Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering:

TIU-UEE-T102
L-T-P: 3-1-0
Credit: 4

Name of the 1st Topic: Introduction:

Lecture 1:
Basic electrical System:
Each system will have inputs and output. An input can be battery which is connected to a circuit
and output is some entity which we want to measure in a circuit element. In the example if the
input is the battery supplying voltage. Since, we are interested in current flowing in the resistor,
the output is current. The process of predicting the output for given inputs in a electronic system
is circuit analysis. The inputs can be of various forms of electrical signal. Alternatively, the
output can also be a non-electrical entity e.g., speaker converting the electrical signal to audio. In
general the electronic system will have multiple inputs (can be signal inputs or power sources)
and multiple outputs. We need to understand the basic elements to do circuit analysis.

Lecture 2: Basic Electrical elements: Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.

Passive elements
Most of the Circuit elements have at least two leads (electrical terminals). They are characterized
by voltage across the terminals and current flowing through the device (see Fig.1); this is V-I
characterization of device.
Resistance: Across this element, if we applied a voltage source and observe the current, then we
will observe that v∞i, that is, V=Ri, where R is the resistance measured in Ohms (Fig. 1).

Resistance

Fig.1: Graph of V vs I for a Resistance

Higher the value of R, larger the voltage required to achieve the same current. Voltage
proportional to current ‘I’ is Ohm's law (It was deduced hueristically by experiments for metals,
by George Simon Ohm.
For lamp, this law is not true, as with increase in current, temperature of bulb increases, causing
the increase in resistance. Hence Ohms law is not strictly true for lamp. The resistive elements
(resistances) can be fixed or variable. Commonly use resistor types are carbon film and wire
wound. The example of variable resistor is potentiometer.
For a material with length ‘l’ and cross-sectional area ‘A’, the resistance will be R=ρl/A,
where ‘ρ’ is specific resistivity (property of material). Inverse of resistance is
conductance. G=1/R, measured in mhos or Seimens.
Inductance:
Current flowing in a wire causes generation of magnetic field intensity (H). ‘H’ is independent of
material medium surrounding the current carrying wire. The ‘H’ leads to magnetic flux density
B=µrµ0H . Here µ0 is absolute permeability of vaccum. µr is relative permeability of material
where B is measured. The flux flowing around wire links with the conducting wire. If the flux
linkage changes it lead to generation of EMF (electromotive force) which try to oppose the
change in flux. This means it tries to nullify the change in current. Defining the inductance
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
voltage VL = L , L is inductance and measured in Henry. See the output current of
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
sinusoidal VL applied across an inductor in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: V and I as function of ‘t’ for an Inductor

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Capacitance: Ic=c , ‘c ‘ capacitance. The magnitude of charge on either plate is given by q=cv.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Lumped model: Shape, material, wire, connectors - effect of each is assumed to be due to single
entity shown by the symbols in the diagram. In actual resistance, inductance and capacitance are
distributed all across the circuits. For most practical purpose, lumped model- satisfactory.

VOLTAGE

Ohm’s Law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference(p.d) in volts across the two ends of the given conductor
and inversely proportional to the resistance (R) in ohms (Ω) between the ends of the same
conductor.
In all practical problems of electrical calculations, it is assumed that the temperature rise is
within limits, so that electrical properties such as insulation and conduction properties of the
given material are not destroyed. Hence ohm’s law mathematically stated:
I = V/R; V = IR; R = V/I.

Lecture 3:
Voltage, Current, Power:
Voltage and current are the cornerstone concepts in electricity. We will create our first mental
models for these basic electrical quantities. We will also talk about power, which is what
happens when voltage and current act together.

Charge:
The concept of electricity arises from an observation of nature. We observe a force between
objects that like gravity, acts at a distance. The source of this force has been given the
name charge. A very noticeable thing about electric force is that it is large, far greater than the
force of gravity. However, there are two types of electric charge. Opposite types of charge attract
and like types of charge repel. Gravity has only one type, it only attracts, never repels.

Conductors and insulators

Conductors are made of atoms whose outer or valence electrons have relatively weak bonds to
their nuclei. When a bunch of metal atoms are together, they gladly share their outer electrons
with each other, creating a "swarm" of electrons not associated with a particular nucleus. A very
small electric force can make the electron swarm move. Copper, gold, silver, and aluminum are
good conductors. There are also poor conductors. ‘Tungsten’ a metal used for light bulb
filaments and carbon in diamond are relatively poor conductors because their electrons are less
prone to move.
Insulators are materials whose outer electrons are tightly bound to their nuclei. Modest electric
forces are not able to pull these electrons free. When an electric force is applied, the electron
clouds around the atom stretch and deform in response to the force, but the electrons do not
depart. Glass, plastic, stone, and air are insulators. Even for insulators, though, electric force can
always be turned up high enough to rip electrons away, this is called breakdown. That's what is
happening to air molecules when you see a spark.
Semiconductor materials fall between insulators and conductors. They usually act like
insulators, but we can make them act like conductors under certain circumstances. The most
well-known semiconductor material is Silicon (atomic number 14). Our ability to finely control
the insulating and conducting properties of silicon allows us to create modern marvels like
computers and mobile phones. The details of semiconductor operation are governed by our
understanding of quantum mechanics.

Current: Current is the flow of charge. Current is reported as the number of charges per unit
time passing through a boundary. Visualize placing a boundary all the way through a wire.
Station yourself near the boundary and count the number of charges passing by. Report how
much charge passed through the boundary in one second. We assign a positive sign to current
corresponding to the direction a positive charge would be moving.
Since current is the amount of charge passing through a boundary in a fixed amount of time, it
can be expressed mathematically using the following equation:
i = dq/dt

• A few remarks on current

• What carries current in metal? Since electrons are free to move about in metals,
moving electrons are what makes up the current in metals. The positive nuclei in metal
atoms are fixed in place and do not contribute to current. Even though electrons have a
negative charge and do almost all the work in most electric circuits, we still define a
positive current as the direction a positive charge would move. This is a very old
historical convention.
• What causes current? Charged objects move in response to electric and magnetic
forces. These forces come from electric and magnetic fields, which in turn come from the
position and motion of other charges.

Voltage: The work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented
by the battery. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage between
two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge
from a to b; mathematically,
Vab=dw/dq, where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage or
simply V is measured in volts (V), named in honor of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio
Volta.
1 volt =1 joule/coulomb

Power: Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are
not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an
electric device can handle. Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W).
P=dw/dt, where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).
P=VI

Name of the 2nd Topic: DC Network Analysis:

Lecture 1 :
KCL and their applications in purely resistive circuits.
Kirchoff's current law: At any point in the network, total amount of current entering and
leaving the point has to be equal to rate of accumulation of charge at the point. Since, in the
circuits ordinarily the points where one circuit element is connected to other circuit element
(these points are called nodes) do not store charge sum of incomming current has to be equal to
sum of outgoing currents.

The algebraic sum of the currents at the junction (node) will be zero.
At node n,
(i2+i3+i4)= (i1+i5+i6)
Or, i2+i3+i4-i1-i5-i6=0.

Ex.:1 Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in given below Fig.

Sol:
Lecture 2:
KVL and their applications in purely resistive circuits:
Kirchoff’s Volatage law: In a circuit, if your start from a point A and tranverses the circuit in
any fashion and reaches back to point A, the total sum of potential changes should be zero. This
has to be true since, same point cannot have two different potentials.

e1+e2+e3= V.
e1+e2+e3-V=0.
Lecture 3:
Source conversion:

A DC source with circuit elememts.

Ideal voltage source: Whatever amount of current is drawn from it the voltage at the terminals is
always same. Whenever the terminals are short circuited (resistance of ‘0’ohm between the
terminals) the infinite amount of current flows to maintain voltage.

Ideal Current Source

Ideal current source: Whatever load or network of elements is connected to source, the current
pumped by the source into the load always remains same. Whenever the terminals are open
circuits (Terminals are not connected to any thing) the voltage across the terminals
becomes infinity to maintain the same amount of current through terminals.

Current Source left open

In this case, voltage across the terminals will be infinity.

Non Ideal Voltage Source: See the circuit in given below figure. A non ideal voltage source is
modeled with an internal resistance of source Rint. Thus battery terminal voltage changes with the
load current.

Non Ideal Voltage Source

Non Ideal Current Source: See the circuit in figure.

Non-ideal Current Source

A non ideal current source is modeled by an internal conductance Gint in parallel with the
source. Gint=1/Rint. From the figure, we see that:I- GintVab =IAB. Ideal current source has Gint=0,
i.e. Rint=∞.

STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMATION:

Star connection and delta connection are the two different methods of connecting three basic
elements which cannot be further simplified into series or parallel. The two ways of
representation can have equivalent circuits in either form. Assume some voltage source across
the terminals AB.
Name of the 3rd Topic: DC Network Theorems:

Lecture 1:
Superposition Theorem: The superposition principle states that the voltage across (current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (currents
through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to
that active source using the techniques covered in Chapters 2 and 3.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

Problem solved.

Lecture 2:
Thevenin’s Theorem: Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh,
where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Finding the Thevenin resistance , we need to consider two cases.

■ CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. is the
input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b, as shown in Fig. 4.24(b).
■ CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with
superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit
variables. We apply a voltage source at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current .
Then, as shown in Fig. 4.25(a). Alternatively, we may insert a current source at terminals a-b as
shown in Fig. 4.25(b) and find the terminal voltage. Again . Either
of the two approaches will give the same result. In either approach we may assume any value of
and . For example, we may use or A, or even use unspecified values of or. It often occurs that
takes a negative value. In this case, the negative resistance ( ) implies that the circuit is supplying
power. This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources; Example 4.10 will illustrate this.
Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify a circuit. A large
circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage source and a single resistor. This
replacement technique is a powerful tool in circuit design. As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit
with a variable load can be replaced by the Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load. The
equivalent network behaves the same way externally as the original circuit. Consider a linear
circuit terminated by a load, as shown in Fig. 4.26(a). The current through the load and the
voltage across the load are easily determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the
load’s terminals is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.26(b).
Problem solved:

Norton’s Theorem: Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is
the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Problem solved.

Lecture 3 :
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL=RTh).

Problem solved.
Name of the 4th Topic: Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis

Lecture 1: Representation of Sinusoids.

Characteristics of Sinusoids: Consider a sinusoidally varying voltage v(t) = Vm sinωt, shown
graphically in Figs. (a) and (b). The amplitude of the sine wave is Vm, and the argument isωt.
The radian frequency, or angular frequency, is ω. In Fig. a, Vm sinωt is plotted as a function of
the argument ωt, and the periodic nature of the sine wave is evident.

The function repeats itself every 2π radians, and its period is therefore 2π radians. In Fig. b, Vm
sinωt is plotted as a function of t and the period is now T.Asine wave having a period T must
execute 1/T periods each second; its frequency f is 1/T hertz, abbreviated Hz. Thus, f = 1/T and
since ωT = 2π .
Lagging and Leading
A more general form of the sinusoid,
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θ)
includes a phase angle θ in its argument. Above equation is plotted in Fig. below as a function of
ωt, and the phase angle appears as the number of radians by which the original sine wave (shown
in green color in the sketch) is shifted to the left, or earlier in time. Since corresponding points on
the sinusoid Vm sin(ωt + θ) occur θ rad, or θ/ω seconds, earlier, we say that Vm sin(ωt + θ) leads
Vm sinωt by θ rad. Therefore, it is correct to describe ω = 2πf.
sin ωt as lagging sin(ωt + θ) by θ rad, as leading sin(ωt + θ) by −θ rad, or as leading sin(ωt − θ)
by θ rad.

Series Impedance Combinations

The validity of Kirchhoff’s two laws in the frequency domain leads to the fact that impedances
may be combined in series and parallel by the same rules we established for resistances. For
example, at ω = 10 × 103rad/s, a 5 mH inductor in series with a 100 μF capacitor may be
replaced by the sum of the individual impedances. The impedance of the inductor is ZL = jωL =
j50 Ω and the impedance of the capacitor is ZC = 1/jωC =−j/ωC = −j1Ω
The impedance of the series combination is therefore
Zeq = ZL + ZC = j50 − j1 = j49Ω

Parallel Impedance Combinations

The parallel combination of the 5 mH inductor and the 100 μF capacitor at ω = 10,000 rad/s is
calculated in exactly the same fashion in which we calculated parallel resistances:
Zeq = ( j50)(−j1)/j50 − j1= 50/j49 = −j1.020Ω
At ω = 5000 rad/s, the parallel equivalent is −j2.17Ω.

Reactance
To express impedance in either rectangular (Z = R +jX) or polar (Z =|Z|/θ ) form. In rectangular
form, the real part which arises only from real resistances, and an imaginary component, termed
the reactance, which arises from the energy storage elements. Both resistance and reactance
have units of ohms, but reactance will always depend upon frequency. An ideal resistor has zero
reactance; an ideal inductor or capacitor is purely reactive (i.e., characterized by zero resistance).
Consider the series connection of a 1Ω resistor, a 1 F capacitor and a 1 H inductor driven at ω =
1 rad/s. Zeq = 1 − j (1)(1) + j (1)(1) = 1Ω.

Lecture 2 : Phasors for simple R-L-C combinations:

A directed line segment, or phasor, such as that shown rotating in a counterclockwise direction at
a constant angular velocity ! (rad/s) in Fig. 9-5, has a projection on the horizontal which is a
cosine function. The length of the phasor or its magnitude is the amplitude or maximum value of
the cosine function. The angle between two positions of the phasor is the phase difference
between the corresponding points on the cosine function.
Ex. 1: A series combination of R = 10Ω and L = 20mH has a current i = 5.0 cos (500t+100) (A).
Obtain the voltages v and V, the phasor current I.

Sol.:

Lecture 3: Concept of power and power factor.

Instantaneous Power
The instantaneous power delivered to any device is given by the product of the instantaneous
voltage across the device and the instantaneous current through it (the passive sign convention is
assumed).
Thus, p(t) = v(t)i (t)
If the device in question is a resistor of resistance R, then the power may be expressed solely in
terms of either the current or the voltage:
p(t) = v(t)i (t) = i 2(t)R = v2(t)/R

Apparent Power and Power Factor

Historically, the introduction of the concepts of apparent power and power factor can be traced to
the electric power industry, where large amounts of electric energy must be transferred from one
point to another; the efficiency with which this transfer is effected is related directly to the cost
of the electric energy, which is eventually paid by the consumer. Customers who provide loads
which result in a relatively poor transmission efficiency must pay a greater price for each
kilowatthour (kWh) of electric energy they actually receive and use. In a similar way, customers
who require a costlier investment in transmission and distribution equipment by the power
company will also pay more for each kilowatthour unless the company is benevolent and enjoys
losing money.
Let us first define apparent power and power factor and then show briefly how these terms are
related to practical economic situations. We assume that the sinusoidal voltage
v = Vm cos(ωt + θ)
is applied to a network and the resultant sinusoidal current is
i = Im cos(ωt + φ)
The phase angle by which the voltage leads the current is therefore (θ − φ).
The average power delivered to the network, assuming a passive sign convention at its input
terminals, may be expressed either in terms of the maximum values:
P =1/2(Vm Im cos(θ − φ))
or in terms of the effective values:
P = Veff Ieff cos(θ − φ)
The ratio of the real or average power to the apparent power is called the power factor,
symbolized by PF. Hence,
PF = average power/apparent power = P/Veff Ieff
In the sinusoidal case, the power factor is simply cos(θ − φ), where (θ −φ) is the angle by which
the voltage leads the current. This relationship is the reason why the angle (θ − φ) is often
referred to as the PF angle.

Name of the 5th Topic: 3-Ph circuits

Lecture 1 : Introduction to 3-Ph quantities.
Three-phase sources have three terminals, called the line terminals, and they may or may not
have a fourth terminal, the neutral connection. We will begin by discussing a three-phase source
that does have a neutral connection.
It may be represented by three ideal voltage sources connected in a Y, as shown in Fig. 12.11;
terminals a, b, c, and n are available. We will consider only balanced three-phase sources, which
may be defined as having
|Van| = |Vbn| = |Vcn| and Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0
These three voltages, each existing between one line and the neutral, are called phase voltages. If
we arbitrarily chooseVan as the reference, or define
Van = Vp͟/0◦
where we will consistently use Vp to represent the rms amplitude of any of the phase voltages,
then the definition of the three-phase source indicates that either
Vbn = Vp/͟−120◦ and Vcn = Vp/͟−240◦
or
Vbn = Vp/͟120◦ and Vcn = Vp/͟240◦

Line-to-Line Voltages

A phasor diagram
Lecture 2 : 3-ph star and delta connection. Phasor diagram for 3-ph system,
The Delta (∆) Connection
Lecture 3 : Balanced 3-ph loads, measurement of 3-ph power.

Power Measurement In Three-Phase Systems Use of the Wattmeter

In large electrical systems, not only are voltage and current important to know, but power is
quoted so often that measuring it directly proves highly valuable. This is typically performed
using a device known as a wattmeter, which must have the ability to establish both the voltage
and the current associated with either the source, the load, or both. Modern devices are very
similar to the digital multimeter, providing a numerical display of the quantity being measured.
These devices frequently make use of the fact that current gives rise to a magnetic field, which
can be measured without breaking the circuit. However, in the field we still encounter analog
versions of the multimeter, and they continue to have some advantages over digital versions,
such as the ability to function without a separate power source (e.g., battery), and secondary
information that comes from watching a needle move as opposed to numbers seemingly jumping
around randomly on a display. Thus, in this section, we focus on power measurement using a
traditional analog meter, as switching to a digital device is straightforward if one is available.
Before embarking on a discussion of the specialized techniques used to measure power in three-
phase systems, it is to our advantage to briefly consider how a wattmeter is used in a single-
phase circuit.
The power absorbed by this source is given by
P = |V2| |I| cos(ang V2 − ang I)
Using superposition or mesh analysis, we find the current is
I = 11.18/153.4◦A
thus the absorbed power is
P = (100)(11.18) cos(00− 153.40) = −1000 W
The pointer therefore rests against the downscale stop. In practice, the potential coil can be
reversed more quickly than the current coil, and this reversal provides an upscale reading of
1000 W.

A wattmeter connection that will ensure an upscale reading for the power absorbed by the
passive network. (b) An example in which the wattmeter is installed to give an upscale
indication of the power absorbed by the right source.

Name of the 6thTopic: Semiconductor Devices

Lecture 1 :Energy bands in solids. Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

In case of insulators, the forbidden energy gap is very large with both the bands being parabolic
in nature under simplified assumptions. In such solids, at ordinary temperatures only a few
electrons canacquire enough thermal energy to move from the valence band into the conduction
band. The valence

Fig: Energy band diagram for insulators

band is completely filled and after a very large band gap the conduction band is completely
empty.
A crystalline solid is referred to as a metal when the conduction band is filled. When the electric
field is applied, these electrons acquire energy from the field and produce an electric current.
This makes a metal a good conductor of electricity. The electrons in the conduction band are the
conduction electrons.

Fig: Energy band diagram for metal

Semiconductor:

· Conductivity lies between conductor and insulator.

· Forbidden energy gap 0.2-2.5eV.
· At 0K a pure semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
· Semiconductor materials show a reduction in resistance with increase in temperature. So said to
have a negative temperature coefficient.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:

· Semiconductor refined to reduce the number of impurities to a very low level. e.g :
Semiconductor in pure form
· Group-IV elements. Si, Ge,

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
· To increase the conductivity, impurities also called dopant (Group III or V) are added to the
pure semiconductor material and is called extrinsic semiconductor (n-type or p-type). The
process is called doping.
·
N-type Semiconductor- Pentavalent(As,Sb,P) atom is added to pure semiconductor. Diffused
impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
·
P-type Semiconductor- Trivalent (Al,B,Ga) atom is added to pure semiconductor. Diffused
impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.

Holes are the majority carrier in p-type semiconductor and electrons are minority carrier. In n-
type semiconductor electrons are the majority carrier and holes are the minority carrier.

Lecture 2 :P-N junctions. Semiconductor diodes:

Diode:
· Solid state device created by joining the p-type and n-type material is called as semiconductor
diode.
· Absence of external voltage across the p-n junction is called the unbiased diode. Because of the
density gradient electrons and holes diffuse and they combine leaving the ions unneutralised and
are called uncovered charges.
· The uncovered charges generate an electric field directed from n-side to p-side called as barrier
field which opposes the diffusion process further.
· Since the vicinity of the junction is depleted of mobile charges. Hence called a as depletion
region.

No Bias (V=0)

Reverse Bias (VD<0V)

· Positive polarity of the external bias VDis connected to n-type and negative terminal is
connected to p-type.
· The number of uncovered positive and negative ions will increase in the depletion region
causing widening the depletion region which creates a great barrier for the majority carrier to
overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero and hence the current due to
majority carrier Imajority=0
· The minority carriers which travels down the potential barrier remain unaffected and give a
small current called the reverse saturation current denoted as Is.

Forward Bias (VD>0V)

· Positive polarity of the external bias VD is connected to p-type and negativeterminal is
connected to n-type.
· External bias VD exerts a force on the mobile carriers to move them towards the junction. At
the boundary they recombine with the ions and reduce the width of the depletion region.
· The depletion region will continue to decrease in width as the voltage is increased further and a
heavy flood of electrons will move from n-side to p-side giving theImajority an exponential rise
from p-side to n-side,
· The minority carrier flow will not be affected by this because the conduction level is
determined by the limited number of impurities in the material and the current isdenoted by Is.
The total current is given by
ID=IForward+IReverse
=Imajority - Iminority (Direction opposite)
In terms of reverse saturation current, ID can be written as
ID=Isexp(eV/ ηKT) - Isis called the Shockley’s equation.

Where
e- Charge of an electron
K-Boltzman’s Constant
T-Temperature in Kelvin
η- Quality factor depends upon the diode material (η=2 for Si and 1 for Ge)
V- Supplied voltage across the junction

Diode equivalent Circuit:

· Equivalent circuit is a combination of element properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular operating point.

Ideal diode in forward and reverse biased condition is as follows

Diode Resistance levels:

· According to the applied signal the resistance levels in a diode has following type
1. DC or Static (DC signal)
2. AC or Dynamic(Small AC signal)
3. Average ac( Large AC signal)
Lecture 3 :Zener and Varicap diodes. Bipolar transistors.

Breakdown Condition:
(a) Zener Breakdown
· Too much of reverse bias across a p-n junction exert a strong force on a bound electron to tear
it out from the covalent bond. Thus a large number of electron and hole pair will be generated
through a direct rupture of the covalent bonds and they increase the reverse current and gives
sharp increase in the characteristics. It is called zener breakdown. Diode employing the unique
portion of the characteristics of a p-n junction is called zener diode.
· Maximum reverse voltage potential that can be applied before entering the zener region is
called the peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV).
A p–njunction designed for use as a voltage-variable-capacitance is called a varactor, or
sometimes avaricap. The capacitance versus voltage curve of a typical p–n junction is shown
below

Fig: Plot of the junction capacitance as a function of the applied reverse potential for the abrupt
p–n junction

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

· pnp-- n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two p-type semiconductor.
· npn-- p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two n-type semiconductor.
· It has three terminal naming E-Emitter, B-Base and C-Collector.
· Both electron and hole responsible for the current conduction. So called bipolar junction
transistor.
· Doping wise-Emitter>Collector>Base
· Two Junctions- JEB (Junction emitter base) and JCB (Junction collector base).

Transistor Operation:
· JEBis forward biased by the battery VEEby which the depletion region will decrease and a
majority carrier flow will occur from emitter to base giving current Imajorityor IE.
· JCBis reverse biased by the battery VCCby which the depletion region will increase and a
minority carrier flow will occur from base to collector giving current Iminority.
· When both the battery supplies are given simultaneously the holes in the base region due
to the battery VEE will act as minority carrier. They will cross the base region to reach the
collector giving the current IC.
So the current equations of BJT can be written as
IE= IC+ IB
IC= Imajority+ Iminority
IC =α IE+ ICO
Where α is defined as the fraction of the total emitter current that represents holes which have
travelled from emitter across the base to the collector and ICO is called as leakage current.

· Depending upon the common terminal between input and output circuit of a transistor itmay be
operated in 3 modes of a BJT
(a) Common Base
(b) Common Emitter
(c) Common Collector

Common Base:

· Depending upon the biasing of the JEB and JCB, transistor has three region of operation.

JEBJCB Region of operation Application

Forward Bias Forward Bias Saturation ON Switch
Forward Bias Reverse Bias Active Amplifier
Reverse Bias Reverse Bias Cutoff OFF Switch

Input Characteristics:

The plot of the input current against the input voltage with the output voltage as a parameter for a
particular region of operation (Active).
· Graph is plotted between input voltage VBE and current IE keeping output voltage VCB as a
parameter.
· The current variation with the emitter to base voltage is similar to the forward characteristics of
a p-n junction diode. However an increase in the magnitude of the collector to base voltage
causes the emitter current to increase for a fixed VBE because of the early effect or base width
modulation.

Output Characteristics:
The plot of the output current against the output voltage with the input current as a parameter.
· Graph is plotted between output voltage VCB and output current IC keeping input current IE as
a parameter.

· Active Region:

In this region JEB is forward biased and JCB is reverse biased. The collector current is
independent of VCB. It depends only on the emitter current IE.
IC= Imajority+ Iminority
IC =α IE+ ICBO
Where ICBO (also noted as ICO) is the leakage current called as collector to base leakage
current when emitter is open. Since this current is very small in magnitude IC≈ IE.

· Cut off Region:

Here both the junctions are reverse biased. The region below IE=0 characteristic is called as cut
off region. In this region IC= ICBO and in the range of nano amperes.

· Saturation Region:
Here both the junctions are forward biased. The region is to the left of the graph where VCB is
slightly positive and IE=0.It gives an exponential variation in the collector current.JCBis forward
biased means collector is positive with respect to base. It gives rise to a hole current flowing
from collector to base and is opposite to the original flow due to the transistor action. Output
resistance of CB is very high because a very large change in collector voltage cases a very small
change in collector current.

CB Current Amplification Factor:

It is the ratio of output collector current to the input emitter current.
DC current gain

AC current gain

Common Emitter:

Here emitter terminal is common between the base and the collector.
Input Characteristics:
· Graph is plotted between input voltage VBE and input current IB keeping output voltage VCE
as a parameter.
· Characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased diode. For a constant VBE the magnitude
of the base current decreases.With increasing VCE. This is because increasing VCE the effective
base width and hence the recombination base current decreases.
Output Characteristics:

· Graph is plotted between output voltage VCE and output current IC keeping input current IB as
a
parameter.
· Active Region:
In this region JEB is forward biased and JCB is reverse biased. Output characteristics in the
active region are not horizontal lines because for a fixed value of IB the magnitude of collector
current
increases with VCE due to early effect.
IC =α IE+ ICBO (CB)
= α( IE+ IE)+ ICBO
IC= α/(1- α) IB + ICBO/(1- α)
IC= βIB + ICEO
Since the leakage current ICEO is very small IC ≈ βIB

· Cut off Region:

Here both the junctions are reverse biased. The region below IB=0 characteristic is called as cut
off region. In this region IC= ICEO (Collector to emitter leakage current with base open).
· Saturation Region:
Here both the junctions are forward biased by at least the cutin voltage. The current IC is
independent of IB.
CE Current Amplification Factor:
It is the ratio of output collector current to the input baser current.
DC current gain

AC current gain

Relation between α and β:

Name of the 7thTopic: Diode Circuits, BJT biasing & Operation of JFET, MOSFET
Lecture 1 :Rectifiers, Clippers, Clampers,
Rectifiers:
An important application of “regular” diodes is in rectification circuits. These circuits are used to
convert AC signals to DC in power supplies. A block diagram of this process in a DC power
supply is shown below.

Half-Wave Rectifier:

The above circuit is called as a Half-wave rectifier since it will generate a waveformνothat will
have an average value of particular use in the ac-to-dc conversion process.
During Positive Half Cycle the diode is ON. Assuming an ideal diode with novoltage drop
across it the output voltage νowill be
νo = VR=Vm

During Negative Half Cycle the diode is OFF(Open Circuit). So the current flowing through the
circuit will be 0. The output voltage vowill be
νo= VR=i x R = 0

Above figure shows the input and output waveform with output Vdc=0.318Vm.
Disadvantage:
1. The ac supply delivers power only half the time.
2. Pulsating current frequency is equal to the supply frequency.

Full wave Rectifier:

The full wave rectifier utilizes both the positive and negative portions of the inputwaveform.
Types of full wave rectifier are
(a) Centre tapped configuration
(b) Bridge configuration
· Current flows through the load resistance in the same direction during the full cycle of the input
signal.
· Centre tap transformer is used with the secondary winding.
+ve Half Cycle:
· Diode D1 is short circuited and D2 is open circuited. Current flows through theupper half of the
secondary winding.

-ve Half Cycle:

· Diode D2 is short circuited and D1 is open circuited. Current flows through the lower half of
the secondary winding.

Complete input and output waveform can be shown as

While this full-cycle rectifier is a big improvement over the half-cycle, there are some
disadvantages.
Disadvantages:
· It is difficult to locate the center tap on the secondary winding.
· The diodes must have high PIV.
BridgeRectifier:
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected in bridge pattern.

The operation ofthe bridge rectifier can be summarized as:

+ve Half Cycle:
· Diode D1 and D3 are short circuited and D2 and D4 are open circuited. Current flows through
D1 and D3 to give the output voltage across the resistor.

-ve Half Cycle:

· Diode D1 and D3 are open circuited and D2 and D4 are short circuited. Current flows through
D2 and D4 to give the output voltage across the resistor.

Complete input and output waveform can be shown as

Advantages:
· No centre tapped transformer is required.
· PIV is less.
Disadvantages:
· It requires four diode and the power loss in the rectifier element is more.
Clippers:
It controls the shape of the output waveform by removing or clipping a portion of the applied
wave. Half wave rectifier is the simplest example. It is also referred as voltage limiters/
amplitude selectors/ slicers.

Applications:
· In radio receivers for communication circuits.
· In radars, digital computers and other electronic systems.
· Generation for different waveforms such as trapezoidal, or square waves. Helps in processing
the picture signals in television transmitters.
· In television receivers for separating the synchronizing signals from composite picture signals.

Types of Clipper Circuit

1. Series- Diode is in series with the source
2. Parallel- Diode is in parallel with the source.
· Clipper circuit which uses a DC battery is called a biased clipper.

SERIES CLIPPER:
Assumption- diode is ideal in characteristics
Analysis
+ve Half Cycle:
Diode is on because of forward biasing condition. Since no voltage drop across the diode the
output voltage becomes
VO=VR=Vi

-ve Half Cycle:

Diode is off because of reverse biasing condition. Since no current flows through the circuit the
output voltage VO=0.
Figure shows the output waveform of a simple series clipper with input as square and triangular
waveform. Since the negative half cycle is clipped off in the output it is called as a negative
clipper circuit.

Biased Series Clipper:

Assumption- diode is ideal in characteristics
Analysis
Since the diode is on because of the 5v battery The transition of the diode from one state to
another can be found out to be atVi=-5v above which the diode is ON and below which the diode
is OFF.

+ve Half Cycle:

Since the diode is on the output voltage will be (Applying KVL)
Vi+5=VR
VO= Vi+5

-ve Half Cycle:

Since the diode is off VO=0.
Above figure shows the input and output waveform.

Example of Other Series Clipper Circuits:

PARALLEL CLIPPER:
Assumption- diode is ideal in characteristics
Analysis
+ve Half Cycle:
Diode is on because of forward biasing condition. Since no voltage drop across the diode the
output voltage becomes
VO=Vd=0

-ve Half Cycle:

Diode is off because of reverse biasing condition. Since no current flows through the circuit the
output voltage VO=Vi.

Figure shows the output waveform of a simple parallel clipper with input as square and
triangular waveform. Since the positive half cycle is clipped off in the output it is called as a
positive clipper circuit.

BIASED PARALLEL CLIPPER:

Assumption- diode is ideal in characteristics

Analysis
The transition of the diode from one state to another can be found out to be atVi=4v above which
the diode is OFFand below which the diode is ON.

+ve Half Cycle:

Since the diode is OFF (above 4v) the output voltage will be (Applying KVL)
Vi= VO

-ve Half Cycle:

Since the diode is ON (below 4v)
VO=4v.
Figure shows the input and output waveform.
Example of Other Parallel Clipper Circuits:
CLAMPERS:
· A diode and capacitor can be combined to “clamp” an AC signal to a specific DClevel.
· It must have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive element.
· For additional shift an independent DC supply can be introduced in the circuit.
· The time constant τ=RC must be large enough to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor
does not discharge significantly during the diode is nonconducting.

Procedure to analyze a clamper circuit

1. Consider the part of the input signal that will forward bias the diode.
2. During the On state assume that the capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage
level determined by the network.
3. Assume that during the diode is in OFF sate the capacitor will hold on to itsestablished
voltage level.
4. The polarity of Vo must be same throughout the analysis.
5. Total swing of the total output must match the swing of the input signal.

-ve clamper analysis:

Diode is ON(Short Circuit) in the positive half cycle.

Established voltage level on the capacitor Vc=V
During negative half cycle the diode is OFF and the output voltage is
Vo=VR= -Vi-Vc = -2V
Total swing of output is -2V which is same as the total swing of the input.

Summary of the Clamper Circuit:

Lecture 2 :Voltage regulators, BJT biasing, CE amplifiers.

Voltage regulator
A Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator because it maintains a constant output voltage
eventhough the current passing through it changes. It is generally used at the output of an
unregulated power supply to provide a constant output voltage free of ripple components.
The circuit diagram of a voltage regulator as shown below. The circuit consists of a current
limiting resistor RSand a Zener diode connected in parallel with the load resistance RL. The diode
is selected in such a way that its breakdown voltage is equal to the desired regulating output. For
proper voltage regulation, the voltage of an unregulated power supply must be greater than the
Zener voltage of the diode selected. The diode does not conduct current when the input voltage is
less than the Zener voltage. The value of RSis chosen to ensure that the diode initially operates in
the breakdown region under the Zener voltage across it. The function of the regulator is to keep
the output voltage nearly constant with changes in Vin or IL. The operation is based on the fact
that in the Zener breakdown region small changes in the diode voltage are accompanied by large
changes in the diode current. The large currents flowing through RS produce voltages that
compensate for the changes in Vin or IL. The relation gives the input current:
BJT biasing

Biasing is the application of external dc supply to establish a fixed level of current and voltage.
Transistor operates only at a particular point of the characteristics called operating point or Q-
point/ Quiescent point.

Types of Biasing
1. Fixed Bias Configuration
2. Fixed bias with emitter resistor
3. Voltage divider bias configuration
4. Collector feedback configuration

Fixed Bias Configuration:

It is the simplest transistor DC bias configuration using npn transistor. In the DC analysis
capacitors are open circuited as shown in the figure.
Base Emitter Loop:
Applying KVL wehave

Since VBE and VCC are constant, the selection of a base resistor RB sets the level of base
current for the operating point.
Collector Emitter Loop:

So RB controls IB and IC, and the level of RC determines the magnitude of VCE.
VCE= VC- VE VBE= VB- VE
Fixed Bias with emitter resistor Configuration:
Voltage divider bias Configuration:
In the previous bias configurations the Q-points were dependent on β which is temperature
sensitive. Voltage divide bias arrangement reduces the dependency on β.
It contains an emitter resistor to improve the stability level over fixed bias.

Collector feedback configuration:

An improved level of stability can be obtained by providing a feedback path.

Lecture 3 :Operation of FETs. Comparison of BJT and FETs.

Operation of FET
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a three-terminal device used for a variety of applications that
match, to a large extent, those of the BJT transistor. JFET transistor is a voltage-controlled
device. For the FET the current ID will be a function of the voltage VGS applied to the input
circuit. The FET is a unipolar device depending solely on either electron (n- channel) or hole ( p
-channel) conduction. The term field effect in the name deserves some explanation. We are all
familiar with the ability of a permanent magnet to draw metal filings to itself without the need
for actual contact. The magnetic field of the permanent magnet envelopes the filings and attract
them to the magnet along the shortest path provided by the magnetic flux lines. For the FET an
electric field is established by the charges present, which controls the conduction path of the
output circuit without the need for direct contact between the controlling and controlled
quantities.

Comparison of BJT with FET:

One of the most important characteristics of the FET is its high input impedance.
The variation in output current is typically a great deal more for BJTs than for FETs for the same
change in the applied voltage.
FETs are more temperature stable than BJTs, and FETs are usually smaller than BJTs, making
them particularly useful in integrated-circuit (IC) chips.
The construction characteristics of some FETs, however, can make them more sensitive to
handling than BJTs.

Name of the 8th Topic: OPAMPs

Lecture 1 : Properties of an ideal and a practical OPAMP.
OPAMP
The Operational Amplifier is a direct-coupled , high gain , negative feedback amplifier. It is
nothing more than a differential amplifier which amplifies the difference between two inputs.

The terminal marked - is called the inverting terminal which means signal applied there will
appear phase inverted at the output while the terminal marked + is called the non inverting
terminal means that the signal applied here will appear in phase and applied at the output . Please
understand that the - and + do not denote any type of voltage it means that output voltage is
proportional to the difference of Non Inverting and inverting voltages which is Vo = V2 - V1.
When there is no feedback, no voltage or capacitor between output and input the op-amp is said
to be in open loop condition .
Characteristics of an ideal op-amp
An Ideal Op-Amp has the following characteristics.
* An infinite voltage gain
* An infinite bandwidth
* An infinite input resistance: The resistance between V1 and V2 terminals is infinite.
* Zero output resistance: Vo remains constant no matter what resistance is applied across output.
* Perfect balance: When V1 is equal to V2 the Vo is 0.
A practical op-amp exhibits an unbalance caused by a mismatch of the input transistors. This
mismatch results in the flow of unequal bias currents through the input terminals. This in turn,
causes a change in the various parameters of an op-amp.

Lecture 2 : Block diagram. Concept of Virtual Short, Inverting and Non-inverting amplifiers,
Block diagram. Concept of Virtual Short

Virtual ground is defined as a node that has zero voltage, i.e., it is maintained at a steady
referencepotential, without being physically grounded. Sometimes the reference potential is
considered to be the surface of the earth, from which “ground” is derived. Virtual ground is a
concept that is used in operational amplifiers and depends on very large voltage gain used to
calculate the overall voltage gain of the amplifier.
Inverting amplifiers:
The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the inverting amplifier, as shown. The
output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by the input resistor
(R1) and feedback resistor (Rf)—this output also being inverted from the input.

Non-inverting amplifiers:
The connection of shows an op-amp circuit that works as a non-inverting amplifier or constant-
gain multiplier. It should be noted that the inverting amplifier connection is more widely used
because it has better frequency stability. Note that the voltage across R1 is V1 since Vi=0 V. This
must be equal to the output voltage, through a voltage divider of R1 and Rf, so that

Lecture 3 : Summing and Differencing amplifier, Differentiator and Integrator.

Summing amplifier
The circuit shows a three-input summing amplifier circuit, which provides a means of
algebraically summing (adding) three voltages, each multiplied by a constant-gain factor. The
output voltage can be expressed in terms of theinputs as

In other words, each input adds a voltage to the output multiplied by its separate constant-
gainmultiplier. If more inputs are used, they each add an additional component to the output.In
other words, each input adds a voltage to the output multiplied by its separate constant-gain
multiplier. If more inputs are used, they each add an additional component to the output.

Differencing amplifier
A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as shown in Fig. 11-21. The input
signals can be scaled to the desired values by selecting appropriate values for the external
resistors.

Integrator:
Differentiator:
Name of the 9thTopic:1-Ph Transformers
Lecture 1 :Faraday’s Law, EMF generation (dynamic and static),
Faraday’s Law:
The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit
Lecture 2 :B-H curve, Construction and operation of single phase transformer.
If the operating point is traced out if the exciting current is i = I sin ωt. The nature of the
max
current variation in a complete cycle can be enumerated as follows:
Recommended Textbook:

1. Nagrath and Kothari, Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill
2. Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory (11th Edition)-
Prentice Hall (2012)
3. Adel. S. Sedra, Kenneth. C. Smith, Microelectronic circuit, six edition, Oxford.