SOLAR

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SOLAR POWER OVERVIEW 2

PV TECHNOLOGY BASICS 3-13
PV MANUFACTURES-PROFILES 14-24
AVAILABLE SOLAR PANELS 26-50
PV PERIPHERALS 51
THE FUTURE
NANOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS 52-64
GENERAL OVERVIEW

•PV was recognized as an important source of space power in

the 1950s,

•Terrestrial PV development began in response to the 1970s

oil crises.

•Concern for the environment, as well as global efforts to seek

indigenous sources of energy, drives the investment in PV
research and deployment.

•Today, PV is a several-billion-dollar industry worldwide, with

more than 520 MW of PV modules shipped in 2002.

•These include large, multi-megawatt installations feeding into

the utility grid, kilowatt rooftop systems supplying power to a
home or business, and single 50- or 100-W PV modules on
homes in developing countries.
PV technology basics
Solar cells are semiconductor devices
that produce electricity from sunlight via the photovoltaic effect.

Sunlight strikes the cell, photons with energy above the

semiconductor bandgap impart enough energy to create
How PV Cells Work electron-hole pairs.

A junction between dissimilarly doped semiconductor layers sets

up a potential barrier in the cell, which separates the light-
A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a generated charge carriers.
thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer of
phosphorus-doped (N-type) silicon on top of This separation induces a fixed electric current and voltage in the
a thicker layer of boron-doped (P-type) device. The electricity is collected and transported by metallic
silicon. contacts on the top and bottom surfaces of
the cell.
An electrical field is created near the top
surface of the cell where these two materials
are in contact, called the
P-N junction.

When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV cell,

this electrical field provides momentum and
direction to light-stimulated electrons, resulting
in a flow of current when the solar cell is
connected to an electrical load

Diagram of photovoltaic cell.

 PV technology basics

Applicable semiconductor materials> Cell Efficiencies

•silicon (Si),
•gallium arsenide (GaAs),
•cadmium telluride (CdTe),
•copper indium diselenide (CIS),
•hydrogenated amorphous silicon.
PV technology basics

In the case of a single-junction device, the PV Cells, Modules, & Arrays

efficiency of the solar cell, the ratio of the
power produced, and the incident light
power are limited.

Photons with energies below the bandgap of

the material produce only heat. Excess
energy above that needed to generate
electron-hole pairs also produces heat.

A multijunction device, in which two or

more solar cells are stacked on top of
each other, can exploit different portions
of the solar spectrum.

For example, a four-junction device with

bandgaps of 1.8, 1.4, 1.0, and 0.7 electron Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel
volts (eV) results in a theoretical efficiency of circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels.
more than 52%.
Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
The multijunction approach, however, environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental
presents significant challenges in both building block of PV systems.
materials preparation and device design.
Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled
as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the
complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
modules and panels.
PV technology basics
How a PV System Works

PV systems are like any other electrical power generating systems, just the equipment used is different than that used
for conventional electromechanical generating systems.

Depending on the functional and operational requirements of the system,

the specific components required, and may include major components
DC-AC power inverter,
battery bank,
system and battery controller,
auxiliary energy sources
and sometimes the specified electrical load (appliances).

In addition, an assortment of balance of system (BOS) hardware,

Including wiring, overcurrent, surge protection and disconnect
devices, and other power processing equipment.
PV technology basics
Why Are Batteries Used in Some PV Systems?
Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy
produced by the PV array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads
as needed (during the night and periods of cloudy weather).

Other reasons batteries are used in PV systems are to operate the PV array
near its maximum power point, to power electrical loads at stable voltages,
and to supply surge currents to electrical loads and inverters.

In most cases, a battery charge controller is used in these systems to protect

the battery from overcharge and overdischarge.

In many stand-alone PV
systems, batteries are used
for energy storage. Figure
shows a diagram of a typical
stand-alone PV system
powering DC and AC loads

Diagram of stand-alone PV system

with battery storage powering DC and AC loads.
PV technology basics

Types of PV Systems
How Are Photovoltaic Systems Classified?

Photovoltaic power systems are generally

classified according to:
• functional and operational
requirements,

• component configurations,

• how the equipment is

connected to other power
sources and electrical
loads.

The two principle classifications are

grid-connected or utility-
interactive systems
stand-alone systems.

Photovoltaic systems can be designed to

provide DC and/or AC power service, can
operate interconnected with or independent
of the utility grid, and can be connected
with other energy sources and energy Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system
storage systems.1.7.1 Grid-Connected
(Utility-Interactive) PV Systems.
PV technology basics

photovoltaic hybrid system.

Stand-alone PV systems are

designed to operate independent of
the electric utility grid, and are
generally designed and sized to
supply certain DC and/or AC electrical
loads.

These types of systems may be

powered by a PV array only, or may
use wind, an engine-generator or
utility power as an auxiliary power
source in what is called a PV-hybrid
system.
PV technology basics

The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC

output of a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load

Since there is no electrical energy storage (batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load
only operates during sunlight hours, making these designs suitable for common
applications such as ventilation fans, water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar
thermal water heating systems.

Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of the PV array
is a critical part of designing well-performing direct-coupled system.

For certain loads such as positive-displacement water pumps, a type of electronic DC-DC
converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used between the array and
load to help better utilize the available array maximum power output.

Direct-coupled PV system.
PV technology basics How PV Cells Are Made
The process of fabricating conventional single- and polycrystalline silicon PV
cells begins very pure semiconductor-grade polysilicon - a material processed
from quartz and used extensively throughout the electronics industry.
crystalline silicon
The polysilicon is then heated to melting temperature, and trace amounts of
The conventional technology that supports boron are added to the melt to create a P-type semiconductor material.
more than 85% of today's PV market is
Next, an ingot, or block of silicon is formed, commonly using one of two methods:
based on wafers of crystalline Si. 1) by growing a pure crystalline silicon ingot from a seed crystal
drawn from the molten polysilicon
Production capacities are expected to more or 2) by casting the molten polysilicon in a block, creating a
than double in the next three to five years, polycrystalline silicon material.
and the products are proven and accepted
Individual wafers are then sliced from the ingots using wire saws and then
in the markets. subjected to a surface etching process. After the wafers are cleaned, they are
placed in a phosphorus diffusion furnace, creating a thin N-type semiconductor
Single-crystal ingots are pulled from the layer around the entire outer surface of the cell.
melt, or polycrystalline ingots are cast in a
crucible that is consumed in the process. Next, an anti-reflective coating is applied to the top surface of the cell, and
electrical contacts are imprinted on the top (negative) surface of the cell.
Technical advances include the growth of
ingots as big as 300 kg, the growth of An aluminized conductive material is
multiple ingots with melt replenishment, deposited on the back (positive) surface of
and the reduction of consumable materials each cell, restoring the P-type properties of
and energy costs. Significant R&D effort the back surface by displacing the diffused
phosphorus layer.
has been focused on reducing defects,
improving doping, and automating the Each cell is then electrically tested, sorted
growth process. Still, for single-crystal Si, based on current output, and electrically
the best commercial module efficiencies connected to other cells to form cell
are only about 15%. circuits for assembly in PV modules.

Image: A solar cell, made from a poly-crystalline silicon wafer

PV technology basics
Thin-Film Photovoltaics
Si ribbon and sheet technologies,
which avoid the cost and material Thin-film photovoltaic modules are manufactured by
losses associated with slicing ingots, depositing ultra-thin layers of semiconductor material
on a glass or thin stainless-steel substrate in a
are the first of the new PV technologies
vacuum chamber.
to be commercialized. About 6% of
today's PV modules are made using
these methods. Most notable are the A laser scribing process is used to separate and weld
edge-defined, film-fed growth process, the electrical connections between individual cells in
the string ribbon process, and the Si- a module.
film process (growth of a high-speed,
continuous Si sheet of a variety of
substrates). Cell and module Thin-film photovoltaic materials offer great promise
efficiencies are similar to those for for reducing the materials requirements and
polycrystalline Si wafers from manufacturing costs for PV modules and systems.
ingots—about 12% at best—with
somewhat lower efficiencies for the
small-grained sheet materials.

Ongoing incremental improvements will

probably reduce manufacturing costs
and increase module performance,
keeping these technologies as the
mainstay of PV markets for years to
come.
PV technology basics
Pros and Cons of PV

Photovoltaic systems have a number of merits and unique advantages

over conventional power-generating technologies.

PV systems can be designed for a variety of

applications and operational requirements, and
can be used for either centralized or distributed
power generation.

PV systems have no moving parts, are modular, easily expandable

and even transportable in some cases. Energy independence and
environmental compatibility are two attractive features of PV
systems.

The fuel (sunlight) is free, and no noise or pollution is created from

operating PV systems. In general, PV systems that are well designed
and properly installed require minimal maintenance and have long
service lifetimes.

At present, the high cost of PV modules and equipment (as

compared to conventional energy sources) is the primary limiting
factor for the technology. Consequently, the economic value of PV
systems is realized over many years. In some cases, the surface area
requirements for PV arrays may be a limiting factor. Due to the diffuse
nature of sunlight and the existing sunlight to electrical energy
conversion efficiencies of photovoltaic devices, surface area
requirements for PV array installations are on the order of 8 to 12 m^2
(86 to 129 ft^2) per kilowatt of installed peak array capacity.
 Roof Systems

Ground Mounted Systems

Pole & Structure Mounted Systems

PV solar panel specifications BP Solar BP-4170S, 170 Watt Solar Panel
Unavailable in 2005
BP Solar BP 4170S
170 Watt 24V Monocrystalline Solar Panel

The BP 4170 solar panel is designed to provide superior performance for

residential, commercial, and industrial grid-connect systems. By increasing the
diameter of the cell, performance is maximized while improving aesthetics. With
time-tested monocrystalline silicon solar cells and installation-speeding
polarized connectors, it provides cost-effective power for systems that demand
premium module efficiency.

Electrical Specifications
Maximum Power: 170 Watts
Nominal Voltage: 34.7 volts
Voltage at Pmax: 34.7 Volts
Current at Pmax: 4.9 Amps
Warranted minimum Pmax: 161.5 Watts
Short-circuit current: 5.4 Amps
Open-circuit voltage: 44.0 Volts

Mechanical Specifications
Dimensions (LxWxD): 62.8 x 31.1 x 1.97 inches (1595x790x50) mm
Weight: 34 lbs (15.4kg)
Solar Cells: 72 cells in a 6x12 matrix connected in series
Output Cables: MC Connectors RHW AWG# 12 cable with polarized
weatherproof DC rated connectors
Diodes: Three 9A, 45V Schottky by-pass diodes included
Construction: Front: High-transmission 3mm (1/8th inch) tempered glass; Back:
***Unavailable in 2005*** Tedlar; Encapsulant: EVA
BP Solar BP-4170S, 170 Watt Solar Panel Frame: Rugged clear anodized aluminum alloy type universal frame
1561 Your price: $999.00 pad Limited Warranty: 25 years

BP Solar BP-4170S, 170 Watt Solar Panel Quality and Safety Listings
ESTI, CE, TUV, UL Listed

Note: These panels must ship via truck freight due to size. Please call or email
for a shipping quote and to order.
PV solar panel specifications

170 watt-783.00 160 watt 799. 160 watt 725. 150 watt 699.
Most expensive
170 watt- 999.00

125 watt 629.00 125 watt 599. 80 watt 520. 65 watt 457. 60 watt 462.00

Cheapest
50Watt=354.00 40watt+353.00 30Watt 259.00 20watt 234.00
10 watt Solar panel- 149.00
PV solar panel specifications

GE Energy Solar Panels

GE Energy GEPV-110-M 110 Watt Solar Panel

$599.00

GE Energy 165, 165 Watt Solar Panel

$719.00

GE Energy GEPV-072, 72 Watt Solar Panel GE Energy GEPV-065, 65 Watt Solar Panel
Your price: $459.00 Your price: $449.00

GE Energy GEPV-050-M 50 Watt Solar Panel

$365.00 GE Energy GEPV-030-M 30 Watt Solar Panel
$239.00