Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning.

What is constructivism?
Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how
people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world,
through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something
new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we
believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators
of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different
teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active
techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect
on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes
sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them
and then build on them.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them
gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist
classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep
learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

You might look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their

experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and
they develop increasingly strong abilities to integrate new information. One
of the teacher's main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection
process.

For example: Groups of students in a science class are discussing a problem

in physics. Though the teacher knows the "answer" to the problem, she focuses on helping students
restate their questions in useful ways. She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his or
her current knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the relevant concept, the teacher
seizes upon it, and indicates to the group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore.
They design and perform relevant experiments. Afterward, the students and teacher talk about
what they have learned, and how their observations and experiments helped (or did not help) them
to better understand the concept.
Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does not
dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies
that role, so that teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of
facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning
activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and
pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism
transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in the
learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather
than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.

Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to "reinvent
the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the
world and how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand
how it turns, how it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and
real-world experience, learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing
conclusions from their findings.

The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it means in your
classroom is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others about it, and trying it yourself.
As you progress through each segment of this workshop, keep in mind questions or ideas to share
with your colleagues.

How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning?
As with many of the methods addressed in this series of workshops, in the constructivist classroom,
the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The classroom is no longer a place where
the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be
filled. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own
process of learning. The teacher functions more as a facilitator who coaches, mediates, prompts,
and helps students develop and assess their understanding, and thereby their learning. One of the
teacher's biggest jobs becomes ASKING GOOD QUESTIONS.
And, in the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert
factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the
ability to successfully stretch and explore that view.
The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see
significant differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's
important, however, to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing
knowledge in traditional classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student,
not on the instructor.)
 Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom
Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole. Curriculum emphasizes big concepts,
Emphasizes basic skills. beginning with the whole and expanding to
include the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly Pursuit of student questions and interests is
valued. valued.
Materials are primarily textbooks and Materials include primary sources of material
workbooks. and manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the
student already knows.
Teachers disseminate information to students; Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping
students are recipients of knowledge. students construct their own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in
negotiation.
Assessment is through testing, correct answers. Assessment includes student works,
observations, and points of view, as well as
tests. Process is as important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing
with our experiences.
Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time?

The concept of constructivism has roots in classical antiquity, going back to Socrates's dialogues
with his followers, in which he asked directed questions that led his students to realize for
themselves the weaknesses in their thinking. The Socratic dialogue is still an important tool in
the way constructivist educators assess their students' learning and plan new learning
experiences.

In this century, Jean Piaget 1 and John Dewey 2 developed theories of childhood development
and education, what we now call Progressive Education, that led to the evolution of
constructivism.

Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after another.
He also concluded that the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely
different from those of adults. The implications of this theory and how he applied them have
shaped the foundation for constructivist education.

Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, "If you have doubts
about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative
possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence." Inquiry is a key part of
constructivist learning.

Among the educators, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists who have added new
perspectives to constructivist learning theory and practice are Lev Vygotsky 3, Jerome Bruner 4,
and David Ausubel 5.

Vygotsky introduced the social aspect of learning into constructivism. He defined the "zone of
proximal learning," according to which students solve problems beyond their actual
developmental level (but within their level of potential development) under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers.

Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process
in which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge.

Seymour Papert's 6 groundbreaking work in using computers to teach children has led to the
widespread use of computer and information technology in constructivist environments.

Modern educators who have studied, written about, and practiced constructivist approaches to
education include John D. Bransford 7, Ernst von Glasersfeld 8, Eleanor
Duckworth 9, George Forman 10, Roger Schank 11, Jacqueline Grennon Brooks 12,
and Martin G. Brooks 13.
What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?
As is the case with many of the current/popular paradigms, you're probably already using the
constructivist approach to some degree. Constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then
guide students to help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in the teaching
process. For example, they may:
• prompt students to formulate their own questions (inquiry)
• allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning (multiple intelligences)
• encourage group work and the use of peers as resources (collaborative learning)
More information on the above processes is covered in other workshops in this series. For now,
it's important to realize that the constructivist approach borrows from many other practices in the
pursuit of its primary goal: helping students learn HOW TO LEARN.

In a constructivist classroom, learning is

Students are not blank slates upon which knowledge is etched. They come to learning situations
with already formulated knowledge, ideas, and understandings. This previous knowledge is the
raw material for the new knowledge they will create.

Example: An elementary school teacher presents a class problem to measure the length of the
"Mayflower." Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the teacher allows students
to reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One student offers the knowledge
that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Another says she knows horses are measured in "hands." The
students discuss these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the
problem.

The student is the person who creates new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches,
moderates, suggests, but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things that
don't work. Learning activities require the students' full participation (like hands-on experiments).
An important part of the learning process is that students reflect on, and talk about, their activities.
Students also help set their own goals and means of assessment.

Examples: A middle-school language arts teacher sets aside time each week for a writing lab. The
emphasis is on content and getting ideas down rather than memorizing grammatical rules, though
one of the teacher's concerns is the ability of his students to express themselves well through
written language. The teacher provides opportunities for students to examine the finished and
earlier drafts of various authors. He allows students to select and create projects within the general
requirement of building a portfolio 1. Students serve as peer editors who value originality and
uniqueness rather than the best way to fulfill an assignment.

In a history class, asking students to read and think about different versions of and perspectives on
"history" can lead to interesting discussions. Is history as taught in textbooks accurate? Are there
different versions of the same history? Whose version of history is most accurate? How do we
know? From there, students can make their own judgments.

Students control their own learning process, and they lead the way by
reflecting on their experiences. This process makes them experts of their own
learning. The teacher helps create situations where the students feel safe
questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group
discussions. The teacher should also create activities that lead the student to reflect on his or her
prior knowledge and experiences. Talking about what was learned and how it was learned is really
important.

Example: Students keep journals in a writing class where they record how they felt about the class
projects, the visual and verbal reactions of others to the project, and how they felt their own writing
had changed. Periodically the teacher reads these journals and holds a conference with the student
where the two assess (1) what new knowledge the student has created, (2) how the student learns
best, and (3) the learning environment and the teacher's role in it.

The constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among

students. There are many reasons why collaboration contributes to
learning. The main reason it is used so much in constructivism is that
students learn about learning not only from themselves, but also from
their peers. When students review and reflect on their learning processes
together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one another.

Example: In the course of studying ancient civilizations, students undertake an archaeological dig.
This may be something constructed in a large sandbox, or, as in the Dalton School's "Archaeotype"
software simulation, on a computer. As the students find different objects, the teacher introduces
classifying techniques. The students are encouraged to (1) set up a group museum by developing
criteria and choosing which objects should belong, and (2) collaborate with other students who
worked in different quadrants of the dig. Each group is then asked to develop theories about the
civilizations that inhabited the area.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems.

Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use
a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore
the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit
those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions. Inquiry-based Learning)

Example: Sixth graders figuring out how to purify water investigate solutions ranging from coffee-
filter paper, to a stove-top distillation apparatus, to piles of charcoal, to an abstract mathematical
solution based on the size of a water molecule. Depending upon students' responses, the teacher
encourages abstract as well as concrete, poetic as well as practical, creations of new knowledge.

Students have ideas that they may later see were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new
experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge.
For instance, a child may believe that all trees lose their leaves in the fall, until
she visits an evergreen forest. Constructivist teaching takes into account
students' current conceptions and builds from there.

What happens when a student gets a new piece of information? The constructivist model says that
the student compares the information to the knowledge and understanding he/she already has, and
one of three things can occur:
• The new information matches up with his previous knowledge pretty well
(it's consonant with the previous knowledge), so the student adds it to his understanding.
It may take some work, but it's just a matter of finding the right fit, as with a puzzle piece.
• The information doesn't match previous knowledge (it's dissonant). The student has to
change her previous understanding to find a fit for the information. This can be harder
work.
• The information doesn't match previous knowledge, and it is ignored. Rejected bits of
information may just not be absorbed by the student. Or they may float around, waiting for
the day when the student's understanding has developed and permits a fit.
 Example: An elementary teacher believes her students are ready to study
gravity. She creates an environment of discovery with objects of varying
kinds. Students explore the differences in weight among similarly sized
blocks of Styrofoam, wood, and lead. Some students hold the notion that
heavier objects fall faster than light ones. The teacher provides materials
(stories, posters, and videos) about Galileo, Newton, etc. She leads a
discussion on theories about falling. The students then replicate Galileo's
experiment by dropping objects of different weights and measuring how fast they fall. They see
that objects of different weights actually usually fall at the same speed, although surface area and
aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.

What are some critical perspectives?

Constructivism has been criticized on various grounds. Some of the charges that critics level
against it are:

. It's elitist. Critics say that constructivism and other "progressive" educational theories have
been most successful with children from privileged backgrounds who are fortunate in having
outstanding teachers, committed parents, and rich home environments. They argue that
disadvantaged children, lacking such resources, benefit more from more explicit instruction.

. Social constructivism leads to "group think." Critics say the collaborative aspects of
constructivist classrooms tend to produce a "tyranny of the majority," in which a few students'
voices or interpretations dominate the group's conclusions, and dissenting students are forced to
conform to the emerging consensus.

. There is little hard evidence that constructivist methods work. Critics say that constructivists,
by rejecting evaluation through testing and other external criteria, have made themselves
unaccountable for their students' progress. Critics also say that studies of various kinds of
instruction -- in particular Project Follow Through 1, a long-term government initiative -- have
found that students in constructivist classrooms lag behind those in more traditional classrooms
in basic skills.

Constructivists counter that in studies where children were compared on higher-order thinking
skills, constructivist students seemed to outperform their peers.
What are the benefits of constructivism?

. Benefit

Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather than
passive listeners.

. Benefit

Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote
memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand.

. Benefit

Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students

create organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning
settings.

. Benefit

Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based on students'
questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments as
well. Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal investments in their
journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative
instincts develops students' abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The
students are also more likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.

. Benefit

By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, constructivism stimulates

and engages students. Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things and to apply
their natural curiousity to the world.

. Benefit

Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment

that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their
ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects. Students
must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their
contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since
they will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and
navigate among the ideas of others.

https://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index_sub3.html
Paradigm shifts in education over recent decades
The paradigm shifts that we experienced in the 20th century are well known. Some of the
prominent paradigm shifts that have taken place in education are discussed briefly.
• Reproductive learning vs productive learning
Learners’ achievements were measured against their ability to reproduce subject content – in other
words, how well they could memorise and reproduce the content that the teacher ‘transferred’ to
them. With the emphasis on productive learning, it is rather about the application of knowledge
and skills, in other words, what the learners can do after completing the learning process.
Achievement is measured against the productive contribution a learner can make, instead of what
the learner can reproduce.

• Behaviourism vs constructivism
According to a behaviouristic view of learning, a learning result is indicated by a change in the
behaviour of a learner (Skinner, 1938; Venezky & Osin, 1991). According to a constructivist view,
learning is seen as the construction of meanings by the learner (Cunningham, 1991; Duffy &
Jonassen, 1991) [10] . Neither of these views can be regarded as exclusively right or wrong. It is,
however, important to know that constructivism is presently accepted as the most relevant view of
learning and that education policies, education models and education practices focus on
constructivism.
• Teacher-centred vs learner-centred
In the past, education activities focussed on the strong points, preferences and teaching style of the
teacher. That which would work best for the teacher, determined the design of the learning
environment and the nature of activities. Teacher-centeredness is also characterised by a view that
the teacher is the primary source of knowledge for learners. In a learner-centred environment, the
focus is on the strong points, preferences and learning style(s) of the learner(s). The learning
environment is designed according to the needs and possibilities of the particular learner group.
• Teaching-centred vs learning-centred
[At this stage, it is important to indicate that the term education be seen as the macro term which
includes the concepts teaching and learning (education = teaching + learning).] Education
activities in the past, were planned and executed from a teaching perspective. A teacher would
plan a teaching session (lecture) based on what the best teaching methods would be to transfer the
concerned subject content to the learners. The focus was on how to teach. In the new paradigm,
education activities are planned and executed from a learning perspective. The emphasis is now
on the learning activity and learning process of the learner. So the focus is on how the learning,
which should take place, can be optimised. “In general, there must be a conversion from a teaching
to a learning culture.” (Arnold in Peters, 1999)
• Teaching vs learning facilitation
Teaching or instruction, as an activity of the teacher, is seen as an activity that relates to the
‘transfer of content’ (an objectivist view) within a teaching-centred education paradigm. The
presentation/delivery of a lecture or paper falls into this category. The principle of learning
facilitation follows a learning-centred education paradigm. Learning facilitation has to do with the
teacher’s activities, which focus on optimising the learner’s learning process. Just as the word
indicates, the emphasis is on the facilitation of learning. Teachers cannot be regarded as the only
source of knowledge and cannot focus on the traditional ‘transfer of content’ any longer. They
need to focus on the facilitation of learning. “Instructional staff no longer are the fountainhead of
information since the technology can provide students with access to an infinite amount of and
array of data and information. The role of the instructor, therefore, changes to one of learning
facilitator. The instructor assists students to access information, to synthesize and interpret it and
to place it in a context – in short to transform information into knowledge.” (Kershaw & Safford,
1998:294)
• Content-based vs outcomes-based
A content-driven approach to education is characterised by curriculation and education activities
that focus on subject content. The emphasis is on the content that learners should master and a
learner receives a qualification based on the nature, amount and level (difficulty) of subject content
he/she has mastered. An outcomes-based approach to education focuses on the learning outcomes
to be reached by the learners. A typical process for curricula in an outcomes-based model is
characterised by the formulation and selection of learning outcomes that a learner should reach -
that which the learner must be able to do on completion of the learning process. The selection of
subject content is based on the relevance thereof to enable the learner to reach the learning
outcomes.
• Content-based evaluation vs outcomes-based assessment
Content-based evaluation follows a reproductive view of learning where a learner’s achievement
is measured by the quantity and quality of content that are reproduced. On the contrary, outcomes-
based assessment refers to a productive view of learning where a learner’s achievement is
measured by the mastery learning outcomes.

Implications of constructivism for teaching and learning

Central to the tenet of constructivism is that learning is an active process. Information may be
imposed, but understanding cannot be, for it must come from within.
Constructivism requires a teacher to act as a facilitator whose main function is to help students
become active participants in their learning and make meaningful connections between prior
knowledge, new knowledge, and the processes involved in learning. Brooks and Brooks (1993)
summarize a large segment of the literature on descriptions of „constructivist teachers‟. They
conceive of a constructivist teacher as someone who will:
 • Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative;
• Use a wide variety of materials, including raw data, primary sources, and interactive
materials and encourage students to use them;
• Inquire about students‟ understandings of concepts before sharing his/her own
understanding of those concepts;
• Encourage students to engage in dialogue with the teacher and with one another;
• Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and encourage
students to ask questions to each other and seek elaboration of students‟ initial responses;
• Engage students in experiences that show contradictions to initial understandings and then
encourage discussion;
• Provide time for students to construct relationships and create metaphors;
• Assess students‟ understanding through application and performance of open-structured
tasks.

Hence, from a constructivist perspective, the primary responsibility of the teacher is to create and
maintain a collaborative problem-solving environment, where students are allowed to construct
their own knowledge, and the teacher acts as a facilitator and guide.
International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health 2017; 4(5): 209-212