 2011. Population den- times an isolated single dwelling has been referred
sity is 43 persons per sq km and sex ratio of 101.6 by a particular name and other times more than

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  139

 100 households living in a compact settlement has is recognized by the neighboring localities, that
been referred by a single name. Thus, settlement particular geographic entity is considered a settle-
sizes vary and it is a common feature of rural set- ment. This definition has some limitations with
tlements throughout the country. The enumera- respect to clear boundary demarcation in a strict
tors in the census 2011 were asked to record this sense but for the absolute lack of further informa-
information in the household survey form of the tion, there is no alternative at this time.
census administration. Geographic boundaries of
settlement are as per the residents’ “demarcation” Settlement Pattern
of the extent of area to be covered by the name. As A total of 388 settlements of different sizes in
long as the households use the particular name of 30 VDCs are recorded in Jumla by PHC 2011.
the settlement in their documents and the name The settlement sizes range from single dwelling
to more than 210 households. At least 11 small-
est settlements with single dwelling are recorded.
Figure 2: A Sample Image of Rural Settlement Distribution in Jumla Larger settlements include Bharatiwada (Chandan
Nath VDC) with 212 households and Bijayanagar
(Mahat VDC) with 176 households. “A sample
image map of distribution pattern of rural settle-
ments in Jumla district is presented in Figure 2.”
Table 30 provides information on dis-
tribution of settlements by size of households,
total population in the households and average
households per settlement based on its size. It
also provides information on share of particular
settlement size on total settlements. Settlements
have been classified into 12 categories based on
the number of households in the settlement. In
a settlement classification with 10 intervals, larg-
est proportion of settlements (15.5%) belongs
to the size class of 10-19 households. Nearly 12
Table 30: Distribution of Settlements by Size Class and Average percent settlement has less than 10 households
Households, Jumla within their premises. Of the total settlements,
Settlement size No. of Total Average Percent share almost 60 percent settlements has less than 50
settlement households in HH per of settlement households and only about eight percent has
the settlement settlement size
100 or more households. Among 29 settlements
<5 HH 25 53 2.1 6.4
with more than 100 households, eight of them
5-9 HH 21 143 6.8 5.4
are from Chandan Nath VDC, four each from
10-19 HH 60 889 14.8 15.5
Dillichaur and Talium and two each from Tamti
20-29 HH 31 754 24.3 8.0
and Tatopani VDCs. Most of these relatively
30-39 HH 51 1,807 35.4 13.1
larger settlements are located in the middle part
40-49 HH 43 1,887 43.9 11.1
of the district, in and around district headquar-
50-59 HH 45 2,450 54.4 11.6
ters and close to river basins such as Tila and its
60-69 HH 27 1,764 65.3 7.0
tributaries. Lately, the Government of Nepal has
70-79 HH 23 1,685 73.3 5.9
declared Chandan Nath a municipality in Jumla,
80-89 HH 13 1,095 84.2 3.4
which includes Chandan Nath, Mahatgaun, Ta-
90-99 HH 20 1,866 93.3 5.2
lium and Kartikswami VDCs. This implies that
100 & + 29 3,712 128.0 7.5
14 out of 29 larger settlements are now part of
Total 388 18,105 46.7 100
the municipality (including Mahat 176 HH and
Source: Based on preliminary data of PHC 2011 obtained from CBS.
Kartikswami 100 HH).

140  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 A total of 100,974 people live in 388 settle- Table 31: Settlement Sizes, Population and Sex Ratios
ments identified by the census data. The overall Settlement size No. of Total population in Male Female Sex
sex ratio is 99.5. This means an almost a balance settlement the settlement ratio

of male and female though the number of female <5 HH 25 298 145 153 94.8
exceeds male marginally. This sex ratio is higher 5-9 HH 21 776 408 368 110.9
than the national average of 94.5 and regional 10-19 HH 60 4,950 2,442 2,508 97.4
scales of Mountain region (93.8) and Mid-western 20-29 HH 31 4,347 2,146 2,201 97.5
region (92.7). Relatively larger settlements show a 30-39 HH 51 10,389 5,251 5,138 102.2
slight tendency of having high sex ratio. Other- 40-49 HH 43 10,668 5,292 5,376 98.4
wise, in general no particular pattern of sex ratio 50-59 HH 45 13,871 6,874 6,997 98.2
by settlement size is observed (Table 31). Of the
60-69 HH 27 9,459 4,712 4,747 99.3
total 12 settlement size classes, females outnumber
70-79 HH 23 9,635 4,823 4,812 100.2
males in seven and males in five class sizes. It is
80-89 HH 13 6,348 3,195 3,153 101.3
obvious that with increase in settlement sizes the
90-99 HH 20 10,866 5,382 5,484 98.1
population size increases.
100 & + 29 19,367 9,695 9,672 100.2
The average household size of 388 settle-
ments is 5.6 persons. This is high by national (4.9 Total 388 100,974 50,365 50,609 99.5

persons) and regional (4.9 persons) averages. In Source: Based on preliminary data of PHC 2011 obtained from CBS.

general, settlements with average household sizes

of 5.7 persons were more common than others. Table 32: Household Size and Population Distribution by Settlement Size
Settlements with more than 100 households dem- Settlement size No of No. of HH size Population Average
onstrated small household sizes. Otherwise, no settlement households share (%) population/
settlement
any noticeable sequence of increase or decrease in
<5 HH 25 53 5.6 0.3 12
the household size was observed by size class pro-
5-9 HH 21 143 5.4 0.8 37
gression (Table 32). Despite large number of set-
10-19 HH 60 889 5.6 4.9 83
tlements in the lower class sizes, their overall share
20-29 HH 31 754 5.8 4.3 140
in population is small. Of all the size classes those
30-39 HH 51 1,807 5.7 10.3 204
with 100 and more households share the largest
proportion. Every two out of five people in the 40-49 HH 43 1,887 5.7 10.6 248

district live in settlements with less than 40 house- 50-59 HH 45 2,450 5.7 13.7 308

holds. On the contrary, almost equal proportion 60-69 HH 27 1,764 5.4 9.4 350

of population lives in settlements with over 100 70-79 HH 23 1,685 5.7 9.5 419

households. Moreover, nearly one-fourth popula- 80-89 HH 13 1,095 5.8 6.3 488
tion lives in settlements with household sizes be- 90-99 HH 20 1,866 5.8 10.8 543
tween 50 to 70 households. 100 & + 29 3,712 5.2 19.2 668
Considering 388 settlements of various Total 388 18,105 5.6 100 260
sizes, the average population per settlement is 260 Source: Based on unpublished data of PHC 2011 obtained from CBS.
persons. The average population by size class rang-
es from 12 persons in settlements of smallest size number of settlements by size classes for each of the
class to 668 persons in settlement of largest size 30 VDCs in the district. It is important to note that
class i.e., 100 or more households. 12 percent settlements have less than 10 households
in the settlement unit and 16 percent has households
Settlements, Their Sizes and Average Settlement between 10 and 19. Altogether, the share of settle-
per Ward in the VDCs ments with less than 20 households is 28 percent in
As noted earlier, Jumla district has 30 VDCs. On the total settlement scenario of the district.
an average, there are 13 settlements per VDC. But Settlements of the VDCs with more than
the number of settlements ranges from nice in the 70 households are very limited. Only 13 percent
minimum to 30 in the maximum. Table 30 presents settlements had households over 90. Only 13

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  141

 Table 33: VDCs by Total Settlements, Households, Size Class Distribution and Average Settlements by Wards
Name of the Settlement size (number of households in the settlement) Total Average
VDC settlement /
<10 HH 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-49 50-60 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 >100 Ward

Badki 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 13 1.4

Birat 2 4 4 0 3 2 2 0 0 1 0 18 2.0

Bumramadichaur 1 9 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 1.3

Chandan Nath 3 8 1 2 3 0 4 0 0 1 8 30 3.3

Chhumchaur 0 0 1 3 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 9 1.0

Depalgaun 1 0 0 2 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 8 **

Dhapa 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 3 1 1 0 10 1.1

Dillichaur 2 0 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 1 4 13 1.4

Garjyangkot 8 6 0 4 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 23 2.6

Ghode Mahadeva 0 0 1 5 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 9 1.0

Guthichaur 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 9 1.0

Hanku 1 1 0 2 2 3 0 0 1 0 0 10 1.1

Kalikakhetu 2 2 1 1 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 11 1.2

Kanakasudari 1 2 0 3 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 11 1.2

Kartik Swami 0 0 3 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 1 9 1.0

Kudari 1 3 3 4 2 1 2 0 1 1 1 19 2.1

Lamra 1 2 0 1 4 1 1 1 0 0 1 12 1.3

Raralihi 0 0 0 2 6 1 0 1 0 0 0 10 1.1

Mahabaipatharkhola 3 3 1 3 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 15 1.7

Mahat 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 0 2 1 1 12 1.3

Malikabota 8 4 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 2.0

Malikathanta 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 9 1.0

Narakot 1 1 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 0 0 13 1.4

Pandawagufa 1 4 1 2 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 14 1.6

Patarasi 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 3 0 0 1 11 1.2

Patmara 0 2 0 1 1 2 1 3 0 1 0 11 1.2

Sanigaun 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 2 1 2 9 1.0

Taliun 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 4 10 1.1

Tamti 5 4 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 1 2 18 2.0

Tatopani 1 1 1 0 0 3 0 2 0 2 2 12 1.3

Total No. 46 60 31 51 43 45 27 23 13 20 29 388 1.4

Percent 11.9 15.5 8.0 13.1 11.1 11.6 7.0 5.9 3.4 5.2 7.5 100 NA

Note: The census return found that there were unreported cases of gaun/basti/tole in some of the household questionnaire. As a result, the above table may not be considered as exhaustive. However,
it captures 94% of population and equal percent of households of the district. Institutional population is excluded.
* *Data for Depalgaun is incomplete e.g. Ward 5 is missing.
Source: Based on unpublished records of PHC 2011 obtained from CBS.

142  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

VDCs had one or settlements with 100 or more international standards, Nepal may appear less ur-
households. On the whole, settlement sizes of the banized (50 percent urban in the world) but given
VDCs in Jumla are not only small but also the the rural character of the country demonstrated
number of settlements is limited. by housing characteristics (foundation, materials
used, roof, outer wall etc) and types and extent of
access to basic facilities to the households, Nepal
Conclusion remains as the country with overwhelming domi-
nance of rural settlements. Rural settlements are
Ever since human beings began to spend extended poorly served as demonstrated by the limited road
time in a particular location, human settlements length in the districts. Urban settlements are rela-
developed in an organized manner. History of tively better in this respect but the service provi-
settlements in Nepal is unlikely to be an excep- sions there are also not adequate.
tion but we know very little about it. Informa- The case of Jumla suggests predominance
tion on settlement situation in Nepal is extremely of small settlements in the district and their loca-
limited. The state mechanism is guided by politi- tions guided by river valleys and safer sites. Most
cal administrative divisions where lowest level of of the relatively large settlements are located close
data reporting is the VDC. Ward level informa- to or along the river valleys. In the mountain, due
tion is limited to total households and population to limited availability of suitable land, settlements
by male and female. Small settlements that are show a tendency of concentration on particular ar-
below the Ward level are overlooked with respect eas rather than evenly spreading in the whole dis-
to being unit of data collection and/or analysis to trict area. The VDCs constitute limited number of
date. Therefore, discussion on human settlements settlements and in some cases a single settlement
in Nepal has to be limited to urban, rural and re- has been divided into several wards of the VDC.
gional categories. These are macro-categories and Further studies on distance related measures, in-
thus provide broader picture only. ter-linkages and efficiency of existing patterns of
Nepal’s population increased rapidly till settlements for service provisions are needed.
the end of 20th century and by the first decade of The concept of Nagarpalika i.e., political
21st century, the trend of growth appears towards administrative unit referring urban locations used
stability as demonstrated by significant decrease in Nepal does not agree with the concept of “ur-
in growth rate and age composition in a state of ban” as standard literature use it to relate to towns
obtaining benefit of demographic dividend. The and cities (Johnston, Gregory, Pratt and Watts,
country’s population is almost evenly divided be- 2003). Furthermore, the latest declaration of 133
tween the highland (hill and mountain) and the municipalities has further reinforced confusion
lowland (Terai) with a slight tendency towards than clarity in this respect. This is because the spa-
plain dominated demography. tial extent, the demographic, economic and social
The density of population is on the rise in characteristics of majority new municipalities are
general, in Terai and in the urban areas in particu- hardly different from ordinary rural areas. Space
lar. Regional disparities are evident in population criteria reflected through high population densi-
size, sex ratio, household size, growth rates, dis- ties, minimum spacing of settlement blocks and
tribution, density and other demographic indica- landscape domination by built-up areas are essen-
tors. In all these, Terai and central region appear tial features of urban landscape and thus to be con-
distinct compared with the rest of the ecological sidered as urban. Likewise, the functional charac-
and development regions. teristics of settlements, proportion of population
Based on the definition of urban area adapt- in non-agricultural activities and the non-rural
ed in the country, currently almost two out of ev- way of living are also important criteria to be con-
ery five citizen in this country live in urban settle- sidered an area as urban settlement. Declaration
ment and three out of five in rural settlements. By of municipalities without proper consideration of

CHAPTER 9  Human Settlement Situation in Nepal  |  143

 these features raises questions on what constitutes References
urban and how an urban settlement differs from
a rural settlement. Therefore, there is a clear need Central Bureau of Statistics 2012a. National Population and Hous-
ing Census 2011(National Report). Kathmandu: CBS.
to revisit the process of designating municipalities.
Central Bureau of Statistics 2012b. National Population and Hous-
In the mean time, for all practical purposes there ing Census 2011(Village Development Committee/Munici-
is also a need to further classify the territory within pality). Kathmandu: CBS.
municipality as urban, semi-urban and rural like Gurung, H. 1989. Regional Patterns of Migration in Nepal. Papers
of the East West Population Institute No. 113. Honolulu: East
or so in order not to overburden its “rural” citizens
West Center.
of taxation and other revenues of urban govern- Haffner, W. 1981/82. The Kathmandu Valley: A study in regional
ment. geography, Journal of the Nepal Research Centre. 5/6: 3-26.
Over all, measured on the basis of available Johnston, R.J., D. Gregory, G. Pratt and M. Watts (eds) 2003: The Dic-
tionary of Human Geography (4th edition).Oxford: Blackwell
information, human settlement situation in the Publishing.
country is not satisfactory in both - with respect Sharma, P. 1989. Urbanization in Nepal, Papers of the East West
to locational characteristics and basic service pro- Population Institute No. 110. Honolulu: East West Center.
Subedi, B.P. 2001. When invitation turns sour: the case of Bhutanese
visions and with respect to knowledge about the
refugees in Nepal”in A. Montanari ed. Human mobility in the Bor-
settlements per se. There is an absolute dearth of derless World?. Rome: Societa’ Geografica Italiana, pp. 259-290.
information at the settlement level in the coun- Subedi, B.P. 2014. Urbanization in Nepal: Spatial pattern, social de-
try. For the purpose of providing public services, mography and development, in CBS (ed) Population Mono-
graph of Nepal Vol. III (Economic Demography). Kathmandu:
settlements are the primary units. Poor or lack of
CBS, National Planning Commission, GoN.
information at this level is not a welcoming situ- Subedi, B.P. 2015. Bhukampa pachhiko basti vikas: Special article
ation. The state mechanism, academia and other (Development of Settlements after Earthquake), Kantipur
stakeholders need to pay attention to this so that Daily. May 23, 2015 (Saturday).

we can plan the future of human settlements in a

better manner.

* Dr. Subedi is Professor of Geography, T.U.

144  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 CHAPTER 10

Disaster Management System in Nepal:

Time for Policy to Action
Meen B. Poudyal Chhetri Ph.D.*

Nepal is prone to various types of disasters1 such as: earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires, epidemics, avalanches, windstorms,
hailstorms, lightning, glacier lake outburst floods, droughts and extreme weather events. Losses from disasters are increasing
due to lack of proactive disaster management planning and policies. Among all these disasters – earthquake is the most scary
and damaging. A number of government reports have shown that each year, the disasters kill thousands of people and destroy
property worth billions of dollars. They also have a negative impact on the nation’s development agenda. In addition to the
natural factors, the losses from disasters are increasing due to the human activities and absence of proactive legislations. The
scopes of the existing laws are limited to mitigate and respond to disasters. This situation demands complete approaches of
disaster management planning, preparedness and recovery. The effects of a disaster, whether natural or human induced, are
often far reaching. Thus, proactive disaster management legislation focusing on disaster preparedness is necessary. The disaster
management sector of Nepal needs to refine policies and other legal instruments essential for efficient management of disasters.
Political commitment and government prioritization of disaster management is required to attain these goals, with creation of a
separate Ministry or Council for disaster management being highly desirable. This paper aims to identify deficiencies in disaster
management in Nepal and suggest appropriate policy and technical measures.

Introduction cesses, high altitude, variable climate, unplanned

settlements, increasing population, poor economic
Due to extreme topographic and climatic condi- condition, and low literacy rate. The earthquakes of
tion compounded by weak economic base, Nepal 1934, 1980, 1988 and 2015 and the floods of the
is prone to many of natural and human induced summer of 1993, 2008, 2013 and 2014 are among
disasters. It lies in one of the most fragile geographi- the most devastating disasters that Nepal has expe-
cal regions of the world. Thus, the country is high- rienced so far. Such disasters have had a negative
ly prone to natural hazards such as earthquakes, impact on the nation’s development.
floods, landslides, fires, epidemics, avalanches, Various government reports over the last
windstorms, hailstorms, lightning, glacier lake out- 32 years have shown that earthquakes, floods,
burst floods, droughts and extreme weather events landslides, fires, avalanches and epidemics kill
(e.g. climate change). On account of its multi-lay- thousands of people and destroy property worth
ered vulnerability, Nepal has witnessed an increase millions of rupees every year. Disasters are exacer-
in the frequency and intensity of disasters in the past bated by poor governance. There is limited coor-
resulting in widespread devastation. Factors con- dination between government agencies and other
tributing to the risk and impact include its rugged stakeholders. The roles and responsibilities of vari-
yet fragile geophysical terrain, active tectonic pro- ous agencies are unclear, and managerial skills are

1
Disasters are major incidents which cause serious disruptions to life, arising with little or no warning, causing deaths or serious injuries and rendering people
homeless.

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 145
 lacking, as are resources. Low levels of awareness 2011 Tohoku Earthquake in Japan and Hurri-
and lack of technological skills further intensify cane Sandy in New York area are gloomy events
adversity, as does the lack of capacity for conduct- that shows no country – rich or poor – is immune
ing hazard mapping, vulnerability assessment and from the impacts of disasters.
risk analysis. In addition to the above factors, the
losses from disasters are increasing due to the re-
active approach of the government and other di- Statement of Problems Associated with
saster management stakeholders. As a result such Disasters
approach is limited to disaster response and relief
rather than complete approaches including plan- With a predominantly agrarian economy where
ning, preparedness and recovery. about 85 percent of over 26 million people reside
Disasters affect everyone; particularly the in rural areas, traditional, self-sustaining hills and
poor and vulnerable people. Disasters can set back mountain farming systems have been disrupted by
the achievement of development targets, such as increased population and fertile top soil erosion. In
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). addition - deforestation, migration from the hills
Since 1980, low income countries have account- and mountains to the fertile Tarai2 region and hap-
ed for only 9% of disaster events but 48% of the hazardly developed urban centres are increasing at
fatalities indicate that the impact of disasters are an unprecedented scale. Consequently, the poor,
enormous in poor and developing nations. The uneducated and unemployed people are compelled
to make a living by settling in flood and land slide
Table 1: Types of Natural & Human-Induced Hazards in Nepal prone areas in the hills as well as the plains and ur-
ban areas. Lack of effective land use and settlement
Types of Hazard Prevalence
regulations has contributed to increased vulnerabil-
Natural Hazards
ity to floods and other hazards caused by both natu-
Earthquake All parts of Nepal is a high-hazard earthquake zone
ral and anthropogenic factors.2
Flood Tarai (sheet flood), Middle Hills
The types of natural and human induced
Landslide and landslide dam breaks Hills, Mountains disasters that occur in Nepal and the locations are
Debris Flow Hills and Mountain, severe in areas of elevations greater than 1700 m that are given in the following Table 1.
covered by glacial deposits of previous ice-age
It is an unpleasant fact that the vulner-
Glacier Lakes Outburst Floods (GLOF) Origin at the tongue of glaciers in Higher Himalayas, Higher Mountains, flow
reach down to middle Hill regions
ability of human settlements to natural disasters
is continuously rising because of misappropriation
Avalanche Higher Himalayas
of natural resources by deforestation, encroach-
Fire (forest ) Hills and Tarai (forest belt at foot of southern-most Hills)
ment of the flood plains, environmental degrada-
Drought All over the country
tion, haphazardly planned development projects
Windstorms All over the country
and heavy influx of population to the urban areas
Hailstorm Hills in search of employment and livelihood. How-
Lightening All over the country ever, we have learnt from the past disasters that
Human-Induced Hazards we can significantly reduce the impact of natural
Epidemics Tarai and Hills, also in lower parts of Mountain region disasters through disaster mitigation efforts. Such
Fire (settlements) Mostly in Tarai, also in mid-Hill region efforts must be integrated into development proj-
Accidents Urban areas, along road network ects in order to build a culture of preparedness and
Industrial/Technological Hazards Urban / industrial areas prevention.2As Benjamin Franklin said, ‘An ounce
Soil erosion Hills of prevention is worth a pound of cure,’ why not
Social Disruptions Follows disaster-affected areas and politically disturbed areas
commit to putting more effort into building ca-
pacity before a disaster strikes and on an ongoing
Source: Nepal Country Report: ISDR Global Assessment Report on Poverty and Disaster Risk 2009.

2
Tarai is a flat and fertile land mass of Southern part of Nepal that extends from East to West. It covers 23 percent of the total land of Nepal.

146  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

basis, versus putting such an enormous amount Flood in Tarai 2014
of effort and expense at response/recovery efforts
(Drager and Robertson, 2014).
The following image 1 shows the floods in
Tarai, landslides in the hills and mountains and
earthquake in the mid hills and Tarai.
The great havoc and destruction brought
about by the devastating floods and landslides in
central and southern part of Nepal in 1993 awak-
ened the country to some extent from our tradi-
tional attitude toward natural disasters and their
management. Despite our enhanced awareness of
the gravity of the problem, we have barely man-
aged to break the tip of the ice-berg as far as our
institutional, managerial, technical, and resource
capabilities are concerned. However, the Gov-
ernment of Nepal has integrated Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR) and set development goals in Image 1:
its national development planning and National Flood Landslide Earthquake
Policy on Environmental Adaptation to Climate
Change.21
Being a developing country, Nepal lacks
strong mechanism to widely share knowledge and
information to the poor communities. More im- Source: DIPECHO 6TH ACTION PLAN, 2012

portantly, the vulnerable communities have not

been able to reduce the impact of disasters for want Jure Landslide 2014
of resilience of poor and vulnerable people, par-
ticularly women, children, elderly and disadvan-
taged persons to mitigate, prepare for, effectively
respond and overcome the impact of multiple haz-
ards in various parts of the country. Therefore, it
is highly necessary to build the capacity of the vul-
nerable communities in order to reduce the losses
of human lives and physical properties in the time
of disasters.
The Table 2 clearly shows that, losses from
disasters are in increasing trend for want of proac-
tive disaster management legislation, policies, pre-
paredness, and risk reduction programs. Existing
laws focus more on immediate disaster response
which limits their applicability to disaster response
and relief, rather than comprehensive approaches
including planning and preparedness.

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 147
 Table 2 : Loss of Lives, Livestock and Other Effects by Type of Disaster,1983-2010
(Disasters: Flood, Cold, Landslide, Avalanches, Earthquake, Fire, Epidemic, Windstorm, Hailstone & Thunderbolt)
Year Number of People Number of Livestock Number Number of Affected Land Affected Public Infrastructure Estimated Loss
Loss of Houses Family (Ha.) (Million Rs.)
Dead Injured Destroyed
1983 579 NA 248 12 NA NA NA 240
1984 941 NA 3547 10597 NA 1242 869 49
1985 1387 NA 3399 7166 NA 1355 436 23
1986 1512 NA 6566 3370 NA 1315 436 23
1987 881 162 1852 36220 97036 18858 421 2005
1988 1584 12538 2788 108801 70197 NA 4365 6099
1989 1716 3014 4240 7648 NA NA NA 4172
1990 913 196 867 6352 8462 1132 NA 139
1991 971 43 642 5510 6426 283 39 43
1992 1318 17 1586 13997 11535 135 66 52
1993 1524 246 NA 21911 90911 NA NA 5189
1994 765 155 1329 3234 11701 392 NA 184
1995 873 1937 2053 10275 134216 41867.26 NA 1933
1996 895 1527 2480 30014 58329 6063.4 NA 1579
1997 1160 1120 1191 4825 46054 6063.4 NA 410
1998 1190 117 1179 15082 36987 326.89 NA 1230
1999 1466 146 650 4304 17842 182.4 NA 509
2000 377 162 1017 6886 24900 889 NA 1141.5
2001 415 132 665 6103 15908 NA NA 526.65
2002 458 287 2126 19856 40935 10078 NA 525.56
2003 310 160 1125 6819 11730 2360 NA 989.93
2004 192 220 888 4818 16997 0 NA 341.09
2005 242 153 955 3169 4315 0 NA 387.21
2006 132 88 10098 3765 19023 3396.84 NA 392.31
2007 274 144 21861 37984 117203 513.65 NA 1928.55
2008 171 55 7066 13864 21600 21315 NA 1633.28
2009 641 117 228 1050 3028 NA 4.88 420.25
2010 448 261 1526 23370 19026 200 no 2.85 1398.19

Source: Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention (Disaster Review,2010).

Gorkha Earthquake of 25 April 2015 made it highly vulnerable to earthquake impacts.

Nepal may have encountered many earthquakes
An earthquake is one of the most terrifying disas- throughout history; it has the record for the great-
ters in Nepal. There have been many occurrences est loss of life dating back to the 12th century.
of earthquake disasters in Nepal that have caused Since then Nepal has encountered 16 major earth-
heavy casualties and physical property damages, quakes, including the recent devastating earth-
adversely affecting the overall development of the quake of 25 April 2015.
country. Nepal’s proximity to earthquake hazards A 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck Ne-
is mainly due to its young and fragile geology. pal on 25 April 2015 (11:56am local time). The
Haphazard and unplanned settlements and poor epicenter was in Barpak Village of Gorkha dis-
construction practice are other reasons that have trict which is 81 km northwest from Kathmandu

148  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

(the capital city). It killed nearly 9,000 people, “Dharahara”—The Icon of Kathmandu Ruined Down into Pieces
injured over 22,000 and rendered millions home-
less. The earthquake was followed by a num-
ber of aftershocks throughout Nepal, with one
shock reaching a magnitude of 6.7 on 26 April
at 12:54 am local time. In addition to a number
of human casualties, Centuries-old buildings were
destroyed at more than five different UNESCO
World Heritage sites in the Kathmandu valley.
This earthquake was the largest to hit Nepal since
the 1988 Nepal earthquake and the Nepal–Bihar
earthquake of 1934. This earthquake also affected
some parts of India, Bangladesh, and the Tibet
Autonomous Region of China. Tremors were also
felt in Bhutan and Pakistan.11
On 12 May 2015 at 12:50 local time an-
other strong earthquake measuring 7.3 magnitude
struck with the epicenter being in Sunkhani of
Dolkha district. The epicenter was 76 km north- “Kathmandu Durbar Square”—The Cultural Heritage—Severely Damaged
east of Kathmandu. This area was already affect-
ed by the 25 April quake. The initial quake was
followed by several aftershocks including a 5.6
magnitude. This quake toppled already weakened
buildings, triggered a series of landslides, which
further hampered relief efforts. This quake alone
killed more than 100 people.11
On 26 April 2015, the Government of Ne-
pal declared an emergency in the worst affected
districts and requested for international humani-
tarian support.
Another interesting phenomenon is that
the movement of tectonic plates that triggered
massive earthquake in the country on April 25
caused the altitude of Kathmandu Valley to in-
“Agony—Lets Hope it will not Happen Again
crease by 80 centimeters, according to the Depart-
ment of Survey of the Government of Nepal. 355
numbers of aftershocks with Local magnitude>=
4 have been recorded till 24 July 2015 and the
course of aftershocks is still continuing.
The 2015 Gorkha earthquake affected 31
districts out of which 14 districts namely; Gork-
ha, Sindhupalchowk, Dhading, Kavre, Dolakha,
Nuwakot, Ramechhap, Sindhuli, Rasuwa, Kath-
mandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Makwanpur and
Okhaldhunga were hard hit.35
Please see five images for the ramification
of the 25 April 2015 earthquake:

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 149
 Avalanche in Mt. Everest where Dozens of People Killed Until now, this devastating earthquake
caused 8,844 deaths and 22,307 injuries, flattened
hundreds of thousands of homes, and disrupted
community lives. Please see Table 3 for detail data.

Dimensions of Institutional and

Sustainability Aspects of DRR Actors3

Advent of Disaster Management Legislation

Before 1980, Disaster Management was not as
important for the government of Nepal. Response
works were being carried out in an ad-hoc basis
and there was no separate nodal agency to respond
and prepare for disasters. When 1980 earthquake
occurred in eastern part of Nepal, the government
started thinking seriously about the disaster man-
agement system. Still, disaster management has
mostly remained neglected except during the oc-
currence of a disaster. The growing concerns of the
national and international partners set a tone for
the emergence of a legal system to handle disaster
management activities in the country. As a result,
a pioneering Act on this sector was promulgated
by the Government of Nepal in 1982 namely;
Natural Calamity Relief Act (NCRA), 1982.14
The NCRA, 1982 is, in fact, the first and
foremost disaster management legislation in the
whole South Asian Region. It tried to improve the
processes of handling disasters through well-struc-
tured institutional arrangements. So far, NCRA,
1982 is the main legal instrument in handling
Source: USGS
disasters in the country. Though there are several
measures yet to be adequately addressed - the Act
has some specified standards based on the extent
Table 3: Losses due to the Earthquake (As of 27 May 2015)
of impact.
Particulars Nos.
This Act was amended twice in 1989 and
Persons dead 8,844
1992. However, there was no significant change,
Missing 755 except the latter change broadened the scope of
Injured 22,307 the Act to include human induced disasters such
Affected Families 11,24,358 as industrial accidents as well as the preparedness
Displaced Families 6,51,675 and rehabilitation aspects of disaster management.
Houses Damaged (Fully) 5,98,401 The Act has not been able to adequately and ap-
Houses Damaged (Partially) 2,83,553 propriately address the areas of prevention, pre-
Source: Ministry of Home Affairs, the Government of Nepal
paredness, rehabilitation and reconstruction as
well as rescue and relief.

This section is adopted from the Post Doctorate Dissertation of Dr.Meen B. PoudyalChhetri who is the author of this article.
3

150  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Formation of Reconstruction Authority Figure 1: Disaster Management Structure 19824
An Act on Reconstruction of the Structures Dam-
aged by Earthquake -2015 has been promulgated Central Disaster
Relief Committee
to carry out post-earthquake reconstruction works.
According to the Act, an 11-member Recon- Relief and Treatment Supply, Shelter and
struction Authority would be formed under the Sub-Committeetion Regional Disaster Rehabilitation Sub-
Sub-Committee Relief Committee Committee
chairmanship of Prime Minister, including four
ministers nominated by PM, a Chief executive
officer, Vice-chairperson of the National Planning
District Disaster
Commission, Chief secretary and three experts Relief Committee
having 15 years of experience in related field after
completing post-graduate degree in infrastructure
engineering, law, economics, management, eco- Local Disaster
Relief Committee
nomic or social development as members. The
tenure of the authority will be five years and the
government can either extend its term by a year if
the tasks of reconstruction remained incomplete from a separate fund created for reconstruction
or assign any other body for the same. The CEO work.
can recommend chairman to appoint secretary of
the authority from among government officers. Institutional Arrangements
Laws related to acquiring and registering land, The NCRA, 1982 has initiated institutional ar-
public procurement and Environment Impact rangements at different levels through the respec-
Assessment will not be applicable in the quake- tive Disaster Relief Committees to oversee natu-
hit areas to accomplish the task of reconstruction ral calamities, especially relief and rescue works.
rapidly. The Committees at the central, regional and dis-
A separate 11-member Development Assis- trict level are functional but local level Commit-
tance Coordination and Facilitation Committee tees have yet to be formulated and operated. The
will be formed with a CEO at helm and include NCRA 1982 is silent about the composition of
national and international development partners the Local Disaster Relief Committee. The existing
and civil society representatives. disaster management structure as stipulated in the
NCRA, 1982 is given in Figure 1.
Reconstruction Authority’s Salient Tasks The government representatives, 19 out of
• To determine total loss due to earthquakes 24 members, overpower Central Disaster Relief
• To acquire necessary land following legal pro- Committee (CDRC), which formulates as well as
cedures guides the implementation of policies on disaster
• To order authority concerned to remove phys- management activities. The notable omissions in
ical structures after providing compensation the Committee are some important Government
to owners Ministries and agencies such as Agriculture, Local
• To coordinate with different bodies for effec- Development, Education, Science and Technolo-
tive implementation of reconstruction work gy, Environment and Armed Police Force. CDRC
• To order owners to remove their damaged does not meet frequently and is often found to
structures or to remove them at their cost. have engaged in formulating short-term directives
The authority would direct the concerned and approaches. Apart from Nepal Red Cross So-
ministries to accomplish necessary work of recon- ciety and Nepal Scouts the Non-governmental
struction providing them with necessary budget Organizations (NGOs) and the community orga-

Adopted from the book titled “Mitigation and Management of Floods” by Dr.MeenChhetri and Mr.DamodarBhattarai.
4

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 151
 nizations are not represented in the CDRC. The ter declaring the “Disaster Area,” the government
two temporary Committees namely; Supply, Shel- controls all activities including temporary take-
ter and Rehabilitation and Relief and Treatment over of public or private buildings; food, medicine
Sub-Committees need permanent status should and other commodities; vehicles and any other
be and made active in the district levels as well. means or resources for the purpose of relief and
Regional Disaster Relief Committee rescue works. The entry of anyone in the disaster-
(RDRC) is responsible for regional level policy and affected area could also be controlled. Similarly,
is normally activated when the disaster area extends moving of the people and properties to safer loca-
beyond one or more districts. The 75 District Di- tions; deputing any public officials for necessary
saster Relief Committees (DDRCs) are the main relief works; sending aid volunteers to affected
actors and real contributors at the field level and areas and undertaking suitable security measures
to work in all aspects of the disaster management during rescue and relief operation are others mea-
cycle. However, the Local Disaster Relief Commit- sures that can be taken by the designated authority
tee (LDRC), which could have been instrumental during the disaster. There is also the provision of
in actively engaging and mobilizing local volunteers harsh punishment, if any one obstructs the rescue
in relief works, transferring victims to the treatment or relief works. A person who does not cooperate
centres and secure shelters and distributing cash and hinders the response work during the emer-
and relief materials to the victims has not yet been gency period may be imprisoned up to 3 months
established in all parts of the country. However, and fined up to Rs. 1,000.00.14
some districts have Local Disaster Management On 25 April 2015 when 7.8 magnitude
Committee (LDMC) in disaster prone communi- earthquakes struck Nepal and caused enormous
ties by involving Village Development Committee damage to the human lives and physical properties
(VDC) Secretary, Ward Chairman and other con- – the following day on 26 April 2015, the Govern-
cerned Disaster Risk Reduction short form already ment of Nepal declared an emergency in the worst
mentioned above actors. affected 14 districts for a period of one month and
In order to provide assistance to victims requested for international humanitarian support.
and expenditure on disaster related works, a Cen-
tral Disaster Aid Fund (CDAF) is established Role of the Ministry of Home Affairs in Disaster
under the supervision and control of the CDRC. Management
Similarly, there is a less cumbersome Prime Min- According to the NCRA, 1982, the Ministry of
ister Natural Calamity Aid Fund (PMNCAF) to Home Affairs is the apex body for disaster manage-
provide cash assistance to disaster victims and to ment in Nepal. Formulation of national disaster
support rehabilitation, reconstruction and relief policies and their implementation, preparedness
works caused by disasters. Similarly, Regional Di- and mitigation of disasters, immediate rescue and
saster Aid Fund at the Regional level and District relief works, data collection and dissemination,
Disaster Aid Fund at the District level are put in collection and distribution of funds and resources
operation. But the Local Disaster Aid Fund is not are major responsibilities of the Ministry. There is
into operation. There are certain norms and basis National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC)
developed by the CDRC for the distribution of under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) to
relief assistance to the affected people and areas. collect data and information on disaster from all
Those norms shall be revised by the Committee as over the country and disseminate them in due
and when necessary. time. There are 5 Regions and 75 administrative
districts in the country. In the five Regions there
Some Key Provisions in the NCRA are 5 Regional Administrators and in each of the
As per the provision made in the NCRA, the Gov- 75 districts there is Chief District Officer (CDO)
ernment may declare hard hit disaster areas as the as the district administrator who acts as the cri-
“Disaster Area” and can declare an emergency. Af- sis manager at the time of natural disasters. The

152  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

MoHA has the nationwide network. Hence, it level activities by providing full responsibility and
is the key agency for immediate response during authority to District Development Committees
disasters and has to play a leading role in manag- (DDCs), Municipalities and Village Development
ing the natural disasters in the country. Despite Committees (VDCs).14
very limited funds and resources, the Ministry of In addition, Acts governing the Nepal
Home Affairs is managing natural disasters in all Army (NA), the Nepal Civil Police (NCP) and the
respects. Of course, there are a number of prob- Armed Police Force (APF) assign their personnel
lems in disaster management and much room for to work closely in coordination with the MoHA
improvement. during a disaster. Inventory of the DRR related
legislations and documents are as following:
Funding Arrangements • Natural Calamity Relief Act 1982, amended
A Central Disaster Aid Fund has been established in 1989 and 1992
under the supervision and control of the CDRC • Nepal Water Resources Act (1992)
as provided for by the NCRA, 1982. The fund can • Building Code (1994)
receive resources from any source, but its principal • National Action Plan for Disaster Manage-
sources are: ment 1996
• Cash and other resources contributions of the • The Environment Protection Act 1996
government of Nepal; • The Environment Protection Rules 1997
• Contributions from the Prime Minister’s Di- • Local Self Governance Act 1999
saster Relief Aid Fund (PMAF); and • The Building Act 1998
• Assistance received from foreign countries, • Nepal Water Resources Strategy (2002)
agencies and individuals; • Des-Inventar Database System Introduced in
The Act also provides for Disaster Relief 2003
Funds at the regional, district and local levels as the • Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sector
custodian of cash or other resources of the govern- Policy, 2004
ment, CDAF or any other source. However, the • National Water Policy 2005
local level fund is not yet operational. Funds are • Water Induced Disaster Management Policy
provided from central to regional to district level 2006
based on necessity and justification of resources • National Urban Water Supply and Sanitation
required for rescue or relief of victims. Policy 2009
To supplement the CDAF’s efforts, the • Draft Disaster Management Bill 2007
PMAF was established in 1993 following the • Draft Disaster Management Policy 2007
catastrophic floods and landslides associated with • The Tenth-Plan (2002–2007)
that year’s monsoon. The PMAF is larger than the • The Building Regulation 2009
CDAF, and is used not exclusively for rescue and • National Strategy for Disaster Risk Manage-
relief, but also for rehabilitation and reconstruc- ment (2009)
tion. • Climate Change Policy 2011
• Three Year Interim Plan (2008- 2010 and
Other Acts Related to Disaster Management 2010- 2013)
In addition to NCRA, 1982 - there are quite a few • Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA 2005-
Acts related to the disaster management. Among 2015)
others, the vital one is the Local Self-Governance • NRRC’s Flagship Programmes (5 Flagship Ar-
Act (LSGA) which empowers local bodies to gov- eas- US$ 195.8 Mil for 5 years)
ern themselves and recognizes that local people • Focal Points- CC and DRM established in the
and local bodies are best placed to know the de- key ministries and departments
velopment needs at the district, municipal and • Local and District Disaster Risk Management
village levels. It aims to involve people in local Planning Guidelines - 2011

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 153
 • Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan- tee struggled in part because of the lack of coordi-
2011 nation and a failure of implementation of plans.
• National Strategy for Early Warning System However, the government presented the afore-
( Proposed)- 2010 mentioned preliminary National Action Plan in
• Disaster Response Framework, U-SAR Plan the International Decade for Natural Disaster Re-
and Open Spaces 2013 duction World Conference held in Yokohama, Ja-
• Networks- such as DPNET and others pan in 1994. This plan was then revisited and im-
• Dead Body Management Guidelines proved by incorporating the Yokohama Strategies.
• Medium Term Expenditure Framework Thus, the Government of Nepal (GoN) adopted
(MTEF). the country’s first-ever National Action Plan on
Disaster Management in 1996. This Action Plan
Local Self-Governance Act, 1999 has spelled out time bound actions and respon-
The Local Self-Governance Act short form already sible executing agencies on disaster preparedness,
mentioned above, 1999 empowers local bodies to response, reconstruction, rehabilitation and miti-
govern themselves, and recognizes that local peo- gation. Among others, this Action Plan includes
ple and local bodies are best placed to know the important policy and institutional perspectives
development needs at the district, municipal and such as the establishment of the National Disas-
village levels. It aims to involve people in local lev- ter Management Council (NDMC) and National
el activities by providing full responsibility and au- Disaster Information System, which were sup-
thority to DDCs, municipalities and VDCs.6 The posed to be accomplished by the year 2000 but
Act also provides for disaster related management have not yet materialized.
works under the domain of the VDCs, munici- Later, the National Action Plan was re-ex-
palities and the DDCs. However, the duties and amined among all key stakeholders and presented
responsibilities are stated in such general terms in the World Conference on Disaster Reduction
that the authority of the institutions mentioned held in Kobe, Japan in 2005. In this revision, as
in LSGA is duplicated within the local level offices in the past, the government showed national com-
of administration and other developmental offices mitments on disaster preparedness, response, mit-
of the government. Unfortunately, the duties and igation, reconstruction and rehabilitation by iden-
responsibilities of each of the three local bodies are tifying responsible executing agencies. Among
stated in such general terms that it appears that others, it was also stated that the pending estab-
they are all vested with the authority to do exactly lishment of a high level National Disaster Man-
the same thing. agement Council, as proposed in the National Ac-
tion Plan, will be constituted at the earliest. But it
National Plans on Disaster Management did not materialize.
The United Nations (UN) declared the decade of However, the concentration of the policy
the 1990s as the International Decade for Natu- makers towards the disaster management has
ral Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) in 1989. In been gradually improving. Although the subject
conformity with the IDNDR, Nepal drafted the matter of disaster management was mentioned
National Action Plan on Disaster Management in the concept paper of the Ninth Plan (1997-
(NAPDM)16 in early 1994 which was reinforced 2002), that was unnoticed in the main volume
by the occurrence of the 1993 disastrous floods of the same.19 Nevertheless, disaster management
and landslides in the central region of Nepal. The received visible attention of the planners for the
Plan was prepared through extensive central and first time in the Tenth Plan, (2002-2007)29 and
local consultations. Finally, the National Com- Three Year Development Plan (2007-2010).30
mittee for the International Decade for Natural The two Plans allocated a separate sub-chapter on
Disaster Reduction (NCIDNDR) was established disaster management and has dealt with the nec-
and chaired by the Home Minister. The commit- essary pre-disaster mitigation and preparedness,

154  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

proper implementation of the programs and ef- series of campaigns and pressures from the civil
fective mobilization of the resources to contribute society; particularly from NCDM and DPNet-
to the safety of the people and the physical prop- Nepal, the Bill was forwarded to the Constitu-
erties. Attempts have also been made to establish ent Assembly in April 2012. Unfortunately the
linkages between disaster and development pro- Constituent Assembly was dissolved on 27 May
grams. The government tried to follow the reso- 2012. As a result, the Bill could not become an
lutions adopted from the Hyogo Framework of Act. Now either the present Constituent Assem-
Action (HFA) 2005-2015. HFA was formulated bly has to endorse it or it should come out as an
at the UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Ordinance. The policy is still at large. Although
Reduction held in Kobe in 2005. The National at present, the Constituent Assembly is more fo-
Strategy for Disaster Risk Management in Nepal cused in framing the new constitution for Nepal –
(NSDRMN) which came out in December 2009 the lessons learnt from the devastating earthquake NSDRMN aims
from the government of Nepal is also guided by demands for the need and importance of proactive to achieve the
the HFA and UN “Cluster approach” principles Disaster Management Policy and Act. So, there is
goal of disaster
and recommends creation of equivalent working high pressure to the government from every sec-
groups getting members from appropriate organi- tor of DRR to endorse the Policy and Bill. The resilient Nepal
zations for coordination. Bill once passed, will help to establish new and by providing
Now, we have Sendai Framework for Di- more broadly representative disaster management guidance for
saster Risk Reduction (2015 to 2030) to adopt institutions at national, regional, district and lo-
improving the
a concise, focused, forward-looking and action- cal levels. There is no doubt that the Bill will be
oriented post-2015 framework for disaster risk instrumental to build more resilient communities policy and legal
reduction. in the future. The proposed Bill envisages a sepa- environment and
rate autonomous, powerful and resourceful body by prioritizing
to oversee all aspects of disaster management. The
Recent Initiatives taken for Disaster Risk Bill has also proposed for the composition of a Di-
the strategic
Management saster Management Council that is to be chaired interventions.
by the Prime Minister and represented by all most
Draft Disaster Management Bill and Policy all ministers.
It was felt since the early 90s that Nepal needed We hope that the Bill will be approved
a proactive disaster management Act and Policy soon. The Bill when it becomes the Act and starts
that covers the whole cycle of disaster manage- functioning will open avenue for effective disaster
ment. In early 2007, the Nepal Centre for Disaster management system in Nepal.
Management (NCDM)5 drafted a new disaster
management Policy and Bill and submitted to the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management in
government for consideration. The Policy and Bill Nepal17
drafted by the NCDM was an outcome of rigor- The National Strategy for Disaster Risk Manage-
ous work done by the members of NCDM for ment in Nepal has been approved by the govern-
more than 15 months. NCDM organized a series ment in 2009. NSDRMN aims to achieve the goal
of meetings, workshops and interaction programs of disaster resilient Nepal by providing guidance
with the disaster management stakeholders from for improving the policy and legal environment
central to local level in Nepal in the process of fi- and by prioritizing the strategic interventions. It
nalization of the draft of the Policy and Act. also envisages to put forth suggestions for the in-
The Bill and Policy were revised by the stitutional reorganization and development, and
relevant government agencies since then. After a strategic improvement in the existing policy and

Nepal Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM) is a specialized agency in disaster management policy matters and education in Nepal which is repre-
5

sented by high level professionals from academia, bureaucracy, media etc.

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 155
 legal environment for creating an enabling envi- • Information, Communication, Coordination
ronment for encouraging DRR and preparedness and Logistics
planning at all levels as well as for mainstreaming • Search and Rescue, and Damage and Needs
DRR strategies into the national development Assessment
and poverty reduction agenda. It can be taken as
a commitment of the Government of Nepal to National Building Code (NBC), 1993
reflect the paradigm shift towards protection and The Department of Urban Development and
safeguarding the human lives, properties, develop- Building Construction (DUDBC) formulated
ment investments, cultural heritage as well as to and implemented Nepal National Building Code
mitigate the disasters by improving the quality of in 1993. The Building Act, Building Regulations
life of the people. and the Building Code provide the building con-
As stated in earlier section, National Strategy struction legal obligations to be followed by the
for Disaster Risk Management has been developed builders or owners through the local government.
based on the HFAin consultation with the relevant The salient features of National Building Code
stakeholders across all levels. The Hyogo Frame- are building permit system, establishment of peer
work for Action 2005-2015 was made not only review, monitoring, certification of construction
because it recommends what every country should practices and implementation of land use plan-
do for disaster reduction, but also because Gov- ning measures.
ernment of Nepal had taken part in developing this
framework and has made commitments to imple- National Disaster Response Framework (NDRF)
ment it. Hence, streamlining the National Strat- The National Disaster Response Framework has
egy in line with the HFA was regarded as the most been prepared for the effective coordination and
important approach to be adopted. The strategy is implementation of disaster preparedness and re-
based on the ground realities and identified needs sponse activities by developing a National Disaster
of Nepal. It has tried to capture the opportunities Response Plan that clarifies the role and respon-
of Disaster Risk Management (DRM) in Nepal in sibilities of the government and non-government
line with the current international understanding, agencies involved in disaster risk management in
scientific progress and regional initiatives. The strat- Nepal. The main purpose of this framework is to
egy is expected to provide the road map for all sec- develop a clear, concise and comprehensive na-
tors to prepare sector specific programs for DRM tional disaster response framework for Nepal that
and formulate the necessary policy decisions for can guide a more effective and coordinated na-
facilitating mainstreaming DRM into the develop- tional response in case of a large scale disaster. The
ment process. The strategy has identified 29 cross- national disaster response plan includes actions to
sectoral priority strategic actions and several sectoral be taken before, during and after the disasters.
activities for DRM. The cross-sectoral strategies are
based on gaps and issues identified and are focused National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA)
on addressing the identified gaps in particular sec- The National Adaptation Programme of Action
tors. They are divided into the five priority areas for represents the country’s notable effort to assess and
Action. prioritize immediate and urgent needs to address
The following sectors have been targeted to climate change risks through a broad consultative
focus on: process. The cabinet approved the NAPA on 28
• Agriculture and Food security September 2010. According to NAPA, the effects
• Health of climate change have been observed, while some
• Education parts of Nepal show increasing erratic and intense
• Shelter, Infrastructure and Physical Planning rains, and such climatic trends combined with
• Livelihood Protection fragile topography, deforestation and eroded soils
• Water and Sanitation are leading to landslides and flash flood hazards. It

156  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

has also been projected that rainfall intensity will Local Disaster Risk Management Planning (LDRMP)
increase across many areas of Nepal due to climate Guideline, 2011
change and, therefore, vulnerable communities Keeping in view the need to develop disaster risk
will have to increase their adaptive capacity to management from the central to local level and
cope with climatic hazards. These hazards would mainstream it with development plan, policy
also affect the availability of water resources par- and programmes at all levels, and also in order
ticularly for household use and therefore water to ensure the notion of sustainable development,
supplies need to be managed so they are climate the “Local Disaster Risk Management Planning
proof. The major impacts of climate change in Guideline, 2068” has been approved and put into
Nepal are: increased glacier-lake outburst flood effect. This was also done bearing in mind the
(GLOF) hazards, increased variability of river main spirit and thrust of the National Strategy for
runoff, increased sediments, increased evaporation Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM), 2009 and
from reservoirs and impacts on watershed. As a re- to make disaster management participatory, trans-
sult glacier melt and precipitation patterns would parent, accountable, inclusive and responsible by
occur. Nepal has wide variety of species. A study optimally mobilizing local resources and capabili-
has found that 2.4% of biodiversity may be lost ties, and by ascertaining the access and ownership
with climate change. Obviously climate change of all affected communities and people.
will affect agriculture. While majority of the peo-
ple of Nepal depend on agricultural crops like rice, Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan (DPRP)
maize and wheat. Higher temperatures, increased in Districts
evapo-transpiration and decreased winter precipi- The national workshop of 2010 recommended 21
tation may result into droughts. It should be con- points which was approved by the Central Natu-
sidered as an early warning for food security. ral Disaster Relief Committee (CNDRC) for an
effective disaster preparedness initiative at district,
Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) regional and national levels. One of the recommen-
Apart from the National Adaptation Programme dations was to create District Lead Support Agen-
of Action short form mentioned before the gov- cies (DLSA) in 75 districts among the national and
ernment has also prepared Local Adaptation Plan international agencies to support DDRC for pre-
for Action. LAPA provides guidelines for the dis- paring District Disaster Preparedness and Response
bursement of at least 80 per cent of adaptation Plan. It resulted into very positive feedbacks from
funds on the implementation at the local level. all the DRR actors. As a result, so far, almost all
To support implementation, the Government of districts have the DPRP. However, the implementa-
Nepal has developed a national framework for tion of the DPRP has many limitations. Particular
LAPA, which aims to make adaptation planning a problems are dearth of resources.
bottom-up, inclusive, responsive and flexible pro-
cesses that will identify the most climate vulnera- Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium (NRRC)
ble people and allow them to make informed deci- The Government of Nepal conceived Nepal Risk
sions on priority adaptation actions. It provides an Reduction Consortium (NRRC) in 2009. The
opportunity for undertaking developmental activ- founding members of the Consortium are the
ities that are climate resilient with strong co-bene- Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Interna-
fits for poverty reduction. The integration of local tional Federation of the Red Cross and Red Cres-
level Climate and Energy Plans with the LAPA cent Societies (IFRC), United Nations Develop-
could facilitate some triple-wins and produce low ment Programme (UNDP), UN Office for the
carbon climate resilient development (LCCRD). Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),
However, the biggest challenge to achieving these UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
aims will be the quality of governance at all stages. (ISDR) and the World Bank. The NRRC consists

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 157
 of 21-member organizations including 13 Min- a range of diverse actors together around the issue
istries of the Government of Nepalalready men- of risk reduction. It holds together the actors, prin-
tioned above. The Home Secretary is the Chair of ciples and approaches from the humanitarian and
NRRC. The Embassy of Japan and the Embassy development systems, the NRRC is innovative and
of India joined the NRRC in 2012 as the observer. an interesting case study. The engagement of the
NRRC has identified 5 Flagship areas for sustain- government is another essential factor that allows
able disaster risk management. for national ownership and sustainability. The pro-
The five flagship areas are as following: gresses of flagship areas are rather slow. At this point
1. School and hospital safety of time the future course of NRRC is uncertain as it
2. Emergency preparedness and response capac- was set forth for the period of 2009 to 2015.
ity
3. Flood management in the Koshi River basin National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC)
4. Integrated community-based risk reduction The National Emergency Operations Centre
5. Policy/institutional support for disaster risk started on the 17 December 2010, by the Min-
management ister of Home Affairs and is operated under the
For each area, the lead role has been as- Disaster Management Division. The objectives
signed to a government ministry while an in- of the NEOC are to work as a coordination and
ternational agency is designated as coordinator communication point for disaster information
to support the concerned government lead. The across Nepal, including government agencies and
Flagships are organised around specific func- other response and recovery stakeholders such as
tional areas of risk reduction, preparedness, and Nepal Red Cross Society, UN agencies, INGOS
capacity building in DRR. They cover a range of and NGOs.
DRR-related governance reforms, structural and The NEOC is a pre-fabricated build-
non-structural mitigation measures, significant ing situated in the premises of the Ministry of
enhancement in preparedness and response capac- Home Affairs in Singha Durbar. The building is
ities across government and international humani- considered earthquake resistant. It is completely
tarian actors for a major disasters, and enhance- self-contained, including multiple back up power
ment of response and early warning capacities at supplies. The NEOC’s working time is round o’
community level. clock particularly during the disaster period to col-
The objectives of NRRC are to: lect information. It has been running by a nine-
1. support the Government of Nepal in develop- member personnel team under the leadership of
ing a long term DRR Action Plan building on Under-Secretary. As part of MoHA’s strategy to
the new National Strategy for Disaster Risk further develop Nepal’s emergency preparedness
Management (approved October 2009); and response capacity, it is planning to establish
2. initiate a multi-stakeholder participatory pro- district emergency operation centres (DEOCs)
cess with the Government of Nepal and civil in all 75 districts. In the first phase, 11 districts
society organizations, and; namely; Arghakhanchi, Kaski, Mahottari, Sunsari,
3. identify short to medium term disaster risk Jhapa, Banke, Rukum, Kailali, Achchham, Dol-
reduction priorities that are both urgent and akha and Sankhuwasabha have been selected to
viable within the current institutional and setup DEOC.
policy arrangements in the country.
Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium has Additional Initiatives
enabled the establishment of a coordinated ap- In addition to the above, few more noteworthy
proach to areas of DRR that have been prioritized achievements in disaster management activities in
based on risk assessment and brings together the country include formulation and implemen-
humanitarian and development actors, essential tation of Building Codes in Lalitpur and Kath-
for a long-term approach. It has brought together mandu municipal area; functioning of the Sec-

158  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

toral Working Groups in Food and Agriculture, Cell (DMC) in some Ministries, introduction of
Health and Logistics; implementation of separate disaster management in school and partly in Uni-
Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Response versity education particularly the establishment
Plans in Health, Agriculture and hospital sectors. of the Centre for the Disaster Studies and com-
Also, almost all districts have now developed Dis- mencement of Master’s Degree Course at the In-
trict Disaster Risk Management plans. DPNet- stitute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University (TU)
Nepal-Nepal, Red Cross Society, Nepal Center for can be noted as remarkable achievements. Master’s
Disaster Management and a number of INGOs level degree course on Crisis and Disaster Manage-
have been instrumental in developing the district ment has been started since 2014 at the Institute
level plans. Some districts have developed disaster of Crisis Management Studies (ICMS) which is
related Action Plans as well. Department of Water affiliated with Tribhuvan University.
Induced Disaster Prevention (DWIDP) has pre-
pared detailed hazard maps in 4 districts.
A detailed study on Earthquake Disaster Major Disaster Management Stakeholders
Mitigation in the Kathmandu valley was carried
out in 2001 which identified most vulnerable ar- So far, the government agencies are the key players
eas in Kathmandu valley and suggested various in disaster management activities in Nepal. The
ways and means for safety measures. Although the major contributors from the non-government sec-
findings and suggested measures of the study were tor are the Nepal Red Cross Society and Nepal
very useful, the implementation part was too weak Scout who are providing invaluable support dur-
while the concerned authorities did not take them ing the occurrence of disasters. The NGOs and the
seriously. As a result, the earthquake of 25 April community organizations have not yet been rec-
2015 and following aftershocks caused the losses ognized as the major stakeholders particularly in
of thousands of human lives and physical prop- disaster rescue operations. Of course, some of the
erties worth billions of rupees. Actually, the areas NGOs have been contributing by providing relief
which were identified as vulnerable by this study materials in the event of some disasters. However,
were found more damaged by the 2015 Gorkha the contribution made by the non-governmental
earthquake. The earthquake truly confirmed the organizations to mitigate the disaster impacts and
validity and importance of that study. making people aware of the consequences of the
The Government of France has provided disasters may erode any time as there is no legal
assistance to the Department of Mines and Geol- and or government control as well as support over
ogy (DOMG) to establish 21 micro-seismic sta- their plan and programs. Such organizations in-
tions to record the magnitude of the earthquake. clude National Society of Earthquake Technology
Optimum Seismic Monitoring System is also es- (NSet), Nepal Centre for Disaster Management
tablished in the Department of Mines and Geol- (NDCM), Disaster Preparedness Network-Nepal,
ogy and the National Emergency Operation Cen- Nepal Geological Society (NGS), Nepal Land
tre which has been established at the Ministry of Slide Society (NLSS), Rural Reconstruction Ne-
Home Affairs in December 2010. Similarly, the pal (RRN) and many others who have contributed
International Federation of Red Cross Society and significantly by conducting research and capacity
Red Crescent Societies are also actively engaged building programs to enhance public awareness in
in Nepal, through the Nepal Red Cross Society, the country.
in community-based activities and raising disaster There are few partners in the international
awareness and capacity building at the district lev- community who have been engaged in the disas-
els. International Centre for Integrated Mountain ter prevention and mitigation works. These insti-
Development (ICIMOD) has developed hazard tutions include Japan International Cooperation
maps for the Hindu Kush area. The Government Agency (JICA), Korea International Cooperation
of Nepal has established Disaster Management Agency (KOICA), Asian Disaster Reduction Cen-

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 159
 tre (ADRC), Asian Disaster Preparedness Cen- Risk Reduction Plan (LDRMP), Climate Change
tre (ADPC), International Centre for Integrated Adaptation Plan for Action (CAPA), Local Adap-
Mountain Development, United Nations Devel- tation Plan for Action, School Improvement Plan
opment Program, United Nations Educational, (SIP) and others there being operationalized in
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), VDC. This has created difficulties in implemen-
World Health Organization (WHO), United Na- tation with actual sense of DRR mainstreaming
tions International Strategy for Disaster Reduction which simultaneously requires additional resourc-
(UNISDR), United Nations Office for the Coor- es.
dination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), Thus, there is clear need of harmoniz-
United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coor- ing the existing policies with developing a com-
dination (UNDAC), Department of Interna- mon operational approach in complete approach
tional Development/UK Aid (DFID), United with integrating above mentioned plans so that it
States Agency for International Development would give synergic result in risk reduction and
(USAID), SAARC Disaster Management Centre, sustainable development.
United Mission to Nepal (UMN), Cooperation Different ministries have their own guide-
for American Relief Everywhere (CARE), Caritas lines like Ministry of Federal Affairs and Lo-
Nepal, Water Aid Nepal, World Food Program cal Development (MoFALD) has LDRMP and
(WFP), Save the Children Fund (SCF), Technical DDMP guidelines likewise Ministry of Environ-
Cooperation of the Federal Republic of Germany ment (MoE) has CAPA, LAPA and NAPA related
(GTZ), Lutheran World Federation (LWF), Ac- to climate change adaptation. Based on all these
tion Aid Nepal (AAN), Adventist Development guidelines, each sectoral units and programs are
and Relief Agency (ADRA), Caritas, International preparing their own working document at Com-
Federation of Red Cross Society and Red Crescent munity, district and VDC level. There are no any
Societies, OXFAM, etc. linkages and correlations among them. This has
hampered in resource mobilization for their im-
plementation. It is also a very concerning situation
Gaps in Policy, Program and Practice that there is no any linkage between LDRMP and
DDMP. Government organizations and different
There are two aspects of disaster mainstreaming, non-governmental organizations have prepared
one is integrating DRR in all sectoral development disaster management plans in a mechanical way.
plans and another is mainstreaming in district and They are not practical and user friendly. Their im-
local development plan. Sectoral development plementation was minimal during the occurrences
covers the specific thematic areas while local de- of disasters. Moreover, they have no inter-linkage
velopment addresses the community development between district to VDC and community.
including basic needs of thematic/sectoral area. Although, the government agencies, de-
The local development unit i.e. Village Develop- velopment partners, non-governmental organiza-
ment Committee has different policies and guide- tions and civil society have shown keen interest
line regulated through its own governing line min- and initiated actions for Disaster Risk Reduction/
istries and simultaneously it would also look after Management and its mainstreaming in develop-
guidelines of other sectoral ministries. Each guide- ment programming they are still inadequate. Be-
line and policies are prepared prioritizing its own cause, mainstreaming is a process of integration of
priority development issues along with showing components of Disaster Risk Reduction into na-
scope of integrating disaster risk reduction. Due tional and local development planning processes
to the provisions made in policies and guidelines like the poverty reduction strategies and schemes,
of different line ministries, different development socio-economic development plans and schemes,
plans like local development plan, local Disaster environmental assessments, and so on. These are

160  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

taken up by the Government for long term de- bus accidents, cold waves, heat waves, ani-
velopment and all these processes are essentially mal attacks, terrorism etc.
aimed to reduce poverty and increase the socio 3 The Act does not clearly state the roles and
economic resilience of the country and the com- responsibilities of disaster management or-
munities. To some extent, the program framework ganizations.
and tools developed by Flagship 4 have helped and 4 The Act is focused more on rescue and relief
directed DRR actors to adopt common approach efforts than on preparedness, rehabilitation
in the programs they are implementing. The indi- and reconstruction.
cators set for the resilience building have made the 5 Relief and Treatment Sub-committee and
programs to drive in common path. Likewise, the Supply, Shelter and Rehabilitation Sub-
guidelines, LDRMP, DDMP have dragged the at- committee are dormant. Similarly, the gov-
tention of local authorities and government bod- ernment has not yet formulated Local Di-
ies to initiate the plans, programs and projects to saster Relief Committees, which are vital for
reduce the disaster risk. disaster management at the grass roots level.
The above mentioned policy gap demands 6 Command, Control and Coordination Sys-
for an independent, powerful and resourceful sep- tem (CCCS) and/or Incident Command
arate organization for the management of disasters System (ICS) have not been introduced.
in Nepal. 7 INOGs, NGOs and social organizations
willing and committed to work in disaster
risk reduction have not been well organised.
Deficiencies in the DRR Legal System 8 The Act has no provision for compensation
of volunteers and emergency workers in
There are specific shortcomings and challenges case of serious injury or death.
in governance (organizational, legal and policy 9 Provision of insurance system is lacking in
frameworks), risk identification, damage assess- the existing Act.
ment, monitoring, early warning, public aware- 10 The Act fails to mention the need for Re-
ness, preparedness, mitigation, rehabilitation and search and Development (R&D).
reconstruction. Action in these areas will help the 11 The Government has not been able to solve
government improve its legal instruments and the problem of inundation in Tarai area.
policy frameworks. The country has gained con- 12 Disaster management has not been ad-
siderable experience in risk management, vulner- equately addressed in the Government pe-
ability reduction and increasing preparedness and riodic plans.
response capabilities at the community level, but 13 The provisions of the LSGA are inadequate.
these experiences have not been shared, analysed It does not clearly spell out the roles of local
or used to update policies (Dr. Chhetri 1999). bodies in disaster management.
There are significant deficiencies in the di-
saster management legal system in Nepal, which
can be outlined as following: Measures to Address the Deficiencies in
1 The government has not yet formulated the DRR
rules and regulations to back up the NCRA,
1982. There are no standing orders, proce- Although we can find a well-structured institu-
dures or codes similar to Fire Codes. A code tional arrangement in the coping mechanism of
of conduct for the disaster responders is also Nepal, there are two main shortcomings in their
lacking. activities: inadequate proactive policy formula-
2 The adopted definition of disaster is too tion and poor implementation. There is a need to
narrow: it does not include plane crashes, incorporate disaster risk reduction measures into

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 161
 post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation processes, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability
and a need to use the recovery phase of disasters reduction.
to develop the capacity to reduce risk. Knowledge 9 It is necessary for relevant agencies and
and lessons learned need to be shared across the officials to be aware of the importance of
board. At the same time, rules and regulations disaster risk reduction policies and to be ac-
to back up the NCRA should be formulated. In countable for their implementation.
addition, standing orders, codes, guidelines and 10 R&D activities should be carried out for
manuals should be prepared.23 the development of inland and trans-
In particular, the following measures can be boundary waterways. While poverty al-
adopted to address the deficiencies in DRR: leviation should be supported by creating
1 The government should formulate rules a suitable environment through structural
and regulations to back up the NCRA, intervention and regulatory measures for
1982. Standing orders, codes, guidelines increased economic activities in the flood
and manuals should also be prepared. and landslide prone areas.
2 As disaster mitigation is a multi-sectoral 11 To solve the common flood and inundation
activity, the government should ensure that problems among the riparian countries re-
disaster risk reduction is a national and lo- gional cooperation and mutual understand-
cal priority with a strong institutional basis ing will play a very crucial role.
for implementation. 12 Well trained human resources, technical
3 The two dormant sub-committees, namely capacity and institutional setup are the key
the Relief and Treatment Sub-committee pillars to address the challenges in a sus-
and the Supply, Shelter and Rehabilitation tainable way. It is strongly felt that there is
Sub-committee should be activated. Their inadequate information based on empirical
temporary nature should be converted into research on various DRR components such
permanency, and they should also be incor- as flood, landslides, fire, earthquake, debris
porated at the district level. Similarly, Local flow, avalanche, etc. Therefore, well trained
Committees should be formed immediate- human resources should be produced in or-
ly. der to address the above shortcoming.
4 Establishment of a separate agency for di- 13 It is also necessary for the media to partici-
saster management in the form of a multi- pate in creating a culture of disaster resilience
sectoral national platform is necessary for and strong community involvement in sus-
disaster risk reduction. This agency may fa- tained public education campaigns and pub-
cilitate policy coordination and take action lic consultations at all levels of society.
on disaster risk reduction. 14 Back-up communication system should be
5 A command, control and coordination developed, because managing disasters re-
mechanism or incident management sys- lies on communications and information
tem should be adopted. be it before, during or after an event has
6 A disaster management cell should be es- occurred. While most of the time, commu-
tablished in each DRR related ministry. nications are the first thing lost after a di-
7 The role of local government should be saster, technologies to manage information
made clear in the LSGA, 1999. can be put in place beforehand and man-
8 Special emphasis should be given for the in- aged locally offline and online by others
tegration of disaster risk reduction measures throughout the world.
into sustainable development policies, and 15 There should be clear-cut and definite poli-
planning and programming at all levels, cies on the role of INGOs, local communi-
with due emphasis on disaster prevention, ties and the private sector. They should be

162  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

 streamlined and guided by the government, ally at all levels – from the community to the level
and, public awareness should be encour- of the national government. At the same time, the
aged and enhanced. new structure should have the authority as well as
16 Disaster management courses should be the capacity to integrate DRR into the national
incorporated more in school and university governance and development efforts and force/
curricula. facilitate program-level synergy and coordination.
17 Community participation in disaster risk Considering these facts, and also based upon the
reduction and management through the lesson-based institutional restructuring imple-
formulation and implementation of specif- mented recently by neighbouring countries and to
ic policies, promotion of networking, stra- be able to develop compatible structure for being
tegic management of volunteer resources, able to play active role in the SAARC level initia-
attribution of roles and responsibilities, and tives in DRM – Nepal needs an autonomous, re-
delegation and provision of the necessary sourceful and authoritative institution for disaster
authority and resources is vital. risk management. Hence, the government should
18 Adoption of indigenous knowledge may re- immediately start the process to establish such in-
sult in simple, cost effective, adaptable and stitution. The long awaited Disaster Management
easily understandable disaster mitigation. should commensurate with the following compo-
Therefore, it is necessary to share effective nents:
practices and lessons learned to further disas- • A standardized approach to incident/crisis
ter reduction and sustainable development. management that is scalable and flexible;
19 The construction of warehouses to hold criti- • Well-organized cooperation and interoper-
cal resources in strategic locations is needed. ability among responders;
Relevant officials must be trained in warehouse • All-inclusive all-hazards preparedness;
management and supply of relief materials.. • Efficient resource coordination among the
20 Stock-piling of supplies, equipment and per- stakeholders and authorities;
sonnel in strategic locations is necessary, to • Integration of best practices and lessons
provide for easily mobilized in an emergency. learned for continuous improvement.
21 Evacuation plans and exercises should be It is to be noted here that without a pro-
conducted periodically. active disaster management policy and other legal
The above analysis shows the need of im- framework the above goals cannot be achieved.
mediate review and refinement of disaster man- At the same time, all agencies (central, regional,
agement sector policy, strategy and legislations. district and local) and other government and
The government should prioritize disaster man- non-government organizations should perform
agement without further delay. At the same time, in a collaborative way in the field of DRR. Disas-
firm political commitment with integrity and de- ter management should be factored into policies,
termination is an indispensable precondition to planning and programming related to sustainable
attain the above goals. development with clearly delineated responsibili-
ties of government organization, NGOs, commu-
nity and private sector. Risk assessment should
Way Forward6 also be made compulsory while formulating de-
velopment programs. Although, at present most
The national institutional mechanism needs to be of the districts have prepared district level DRR
able to trigger and support the process of DRR, plans and programs, every district should devel-
decentralize the responsibility, involve and engage op a comprehensive disaster management policy,
all stakeholders and coordinate the actions nation- supported by appropriate legislation, standards,

6
These Recommendations and Way Forward have been partly taken from the Post Doctorate Dissertation of Dr. Meen Chhetri

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 163
 guidelines, manuals and clearly defined roles of all 5. Manage disaster operations in the area under
concerned organizations. policies and procedures decided by the Dis-
Participation of local community in DRR trict Committee or Agency; and
is very important. So the local communities all 6. Ensure disaster management and disaster op-
over the country should be encouraged through erations in the area are consistent with the
the promotion of networking, strategic manage- Standard Operating Procedure (SoP) planned
ment of resources, assignment of distinct respon- by the government.
sibilities and sufficient resources. Country’s own The above analysis and evaluation over
community based capability in managing risk, re- again denotes that in order to reduce the loss of
ducing vulnerability, increasing preparedness and human lives and properties in Nepal, a separate
response capabilities should be adapted as priority Ministry or Council or Authority for disaster
in the macro-level policies. Developing a replica- management is highly desirable. Such agency is re-
ble model of community based disaster manage- quired for effective disaster prevention, prepared-
ment programs are highly desirable and can lead ness, response and recovery works as well as for
to the use and dissemination of the optimal use the transformation of Nepal from vulnerable to a
of indigenous knowledge, skill and available best safer place.
practices in the community. The mission of the new agency should be to
More importantly, an all hazard approach- support the people of the country and responders
es must be taken together with the following five to ensure that as a nation all should work and con-
principles which form the basis of the proactive tribute together to build, sustain and enhance the
disaster management system. The five main prin- capability to prepare for, protect against, respond
ciples should be: to, recover from and mitigate all hazards. Finally,
(a) Comprehensive approach; as stated earlier, an all hazard approach must be
(b) All hazards approach; taken together with the above five principles.
(c) All agencies approach;
(d) Local disaster management capability; and
(e) A well prepared -- resilient community. Conclusion
Based on the above five principles the gov-
ernment can establish a separate agency at the Among the many challenges for Nepal is the wide
central level in order to support down below the variety of disasters it faces. Some, like monsoon
local government disaster management activities. flooding recur regularly, but at various times and
The Local Community is supported by the rel- places. Others, like earthquakes, occur intermit-
evant District Agency, as and when disaster man- tently and at long intervals. In this case the lessons
agement activities exceed the capacity of a Local learned may not remain in local or institutional
Group or Community. The functions of the Local memory. Nepal also needs to build institutions
Group include (but are not limited) to: and local capacity to minimize the impact of di-
1. Develop, regularly review and assess effective sasters. For any given disaster risk reduction activ-
disaster management; ity to succeed, specific risks need to be targeted.
2. Assist local government for its area to prepare Success in responses to disaster depends on factors
a local disaster management plan; including access to safe drinking water, reliable
3. Ensure the community is aware of ways of communication, transport and mobility, access
mitigating the adverse effects of an event, and to finances, social support, and risk minimiz-
preparing for, responding to and recovery ing strategies. Government agencies at national
from a disaster; and local levels must coordinate the support they
4. Identify, and coordinate the use of resources provide to help the affected rebuild their lives.
that may be used for disaster operations; Equally important is that agencies evaluate and

164  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

learn from the success of specific interventions, es- 14. “Natural Calamity Relief Act 1982”, the Government of Nepal.
15. “National Action Plan on Disaster Management in Nepal
pecially given the complications raised by climate
1996”, the Government of Nepal.
change. The government cannot act alone: disas- 16. “Local Self-Governance Act 1999”, the Government of Nepal.
ter risk reduction strategies need to be developed 17. “National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management, 2009”, the
and maintained through private and community Government of Nepal.
18. “Nepal Disaster Report 2009: The Hazardscape and Vulnerabil-
based approaches. ity”, Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Government of Nepal
Nepal faces an enormous challenge from and Disaster Preparedness Network -Nepal (DPNet).
major disasters like the devastating earthquake of 19. “Ninth Plan 1997-2002”, National Planning Commission, the
Government of Nepal.
25 April 2015. Although disaster management
20. PoudyalChhetri, M.B. 2001, “A Practitioner’s View of Disaster
and risk reduction may be considered expensive Management in Nepal: Organization, System, Problems and
in the light of competing demands for resources Prospects,” Risk Management: An International Journal, Vol. 3,
in a developing country like Nepal, this is high No.4, Published by Perpetuity Press Ltd., Leicester, UK.
21. PoudyalChhetri, M.B. 2000, “Flood Hazards in Nepal”, A Paper
time for the government to invest on consider-
Presented in the First Technical Meeting on Mitigation, Man-
able activity and resources into preparing for and agement and Control of Floods in South Asia, 24-25 January
responding to familiar and unexpected emergen- 2000, New Delhi, India
cies and disasters before the human and economic 22. PoudyalChhetri, M. B. 1998, “Disaster Management Policies,
Problems and Measures : The case of Nepal”, A Paper Pre-
consequences of inaction are extensive, unman- sented in an International Seminar on Water Induced Disaster
ageable and more expensive. held from 4 to 6 November, 1998 in Lalitpur, Nepal.
23. PoudyalChhetri, M.B. 1999, “Disaster Management in Nepal:
Problems and Solutions “ An Article Published in the Book on
Natural Disaster Management, Edited by Jon Ingleton, Tudor
References Rose, Holdings Limited, Leicester, England.
24. PoudyalChhetri, M.B. 1999, “Disaster Management in Nepal -
1. “Analysis of Legislation Related to Disaster Risk Reduction in A Study of the Situation”, a Country Paper Presented in a Re-
Nepal 2011”, International Federation of Red Cross and Red gional Planning Meeting of Programme for Enhancement of
Crescent Societies, Geneva. Emergency Response (PEER), held from 7 to 10 April, 1999 in
2. Bhattarai, D. &PoudyalChhetri, M. B. 2001 “Mitigation and Bangkok, Thailand.
Management of Floods in Nepal,” Ministry of Home Affairs, 25. PoudyalChhetri, M.B. 2011, “Disaster Risk Reduction: Policy
Government of Nepal. Implications for Nepal, Australia and Beyond,” Post Doctorate
3. “Civil Defence Emergency Management Act 2002”, the Gov- Dissertation submitted at the Queensland University of Tech-
ernment of New Zealand. nology (QUT), Brisbane, Australia.
4. “Disaster Management in Nepal - A Profile 1994”, Government 26. “Problems of Disaster Management in Nepal and Measures
of Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu, Nepal. to Solve Them (1998)”, A Report Prepared by a Task Force,
5. “Draft Disaster Management Act 2007”, Nepal Center for Di- HMG/N, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu, Nepal.
saster Management, Lalitpur. 27. “Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006”,
6. “Draft Disaster Management Policy 2007”, Nepal Center for the Government of the United States of America.
Disaster Management, Lalitpur. 28. “Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance
7. “Disaster Management Act 2003”, the Government of Act, 2007”, the Government of the United States of America.
Queensland, Australia. 29. “State Disaster Management Plan 2012”, the Government of
8. “Disaster Management Strategic Policy Framework, 2010”, the Queensland.
Government of Queensland, Australia. 30. “Tenth Plan 2002-2007”, National Planning Commission, the
9. “Disaster Management Related Web Links”, the Government Government of Nepal.
of Queensland, Australia. 31. “Three Years Interim Plan 2007-2010”, National Planning Com-
10. “Disaster Management Related Web Links”, the Government mission, the Government of Nepal.
of the United States of America. 32. “The National Civil Defence Emergency Management Strat-
11. “Disaster Management Related Web Links”, the Government egy 2008”, the Government of New Zealand.
of Nepal. 33. “The Guide to the National Civil Defence Emergency Man-
12. “Disaster Management Related Web Links”, the Government agement Plan 2006”, the Government of New Zealand.
of New Zealand. 34. “The National Civil Defence Emergency Management Plan
13. “ISDR Global Assessment Report on Poverty and Disaster Risk Order 2005”, the Government of New Zealand.
2009”, UNDP-ISDR, NSET (2010) 35. Various websites e.g. www.moha.gov.np; www.neoc.gov.np;
www.domg.gov.np; drrportal.gov.np

* Prof. Dr. Paudyal, Chhetri is the President of NCDM, Adjunct Professor at the Queensland University of Technology and former Deputy
Regional Administrator of the Government of Nepal.

CHAPTER 10  Disaster Management System in Nepal: Time for Policy to Actionl  | 165
166  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015
Glossary
Abiotic: non- living, e.g. rocks or minerals. Air Pollutants: substances in air that could, at high enough
concentrations, harm human beings, animals, vegetation or ma-
Abatement: technology applied or measure taken to re- terial. Air pollutants may thus include forms of matter of almost
duce pollution and/or its impacts on the environment. The any natural or artificial composition capable of being airborne.
most commonly used technologies are scrubbers, noise muf- They may consist of solid particles, liquid droplets or gases, or
flers, filters, incinerators, waste-water treatment facilities and combinations of these forms. See also hazardous air pollutants.
composting of wastes.
Acid Precipitation / Rain: any form of precipitation (rain, snow,
Agenda 21: the plan of action to achieve sustainable de- hail or fog) whose acidity has been increased through the up-
velopment that was adopted by world leaders at the United take of acid pollutants from the air.
Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. Alternate Energy: energy sources other than the traditional for-
est product and commercial energy items. They are: Direct Solar
Algae: simple non-vascular plants with unicellular organs Insulation, Wind, Micro-hydro, Geothermal, Bio-gas plants.
of reproduction. Algae are found in fresh and salt water. They
range from unicellular forms, usually microscopic, to multi cel- Assets: Assets are entities that must be owned by some unit,
lular forms up to 30 m in length. or units, and which economic benefits are derived by their
owner(s) by holding or using them over the period of time.
Afforestation: artificial establishment of forests by plant-
ing or seeding in an area of non-forest land. Ambient: surrounding, environmental.

Acidification: increase of hydrogen ions, usually expressed Annual Average: average of concentrations measured
as the pH value of environmental media. over one year.

Airborne Disease: disease that is generally transmitted Annual Rainfall (mm): total rainfall in a year
by nasopharyngeal discharges and by respiratory secretions,
through coughing and sneezing, though it may also be con- Average Daily Sunshine Hours: average of daily sun-
veyed through close contact. Respiratory diseases include the shine hours measured over one year.
common childhood infections, measles, whooping cough,
chickenpox, mumps, diphtheria and acute sore throat, as well Acidity: acidity as applied to water is defined as the quanti-
as diseases of the respiratory tract, influenza and other acute tative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydroxyl ions.
viral infections, the pneumonias, and pulmonary tuberculosis The determination of acidity may provide an index of the se-
(WHO, 1992). verity of pollution or may indicate the probable behavior of
water in treatment processes.
Air Pollution: the presence of contaminant of pollutant
substances in the air that do not disperse properly and that Alkalinity: the alkalinity of a solution may be defined as
interferes with human health of welfare, or produces other the capacity for solutes it contains to react with and neutral-
harmful environmental effects. ize acid. In water the alkalinity is produced by the dissolved
carbon dioxide species, bicarbonate and carbonate. There are
Air Pollution Index (API) : quantitative measure that three types of alkalinity methyl-orange alkalinity, total alkalin-
describes ambient air quality. The index is obtained by com- ity, and phenolphthalein alkalinity.
bining figures for various air pollutants into a single measure-
ment. Ammonia: the term ammonia includes the non-ionized am-
monia molecule and ionized ammonium ion species. Ammo-
Air Quality Standards: levels of air pollutants prescribed nia in water is an indicator of possible bacterial, sewage and
by regulations that may not be exceeded during a specified animal waste pollution. No health related guidance value for
time in a defined area. drinking water has been set by WHO but concentration above
1.5 mg/l creates odour and taste problems.

Glossary  | 167
 Aquifer: underground geologic formation, or group of for- Bio-gas: mixture of methane and carbon dioxide in the ra-
mation, containing ground water that can supply wells and tio of 7:3 that is produced by the treatment of animal dung,
springs. industrial wastes and crop residues. It is used as an alternative
source of energy.
Amphibians: class of cold-blooded vertebrates comprising
frogs. They live both in water and on land. Most amphibians Biogeography: the scientific study of the geographic dis-
have to become temporarily aquatic for the purpose of repro- tribution of organisms.
duction.
Biota: All the organisms, including animals, plants, fungi and
Angiosperm: flowering plants, which produce one or more microorganisms in a given area.
seeds enclosed in a fruit.
Chromosome: body found in the nucleus of living cells,
Bacteria: single- celled micro-organisms. Some are useful in composed mainly of DNA and protein, in a linear sequence of
pollution control because they break down the organic matter genes, Exchange of genes during sexual reproduction is facili-
in water and land. Other bacteria may cause disease. tated by splitting of chromosomes during fertilization.

Baseline: The baseline (or reference) is any datum against Carbon Dioxide (CO2): It is a chemical compound con-
which change is measured. It might be a current baseline in sisting of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. A col-
which case it presents observable present-day condition. It orless, odorless, non-poisonous gas, which results from fossil
might also be a future baseline ,which is a projected future set fuel combustion and burning of materials, and is normally a
of condition excluding the driving facer of interest Alterna- part of ambient air.
tive interpretation of the reference conditions can give rise to
multiple baseline. Carbon Monoxide (CO): It is a chemical compound
consisting of one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen.
Base Period: the period that provides the weights for an It is a colorless and odorless gas formed whenever carbon or
index is described as the base period substances containing carbon are burned with an insufficient
air supply (incomplete fuel combustion). It is poisonous to all
Biodiversity: the range of genetic differences, species dif- warm-blooded animals and to many other forms of life. Auto-
ference and ecosystem difference in a given area. mobile - exhaust gases contain harmful quantities of carbon
monoxide.
Biomass: total living weight (generally in dry weight) of all
living organisms in a particular area or habitat. It is sometimes Catchments Area: area from which rainwater drains into
expressed as weight per unit area of land or per unit volume river system, lakes and seas.
of water.
Climate: Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the
Bryophytes: non-vascular and non-flowering plants com- average weather or more rigorously as the statistical descrip-
prising mosses and liverworts, widely distributed on moist soil tion in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities
and rocks. over a period of time ranging from months to thousands of
millions of years. These quantities are most often surface vari-
Biological diversity: the variety of life forms: the different ables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate in
plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain, a wider sense is the state including a statistical description of
and the ecosystems they form. It is usually considered at three the climate system. The classical period of time is 30 years, as
levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystems di- defined the World Meteorological (WMO).
versity.
Climate change: Climate change refers to a change in the
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): the biochemi- state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statisti-
cal oxygen demand is the mass of dissolved molecular oxygen, cal test) by changed in the mean and /or the variability of its
which is needed by micro organisms for the aerobic oxidation properties, and that persists or extended period, typically de-
of organic substances to CO2 and water. Generally in water cades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal
analysis BOD is determined at 20oc with 5 days incubation processes of external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic
period. It depends on the amount of organic substances pres- change in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use.
ent in water and is useful in expressing stream pollution load.
Generally, effluents having BOD value greater than 4 mg/l are
not allowed to be discharged into water courses.

168  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Community Soil: It is a practice of managing the conser- DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid, chief constituent of chromo-
vation of soil erosion or soil quality by community participa- somes.
tion.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): fhe genetic material
Consumption: consumption is an activity in which insti- of most living organisms, which is a major constituent of the
tutional units use up goods or service, consumption can be chromosomes within the cell nucleus and plays a central role
either intermediate or final in the determination of hereditary characteristics by control-
ling protein synthesis in cells.
Chloro-fluorocarbons (CFCs): inert, non-toxic and
easily liquefied chemicals used in refrigeration, air-condi- Degraded Land (natural): land deteriorated through a
tioning, packaging and insulation or as solvents and aerosol reduction in soil depth or quality as a result of water or wind
propellants. Because CFCs are not destroyed in the lower at- erosion, landslides or water logging etc. This excludes land in
mosphere, they drift into the upper atmosphere where their the process of desertification.
chlorine components destroy ozone. They are also among the
greenhouse gases that may affect climate change. See also Degraded Land (man made): this refers to the land
aerosol propellant. deteriorated through a reduction in soil depth or quality as a
result of deforestation, de-vegetation faulty irrigation system,
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): chemical oxygen excessive chemical fertilizers in localized area, unwise use of
demand (COD) is used as a measure of the oxygen equivalent marginal land, road building in the hills etc. This also excluded
of the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible land in the process of desertification.
to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant. It is a measure of
the total amount of oxygen required for oxidation of waste to Denudation: 1. erosion by rain, frost, wind or water of the
CO2 and water and is used to determine pollution or oxidizable solid matter of the earth. The term often implies the removal
material loads quickly. of soil down to the bedrock; 2. Removal, by natural or artificial
means, of all vegetation and organic matter.
Coliform: coli form organisms are defined as Gram-nega-
tive, rod-shaped, non- sporing bacteria capable of growing in Depletion (in natural resource accounting): for re-
the presence of bile salts or other surface - active agents and newable resources, the part of the harvest, logging, catch and
of fermenting lactose within 48 hours at 35-37oC. This group so forth above the sustainable level of the resource stock; for
of bacteria includes organisms originating from intestinal tract non-renewable resources, the quantity of resources extracted.
of warm-blooded animals and also from soil and vegetation. In the SNA it is defined as the reduction in value of deposits
Its presence in water indicates probable contamination from of subsoil assets, natural forests, fish stocks in the open seas
human waste. Recent health related WHO guideline value for and other non-cultivated biological resources as a result of the
drinking water does not permit the presence of even a single physical removal and using up of the assets.
coliform bacterium in drinking water.
Drop Out Rate: the percent of children entering a level of
Color: the term color is used to mean true color, that is, the education who do not successfully complete that level in due
color of water from which turbidity has been removed. Color course.
in water may result from the presence of natural metallic ions
(iron & manganese) humus and peat materials, plankton, Domestic Output: domestic output is output produced
weeds, and industrial wastes. by residence enterprises.

Dicotyledon: flowering plants with two seed leaves in em- Dissolved Oxygen (DO): dissolved oxygen is an im-
bryo plant. Includes many forest and fruit trees, food plants portant parameter of water quality. The water when comes in
and ornamentals. contact with air dissolves oxygen depending on, or according
to atmospheric pressure, the temperature, and the content of
Decibel (dB): unit of sound measurement on a logarithmic dissolved salts. Its presence is essential to maintain the higher
scale, with sound approximately doubling in loudness for ev- forms of biological life and the effect of a waste discharged on
ery increase of 10 decibels. a river is largely determined by the oxygen balance of the sys-
tem. Aquatic animals require certain amounts of DO depend-
Dust: particles light enough to be suspended in air. ing upon their species, stage of development, level of activity
and the water temperature.
Deforestation: clearing of tree formations and their re-
placement by non-forest land uses.

Glossary  | 169
 Domestic Waste: domestic waste consists of solid and Environmental taxes: a tax whose tax base is in physical
liquid wastes originating from residential, commercial and in- unit (or a proxy of it) that has a proven negative impact on the
stitutional buildings. These are both biodegradable and non- environment.
biodegradable.
Environmental Statistics: statistics that describe the
Environment: the totality of all the external conditions af- state and trends of the environment, covering the media of
fecting the life, development and survival of an organism. the natural environment (air/climate, water, land/soil) the
biota within the media and human settlement. Environment
Environmental Assets: all natural assets which are not statistics are integrative in nature, measuring human activities
economic assets. Environmental assets are non-produced and natural events that affect the environment, the impacts
natural assets that do not function as providers of natural re- of these activities and events, social responses to environ-
source inputs into production but as providers of environmen- ment impacts and the quality and availability of natural assets.
tal services of waste absorption, ecological functions such as Broad definition includes environmental indicators, indices
habitat or flood and climate control, and other non-economic and accounting.
amenities such as health and aesthetical values. See natural
assets. Environmental Accounting: the term usually refers to
environment auditing, but may also include the costing of en-
Environmental Costs: cost connected with the actual or vironmental impacts caused by the corporation.
potential deterioration of natural assets due to economic ac-
tivities. Such costs can be viewed from two different perspec- Ecology: totality or pattern of relationships between organ-
tives, namely as (a) costs caused, that is, costs associated with isms and their environment.
economic units actually or potentially causing environmental
deterioration by their own activities or as (b) costs borne, that Exotic: species introduced from one locality to another lo-
is, costs incurred by economic units independently of whether cality.
they have actually caused the environmental impacts.
Ecosystem: a dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal and
Environmental Expenditures: capital and current microorganism communities unit.
expenditures related to characteristic activities and facilities
specified in classifications of environmental protection activi- Ecological processes: which play an essential part in
ties. maintaining ecosystem integrity. Four fundamental ecological
processes are the cycling of water, the cycling of nutrients, the
Environmental Impact: direct effect of socio-economic flow of energy, and biodiversity ( as an expression of the pro-
activities and natural events on the components of the envi- cess of evolution).
ronment.
Emission: discharge of pollutants into the atmosphere from
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): analyti- stationary sources such as smokestacks, other vents, surface
cal process that systematically examines the possible environ- areas of commercial or industrial facilities and mobile sources,
mental consequences of the implementation of projects, pro- for example, motor vehicles, locomotives and aircraft.
grammes and policies.
Endemic Disease: disease that is only, or regularly, found
Environmental Indicator: parameter, or a value derived among a specified population or in a specified locality.
from parameters that points to, provides information about
and/or describes the state of the environment, and has a sig- Effluent: liqui waste product (whether treated or untreated)
nificance extending beyond that directly associated with any discharged from an industrial process or human activity that is
given parametric value. The term may encompass indicators discharged into the environment.
of environmental pressures, conditions and responses (OECD,
1994). Eutrophication: when water bodies like lakes, reservoirs
streams, & estuaries receive effluents rich in nutrients (phos-
Environmental Media: abiotic components of the natu- phorous and nitrogen) growth of water plants (algae) is stimu-
ral environment, namely, air, water and land. lated as a result of which deoxygenating of the water, major
ecological changes, increase in turbidity, increase in rate of
Environmental Protection: any activity to maintain or sedimentation occur. An insidious form of water pollution that
restore the quality of environmental media through prevent- causes progressive deterioration of water resources on a wide
ing the emission of pollutants or reducing the presence of pol- scale by the overabundance of plant life as a result of over en-
luting substances in environmental media. richment with the nutrients is known as Eutrophication.

170  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Earthquake: sudden shaking or trembling of the earth Fauna: all of the animals found in a given area.
caused by faulting or volcanic activity.
Flora: all of the plants found in a given area.
Ecoregion / eco-zone: homogeneous area of one or
more ecosystems that interact with relatively self-contained Fungi: simple plants including moulds and mushrooms with
human activities. thread like cells and without green chlorophyll. Fungi have no
roots, stem, or leaves like flowering plants and ferns.
Erosion: wearing away of the land by running water, rainfall,
wind, ice or other geological agents, including such processes Forested Land: these are areas of forest vegetation, having
as detachment, entrainment, suspension, transportation and at least of ten percent crown covers, which also includes small
mass movement. Geologically, erosion is defined as the pro- pockets of plantation and burned areas.
cess that slowly shapes hillsides, allowing the formation of
soil cover from the weathering of rocks and from alluvial and Faecal Coliform: faucal coli forms are that part of the coli
colluvial deposits. Erosion is often intensified by land-clearing form group which is present in the intestines and faeces of
human activities related to farming, resident and industrial de- warm-blooded animals. These bacteria are capable of produc-
velopment and it has as effect increasing run-offs, decline of ing gas from lactose and form blue colonies within 24 hours
arable layers, siltation in lakes, lagoons and oceans. when incubated at 44.5oC ± 0.2oC on M-FC medium. It should
be nil in potable water according to WHO guideline.
Environmental Disease: disease that is, at least in part,
caused or aggravated by living conditions, climate and water Global Warming: phenomenon believed to occur as a re-
supply or other environmental conditions. Environmental fac- sult of the build-up of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
tors that may affect health include psychological, biological, gases. It has been identified by many scientists as a major
physical and accident-related factors. Environmental diseases global environmental threat. See also greenhouse effect.
include in particular communicable diseases, such as respira-
tory diseases, and vector-borne diseases such as malaria, schis- Gross Domestic Product (GDP): gross domestic prod-
tosomiasis and onchocerciasis. See also airborne disease and uct is a measure of net aggregate of the total value of output
waterborne disease. produced within the boundary of a country or territory in a
specified period of time.
Epidemic: widespread outbreak of a disease that affects a
large number of individuals at a particular time. Greenhouse Effect: warming of the earth’s atmosphere
caused by a build-up of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
Enrollment Ratio ( gross ): the ratio of the number of or trace gases that act like a pane of glass in a greenhouse, al-
students, regardless of age, enrolled at a particular level of lowing sunlight to pass through and heat the earth but pre-
education to population of specified age. venting a counterbalancing loss of heat radiation.

Enrollment Ratio ( net ): the ratio of the number of stu- Genus (genera): a category used in the classification of
dents specified age enrolled in a level of education to total organisms that consists of a number of closely related species.
population of that age for the level.
Gene: hereditary factor, transmitted from generation to
Endangered: plant and animal species which are under generation of plants and animals, that is responsible for the
threat and likely to become extinct if casual factors continue determination of a particular characteristic, for example, color,
operating. They may be abundant over their range but are height or sex.
endangered because of such factors as habitat deterioration,
trade or the onset of disease. Gymnosperm: Plants that have naked seeds, which form
an intermediate group between the cryptogams and the an-
Endemic: plants or animals prevalent in or peculiar to a par- giosperms. Examples: cicadas and conifers. They are primitive
ticular locality, region or people. seed plants with many fossil representatives.

Extinct Species: the endangered or threatened plant and Gross National Product (GNP): gross national product
animal species lost for ever because of their habitat being de- is the sum of GDP and net factor income from abroad.
stroyed through a change in land use or some use for them
resulted in mass slaughter/over use or export. Gross Saving: gross saving is gross disposable income less
final consumption expenditure
Family: a taxonomic group of genera, which have certain
characteristics in common.

Glossary  | 171
 Green GDP: popular term for environmentally adjusted Industrial Wastes: solid, liquid and gaseous wastes origi-
gross domestic product. See also environmentally adjusted nating from the manufacture of specific products.
net domestic product.
Infant Mortality Rate: the annual number of deaths of
Herbs: plant with soft stem that dies down to the ground infants under one year of age per 1000 live births during a year.
after each season’s growth, as distinguished from shrubs and
trees. Also any plant used as a medicine or seasoning, e.g. Incinerator: furnace for burning wastes under controlled
thyme, surpentine. conditions.

Herbarium Identification: collection of preserved plant Lichens: species formed from the symbiotic association of
specimens for scientific study or research and reference pur- algae and fungi. Commonly occur on tree - trunks, old walls,
poses. on the ground, exposed rocks. They are the primary colonizers
of bare areas.
Hydroxyl Ion: a hydroxyl ion consists of one atom of hydro-
gen and one atom of oxygen and carries one unit of negative Landslide: downward mass movement of earth or rock on
charge. unstable slopes.

Habitat: the place type of site where an organism naturally Land Use / Classification: land categories, reflecting
occurs. quality classes, capability classes or grade, depending upon
the characteristics of the land and/or its potential for agricul-
Human Settlements: integrative concept that comprises tural use.
(a) physical components of shelter and infrastructure and (b)
services to which the physical elements provide support, that Land Degradation: reduction or loss of the biological or
is to say, community services such as education, health, cul- economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, ir-
ture, welfare, recreation and nutrition. rigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest or woodlands result-
ing from natural processes, land uses or other human activities
Hardness: this is the property of water, which prevents lath- and habitation patterns such as land contamination, soil ero-
er formation with soap and produces scale in pipelines. It is sion and the destruction of the vegetation cover.
due mainly to dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. Carbon-
ate hardness (temporary hardness) is due to the presence of Land Affected by Desertification (man made): the
these metals associated with bicarbonate while non-carbon- area of land which is in the degrading process by the removal
ate hardness (permanent hardness) is due to the presence of of forest vegetation, grassland vegetation and other natural
these metals associated with sulphate/chloride or nitrate. resources.

Hazardous Waste: hazardous wastes include toxic chemi- Lead (Pb): a heavy metal whose compounds are highly poi-
cals, biological and medical wastes, flammable wastes, corro- sonous to health. It is used enormous quantities in storage bat-
sive wastes, radioactive wastes, and explosives. They usually teries, paints, sheathing electric cables, lining pipes etc. Lead
are produced in industrial operations or in technical institu- compound is the chief constituent of gasoline and is consid-
tions. ered a significant contributor to air pollution.

Hazen: the Hazen scale, which is also known as platinum- Life Expectancy at Birth: the expected number of years
cobalt units, is generally used in the determination of color in for a new born baby would live if prevailing patterns of mortal-
water samples ity at the time of its birth would remain the same throughout
its life.
Hydrological cycle: water cycle, involving the exchange
of water between the atmosphere, water-bodies, the Earth’s Labour Force Participation: the ratio of population
crust and living organisms. Operates on a global to microcosm who are employed and seeking employment in the age group
level. 15-64 to total population in working age.

Homology: the condition of being homologous. Homolo- Literacy Rate: percent literate population 6 years and
gous refers to organs of structures deriving from the same evo- above. “ Literate Person “ is the one who can read and write
lutionary origins. For example, the forelimb of a quadruped, with understanding simple notes of every day life
the human arm and the wing of a bird are said to be homolo-
gous.

172  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Monocotyledons: flowering plants having single seed utility and industrial boilers. The gas is toxic in high concen-
leaf (cotyledon) in the seed. trations, a lung irritant and lowering resistance to respiratory
infection. It is a major contributor to acid deposition and the
Major Anions: anions generally found in significant con- formation of ground level ozone in troposphere.
centrations in natural waters are known as major anions. These
include ions of carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and chloride. Natural Disaster: sudden calamitous such as earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, volcanic eruptions, cyclones and landslide,
Major Cations: cations generally found in significant con- of ongoing misfortune as in conditions of processes such as
centrations in natural waters are known as major cations. These drought and desertification.
include ions of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium.
Noise: audible sound from traffic, construction and so on
Methane (CH4): colorless and odorless gas composed of that may generate unpleasant and harmful effects (hearing
one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen. It is non- loss). It is measured in decibels.
poisonous and flammable gaseous hydrocarbon created by
anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds. It occurs in Noramal: The name given to the average value over a pe-
natural gas, as fire damp in coal mines, and as a product of de- riod of years of any meteorological element such as pressure,
composition in swamps. temperature, rainfall, ete. World Meteorological Organization
defined the average period as 30 years.Currently 1971-2000 is
Mercury: heavy metal that can accumulate in the environ- as the normal period.
ment and is highly toxic if breathed or swallowed.
Noise Pollution: sound of excessive levels that may be
Monthly Average Wind Speed (km/hr): average of detrimental to human health.
the daily wind speed in a month.
Nutrients: Nutrients include phosphorous, nitrogen, car-
Monthly Mean Temperature: it is the mean tempera- bon, and silica in their various chemical forms. The degree of
ture of the month calculated from all daily means of months, eutrophication in lakes is dependent largely on nutrient con-
where daily mean temperature is the average mean of maxi- centrations in the lake waters.
mum and minimum temperature in a day.
Nitrates: already cover in Water Resources component. In
Monthly Rainfall (mm): total rainfall in each month of the context of soil, it is nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of ni-
a year. trate.

Maternal mortality Rate: the annual number of deaths N.P.K. Content in Soil: N.P.K. stands for nitrogen, phos-
of women from pregnancy related causes per 1,00,000 live phorous and potassium compounds, which are also called
births. nutrients as these compounds are essential for growing crops
and, hence, are added to soil in the form of fertilizers.
National Park: A legally established area for the conserva-
tion, management and utilization of flora and fauna, and land- Ozone (O3): pungent, colorless, toxic gas that contains
scape, together with natural environment. three atoms of oxygen in each molecule. It occurs naturally at
a concentration of about 0.01 parts per million (p.p.m.) of air.
Nutrient: substance, element or compound necessary for Levels of 0.1 p.p.m. are considered to be toxic. In the strato-
the growth and development of plants and animals. sphere, ozone provides a protective layer shielding the earth
from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation on human be-
National Accounting: physical and monetary accounts ings and other biota. In the troposphere, it is a major compo-
of environmental assets and the costs of their depletion and nent of photochemical smog, which seriously affects the hu-
degradation; man respiratory system.

Natural Resources: natural assets (raw materials) occur- Other Lands: this refers to his land type which is catch-
ring in nature that can be used for economic production or all for other uses of land and may include rocky areas, lakes,
consumption. See also renewable natural resources and non- ponds, water ways or settlements etc.
renewable natural resources.
Ozone Depletion: destruction of ozone in the strato-
Nitrogen Oxides (Nox): these are compounds of nitro- sphere, where it shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet
gen and oxygen combined in various ratios. The major human- radiation. Its destruction is caused by chemical reactions in
caused source of NO2 is fuel combustion in motor vehicles, which oxides of hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine and bromine act
as catalysts.

Glossary  | 173
 Organism: any living plant, animal or human being. pH: It is used as a measuring unit of the intensity of acidity or
alkalinity of a sample. In other words, the pH is defined as the
Organic Constituents: there are the substances found negative logarithm of molar hydrogen-ion activity or hydro-
in water which have originated from organic sources or which gen-ion concentration (in dilute solutions).
have organic nature (e.g. hydrocarbons, pesticides etc.).
Population Density: total number of inhabitants per
Pesticide: any substance or mixture of substances that is square unit of surface area.
used to prevent, destroy or control pests - including vectors
of human or animal disease, and unwanted species of plants Price: The price of a goods or service is the value of one unit
or animals. Pesticides may cause harm during, or otherwise in- of a particular goods or service.
terfere with, the production, processing, storage, transport or
marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood Production: Production is a physical process, carried out
products or animal feedstuffs - or that may be administered to under the responsibility, control and management of an insti-
animals so as to control insects, arachnids or other pests in or tutional unit, in which labour and assets are used to transform
on their bodies. inputs of goods and service into output of other goods and
service.
Popualtion-land ratio: a measure to express population
pressure on land i.e. population divided by land area (sq. km.). Potable Water: water that is safe for drinking and cooking
according to defined standards.
Protected Area: a legally established area for achieving
specific conservation objectives. Pollution Abatement: technology applied or measure
taken to reduce pollution and/or its impacts on the environ-
Pteridophytes: non-flowering vascular plants with root ment. The most commonly used technologies are scrubbers,
stem and leave e.g. ferns, horsetails. Widely distributed group noise mufflers, filters, incinerators, waste-water treatment fa-
attaining its development in the tropics. cilities and composting of wastes.

Peak Daily Average: the highest 24-hour (daily) average Recombination: the rearrangement of genes that occurs
concentration level of average daily concentration levels mea- when reproductive cells
sured over one year.
Red Data Book: a document containing information on
Peak 1-Hour Average: the highest one-hour average threatened, rare or endangered species in a given habitat.
concentration of all one-hour average concentrations moni-
tored for one year. Residual: amount of a pollutant that remains in the environ-
ment after a natural or technological process has taken place.
Peak 8-Hour Average: The highest 8-hour average of
all 8-hour average concentrations measured over one year. Richter Scale: scale with a range extending from 0 to 10 for
p.p.m./p.p.b./p.p.t. (parts per million/parts per billion/parts per measuring the strength of an earthquake.
trillion), measures of the concentrations of pollutants in air,
water, soil, human tissue, food or other products. Rare Species: species occurring in small populations
throughout its range. They are sparsely distributed over a large
pH Value: measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid. A area. They may be endangered or threatened with extinction if
pH value in the range of 0 to 7 indicates acidity, a pH value in their regeneration or reproduction is slow.
the range of 7 to 14 indicates alkalinity, and a pH value of 7
signifies neutrality. Relative Humidity: It is defined as a ratio of actual wa-
ter vapor pressure to the saturation vapor pressure and is
Pollutant: substance that is present in concentrations that expressed in percentage. It is the measure of the water vapor
may harm organisms (humans, plants and animals) or exceed content in the air.
an environmental quality standard.
Sustainable Development: development that meets
Pollution: 1. presence of substances and heat in environ- the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
mental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or future generations to meet their own needs (World Commis-
quantity produces undesirable environmental effects; 2. activ- sion on Environment and Development, 1987). It assumes the
ity that generates pollutants. conservation of natural assets for future growth and develop-
ment

174  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

System of integrated Environmental and Eco- Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) Component: Al-
nomic Accounting (SEEA): satellite system of the Sys- ready covered in Water Resources.
tem of National Accounts (SNA) proposed by the United Na-
tions (1993a) for the incorporation of environment concerns Solid Waste: useless and sometimes hazardous material
(environmental costs, benefits and assets) into national ac- with low liquid content. Solid wastes include municipal gar-
counts. bage, industrial and commercial waste, sewage sludge, wastes
resulting from agricultural and animal husbandry operations
Shrub: low, perennial woody plants with several permanent and other connected activities, demolition wastes and mining
stems branching from or near ground rather than single trunk, residues.
usually less than 6 m high at maturity.
Solid Waste Disposal: ultimate disposition or placement
Selection: natural selection is the differential contribution of refuse that is not salvaged or recycled.
of offspring to the next generation by various genetic types
belonging to the same populations. Saving: saving is a disposal income less final consumption
expenditure (or adjusted disposable income less actual final
Species: a group of organisms capable of interbreeding consumption )
freely with each other but not with members of other species.
Solid Waste Management: supervised handling of
Sanitation: improvement of environmental conditions in waste material from generation at the source through the re-
households that affect human health by means of drainage covery processes to disposal.
and disposal of sewage and refuse.
Tolerance: 1. ability of an organism to endure unfavorable
Sewage: organic wastes and wastes water produce by resi- environmental conditions; 2. amount of a chemical in food
dential and commercial establishments. considered safe for humans or animals.

Sulphate (SO4): sulphate ion consists of one atom of Threatened: species having low fecundity (offspring pro-
sulphur and four atoms of oxygen and carries two negative duction rate) or prone to extinction in human-dominated
charge. Sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere ultimately gets landscapes.
converted into sulphate particles, and it combines with mois-
ture in the air to form sulphuric acid (precursor to acid rain). Toxic Substances: substances, which cause adverse ef-
fects on living organisms (e. g. pesticides, arsenic, mercury
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): A heavy, pungent with suffocat- etc.)
ing odour, colourless gas formed primarily by the combustion
of fossil fuels such as gas, petroleum and coal. It constitutes Traffic Density: number of vehicles per km of road length
one of the most troublesome air pollutants. In moist air it is in a given area..
slowly oxidized to sulphuric acid. It is harmful to human beings
and vegetation and contributes to acidity in rain. It may be re- Total Fertility Rate: the average number of children that
sponsible for the decay of buildings and monuments. would be born alive to a woman during her life time if she were
to bear children at each age in accordance with prevailing age-
Suspended Solid Particles or Suspended Par- specific fertility rate.
ticulate Matter: It consists of particles of a wide range of
sizes varying from greater than 100 m to less than 0.1 m. Par- Turbidity: the presence of suspended and /or colloidal
ticles larger than 10 m mainly consists of dust, coarse dirt and substance give liquid a cloudy appearance, which is, knows
fly ashes which settle rapidly. Small particles less than 10 m as turbidity. No health based guidance value for turbidity has
remain much longer in the air as Suspended Particulate Matter been proposed but it makes the water unattractive and pos-
(SPM). Human - caused sources include a variety of combus- sibly harmful.
tion sources (vehicles, dryers), wood stoves, field burning, and
dusts from mining, roads and construction. It causes breathing Taxon (pl.taxa ): the named classification unit to which
and respiratory symptoms (diseases) and premature mortality. individuals, or sets of species, are assigned, such as species,
Other effects are soiling and corrosion of building materials. genus, order etc.

Soil pH: Already covered in Water Resources component. pH Value added tax (VAT): a value added tax (VAT) is a tax
is measured in the aqueous extract of the soil. on products collected in spot by enterprises

Glossary  | 175
 Vulnerable Species: taxa of various types, including (a) Waste-water Treatment: process to render waste water
taxa believed likely to move into the “endangered” category in fit to meet environmental standards or other quality norms.
the near future if the relevant causal factors continue to oper- Three broad types of treatment may be distinguished.
ate. These factors may include overexploitation, extensive de-
struction of habitat and other environmental disturbances, (b) Water Quality: physical, chemical, biological and organo-
taxa with populations that have been seriously depleted and leptic (taste-related) properties of water.
whose ultimate security has not yet been assured and (c) taxa
with populations that are still abundant but are under threat Water Quality Index: weighted average of selected am-
from severe adverse factors throughout their range. bient concentrations of pollutants usually linked to water qual-
ity classes.
Weather: day-to-day or sometimes even instantaneous
changes of atmospheric conditions over a given place or area. Wetland: area of low-lying land where the water table is at or
In contrast, climate encompasses the statistical ensemble of near the surface most of the time. Wetlands include swamps,
all weather conditions during a long period of time over that bogs, fens, marshes and estuaries.
place or area. Atmospheric conditions are measured by the
meteorological parameters of air temperature, barometric Zero Population Growth (ZPG): absence of popula-
pressure, wind velocity, humidity, clouds and precipitation. tion growth in which equal birth and death rates create a
stable human population.

176  |  Compendium of Environment Statistics Nepal 2015

Glossary  | 177
 Government of Nepal
National Planning Commission Secretariat
Central Bureau of Statistics
Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal