PART 1

2. Discretisation of Continuous Systems

• A continuous system, which is also called a distributed parameter system, has an infinite number
of DOF.
• It can be reduced to a simpler N DOF by discretisation.

Consider a simplified aircraft wing (shown).

• mass & stiffness distributed
• infinite DOF

It can be reduced to a simpler discrete system or

lumped parameter system as shown.

Notes: (1) wing root assumed clamped

(2) m2 includes mass of engine/store

• The distributed mass has been lumped at positions y1, y2 and y3.
• The wing has been reduced to a 3 DOF system.

1
2.1 Discretisation using Load-Sharing Approach

➢ Consider a uniform cantilevered beam

with distributed parameter.

➢ A simple procedure for reducing the beam

to say n DOF (e.g. 3 DOF as shown) system
is the load-sharing approach.

The procedure is as follows:

• divide beam into n segments (here 3 segments)
• subdivide each segment
• lump each sub-segment to the nearest DOF

Notes:
✓ mass at clamped end inactive
✓ approach gives mass matrix

2
3. Derivation of Equations of Motion

The following 3 methods are to be considered:

• derivation using Newton’s Laws of Motion
• derivation using Lagrange’s Equation
• derivation using Stiffness & Flexibility Influence Coefficients

3.1 Derivation of Equations of Motion by Newton's Laws of Motion

Consider a two degrees-of-freedom system consisting of 2 masses and 3 springs as shown below.

Referring to the free-body diagrams Example 3.1

of the two masses m1 and m2, the
equations of motion can be derived,
using Newton's 2nd law.
The procedure to draw FBD of m:
• Start by drawing a rectangular
box to represent m.
• Draw arrows to represent the
inertia force or displacement and
external force (if any).
• Draw arrows to denote the
restoring forces in the opposite
direction of positive motion.
3
Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion to m1 gives:
𝑚1 𝑥ሷ 1 = ෍ 𝐹𝑥1 = −𝑘1 𝑥1 − 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑓1 (𝑡)

𝑚1 𝑥ሷ 1 + 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = 𝑓1 (𝑡)

𝑚1 𝑥ሷ 1 + (𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝑥1 − 𝑘2 𝑥2 = 𝑓1 (𝑡) (2.1)

Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion to m2 gives:

𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 = ෍ 𝐹𝑥2 = −𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) − 𝑘3 𝑥2

𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 + 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑘3 𝑥2 = 0

𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 − 𝑘2 𝑥1 + (𝑘2 +𝑘3 )𝑥2 = 0 (2.2)

Combining the equations of motion, Eq. (2.1) and (2.2), in matrix form gives,

𝑚1 0 𝑥ሷ 1 𝑘 +𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑥1 𝑓1 (𝑡)

+ 1 = (2.3)
0 𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 −𝑘2 𝑘2 +𝑘3 𝑥2 0
or
𝑚 𝑥ሷ + 𝑘 𝑥 = {𝑓(𝑡)} (2.4)

4
3.2 Derivation of Equations of Motion by Lagrange's Equations

For generalised coordinates qi, Lagrange's equation is

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝑈
− + + = 𝑄𝑖 (2.5)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑞𝑖
where
T = kinetic energy of system σ 1Τ2 𝑚𝑞ሶ 𝑖2

U = potential energy of system σ 1Τ2 𝑘𝑞𝑖2

D = dissipation energy of system σ 1Τ2 𝑐 𝑞ሶ 𝑖2

Qi = generalised external force acting on the system.

For a conservative system (i.e. an undamped system without external forcing), Lagrange's equation
reduces to
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
− =0 (2.6)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑞𝑖

where L = T - U is called the Lagrangian.

Note: The Lagrange's equation will yield as many equations of motion as the number of degrees of
freedom of the system provided the basic energy expressions of the system are known.
5
For example, the equations of motion of the two degree-of-freedom system shown in Example 3.1 can
be derived by the application of Lagrange's equation. The system has 2 generalised coordinates x1 and
x2. Its energy expressions are as follows.
Example 3.1
1 2 1 2
𝑇 = Τ2 𝑚1 𝑥ሶ 1 + Τ2 𝑚2 𝑥ሶ 2
𝑈 = 1Τ2 𝑘1 𝑥12 + 1Τ2 𝑘2 𝑥1 −𝑥2 2 + 1Τ2 𝑘3 𝑥22
𝐷=0

Motion of m1 (coordinate x1)

Equation of motion is:
𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝑈
− + + = 𝑄1
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥ሶ 1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕 𝑥ሶ 1 𝜕𝑥1
𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝑑
Now, = 𝑚1 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑚1 𝑥ሷ 1
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥ሶ 1 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑇
=0
𝜕𝑥1
𝜕𝑈
= 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
𝜕𝑥1
𝜕𝐷
=0
𝜕 𝑥ሶ 1
𝑄1 = 𝑓1 (𝑡)
Thus, the equation of motion of m1 is
𝑚1 𝑥ሷ 1 + (𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝑥1 − 𝑘2 𝑥2 = 𝑓1 (𝑡) (2.7)
6
Motion of m2 (coordinate x2)
Equation of motion is:
𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝑈
− + + = 𝑄1
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥ሶ 2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕 𝑥ሶ 2 𝜕𝑥2
𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝑑
Now, = 𝑚2 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥ሶ 2 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑇
=0
𝜕𝑥2
𝜕𝑈
= −𝑘2 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑘3 𝑥2
𝜕𝑥2
𝜕𝐷
=0
𝜕 𝑥ሶ 2
𝑄2 = 0
Thus, the equation of motion of m2 is
𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 − 𝑘2 𝑥1 + (𝑘2 +𝑘3 )𝑥2 = 0 (2.8)

Eqs (2.7) and (2.8) can be written in matrix form as,

𝑚1 0 𝑥ሷ 1 𝑘 +𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑥1 𝑓1 (𝑡)
+ 1 =
0 𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 −𝑘2 𝑘2 +𝑘3 𝑥2 0

which is identical to Eq. (2.1) derived by the application of Newton's 2nd law.

7
3.3 Derivation of Equations of Motion using Stiffness & Flexibility Influence Coefficients

Equation of motion of undamped MDOF system is:

𝑚 𝑥ሷ + 𝑘 𝑥 = {𝑓(𝑡)}

• The mass matrix is obtained simply by inserting the masses in the leading diagonal of the matrix.
• Stiffness influence coefficients are used to derive stiffness matrix, [k]
• Flexibility influence coefficients are used to derive flexibility matrix, [a], from which the stiffness
matrix may be obtained (if necessary) since [k] = [a]-1 (see proof below).

Definition of Stiffness Influence Coefficient kij

“Stiffness influence coefficient kij is the force at point i due to a unit displacement at point j with
all other points being fixed.”

𝑓𝑖
𝑘𝑖𝑗 =
𝑦𝑗
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖𝑗 𝑦𝑗
 𝑓1 = 𝑘11 𝑦1 + 𝑘12 𝑦2 + ⋯
…etc….
 {𝑓} = 𝑘 {𝑦} (2.9)

8
Definition of Flexibility Influence Coefficient aij

“Flexibility influence coefficient aij is the deflection at point i due to a unit force at point j when
the unit force is the only force acting.”
𝑦𝑖
𝑎𝑖𝑗 =
𝑓𝑗
 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑓𝑗
 𝑦1 = 𝑎11 𝑓1 + 𝑎12 𝑓2 + ⋯
…etc….
 {𝑦} = 𝑎 {𝑓} (2.10)

Relationship Between kij and aij

Combining Eqs (2.9) and (2.10) gives:

𝑓 = 𝑘 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑎 {𝑓} (2.11)

 𝑘 [𝑎] = 𝐼 (2.12)
where [I] is the unity or identity matrix.

 𝑘 = [𝑎]−1 (2.13)
9
Example, equations of motion of the two degree-of-freedom system shown in Example 3.1
Equation of motion is given by, Example 3.1
𝑚 𝑥ሷ + 𝑘 𝑥 = {𝑓(𝑡)}
The mass matrix is a diagonal matrix. It can be written down by
simply writing the mass magnitudes on the leading diagonal and
all the off-diagonal elements are zero. Thus,
𝑚 0
𝑚 = 1
0 𝑚2
𝑘 𝑘12
The stiffness matrix is of the form, 𝑘 = 11 .
𝑘21 𝑘22

(1) Determining [k] using the definition of kij

𝑓1
𝒌𝟏𝟏 (i=j=1) 𝑘11 =
𝑥1 Fig 3.1(b)
Fig 3.1(a)
According to the definition, 𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2 = 0
Then, Fig 3.1(a) shows the scenario.
Fig 3.1(b) shows the restoring forces acting after m1 is
displaced a distance x1.
Thus, 𝑓11 = 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 𝑥1 = (𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝑥1
 𝑘11 = 𝑘1 +𝑘2
10
Example, equations of motion of the two degree-of-freedom system shown in Example 3.1
𝑓2
𝒌𝟐𝟏 (i=2, j=1) 𝑘21 =
𝑥1
From Fig 3.1(b), 𝑓21 = −𝑘2 𝑥1
Note: -ve sign because force is in the same directions as x1.
(restoring force always acts in opposite direction to the positive
direction of motion)
 𝑘21 = −𝑘2
𝑓2
𝒌𝟐𝟐 (i=j=2) 𝑘22 =
𝑥2
Fig 3.1(c) Fig 3.1(d)
According to the definition, 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥2 = 1
Then, Fig 3.1(c) shows the scenario.
Fig 3.1(d) shows the restoring forces acting after m2 is
displaced a distance x2.
Thus, 𝑓22 = 𝑘2 𝑥2 + 𝑘3 𝑥2 = (𝑘2 +𝑘3 )𝑥2
 𝑘22 = 𝑘2 +𝑘3
𝑓1
𝒌𝟏𝟐 (i=1, j=2) 𝑘12 =
𝑥2
From Fig (b), 𝑓12 = −𝑘2 𝑥2
 𝑘12 = −𝑘2
𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
Therefore, the stiffness matrix is: 𝑘 =
−𝑘2 𝑘2 +𝑘3 11
(2) Determining [k] based on rules of kij Example 3.1
For any rectilinear or rotary vibrating system, the stiffness matrix
can be written down directly by inspection using these 2 rules:

Rule 1: For kij, where i=j, kii equals sum of all the stiffnesses of the
springs attached to coordinate i.

Rule 2: For kij, where i≠j, kij equals (-1) x stiffness of the spring
connecting coordinate i and j.

These rules can be applied to Example 3.1.

Applying Rule 1: 𝑘11 = 𝑘1 +𝑘2 ; 𝑘22 = 𝑘2 +𝑘3

Applying Rule 2: 𝑘12 = 𝑘21 = −𝑘2

𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
Therefore, the stiffness matrix is: 𝑘 =
−𝑘2 𝑘2 +𝑘3

Note: For a vibrating system involving both rectilinear and rotational

motions of the masses and inertias, respectively, it may not be
straightforward to write down expressions for the kii‘s.

12
Example 3.2
Equation of motion is given by, Example 3.2
𝑚 𝑥ሷ + 𝑘 𝑥 = {0}
The mass matrix is a diagonal matrix is,
𝑚 0
𝑚 = 1
0 𝑚2
𝑘11 𝑘12
The stiffness matrix is of the form, 𝑘 = .
𝑘21 𝑘22

(1) Determining [k] using the definition of kij

𝑓1
𝒌𝟏𝟏 (i=j=1) 𝑘11 =
𝑥1

According to the definition, 𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2 = 0

Fig 3.2(a) Fig 3.2(b)
Then, Fig 3.2(a) shows the scenario.
Fig 3.2(b) shows the restoring forces acting after m1 is
displaced a distance x1.
Thus, 𝑓11 = 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 𝑥1 = (𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝑥1
 𝑘11 = 𝑘1 +𝑘2

13
Example 3.2
𝑓2
𝒌𝟐𝟏 (i=2, j=1) 𝑘21 =
𝑥1
From Fig 3.2(b), 𝑓21 = −𝑘2 𝑥1
Note: -ve sign because force is in the same directions as x1.
(restoring force always acts in opposite direction to the positive
direction of motion)
 𝑘21 = −𝑘2
𝑓2
𝒌𝟐𝟐 (i=j=2) 𝑘22 =
𝑥2
Fig 3.2(c) Fig 3.2(d)
According to the definition, 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥2 = 1
Then, Fig 3.2(c) shows the scenario.
Fig 3.2(d) shows the restoring forces acting after m2 is
displaced a distance x2.
Thus, 𝑓22 = 𝑘2 𝑥2 + 𝑘3 𝑥2 = (𝑘2 +𝑘3 )𝑥2
 𝑘22 = 𝑘2
𝑓1
𝒌𝟏𝟐 (i=1, j=2) 𝑘12 =
𝑥2
From Fig (b), 𝑓12 = −𝑘2 𝑥2
 𝑘12 = −𝑘2
𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
Therefore, the stiffness matrix is: 𝑘 =
−𝑘2 𝑘2 14
 Example 3.2
(2) Determining [k] based on rules of kij
Applying Rule 1: 𝑘11 = 𝑘1 +𝑘2 ;

𝑘22 = 𝑘2

Applying Rule 2: 𝑘12 = 𝑘21 = −𝑘2

𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
Therefore, the stiffness matrix is: 𝑘 =
−𝑘2 𝑘2

(3) Determining [k] based on [a] using the definition of aij

The third method is to determine 𝑘 = [𝑎]−1 by determining aij

Fig 3.2(e)
𝑥1
𝒂𝟏𝟏 (i=j=1) 𝑎11 = where 𝑓1 = 1
𝑓1

Then, Fig 3.2(e) shows the scenario.

Application of force f1 causes only spring k1 to deflect.
𝑓1 1
Thus, 𝑓1 = 𝑘1 𝑥1  𝑥1 =  𝑎11 =
𝑘1 𝑘1
𝑥2
𝒂𝟐𝟏 (i=2, j=1) 𝑎21 = where 𝑓1 = 1
𝑓1
From Fig 3.2(e), since 𝑘2 is not stretched,
𝑓 1
Then 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 = 1  𝑎21 = 15
𝑘1 𝑘1
(3) Determining [k] based on [a] using the definition of aij
𝑥2 Fig 3.2(f)
𝒂𝟐𝟐 (i=j=2) 𝑎22 = where 𝑓2 = 1
𝑓2

Then, Fig 3.2(f) shows the scenario.

Application of force f2 causes both springs k1 and k2 to deflect.
Total deflection 𝑥2 = deflection of k1 + deflection of k2
Also, the same force f2 acts in k1 and k2.
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
 𝑥2 = 2 + 2 = 2
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑒
where 𝑘𝑒 is equivalent stiffness of springs k1 and k2 in series.
1 1 1 𝑘 𝑘
i.e. = +  𝑘𝑒 = 1 2
𝑘𝑒 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 +𝑘2 2
𝑓2 1 𝑘1 +𝑘2
Thus, 𝑓2 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑥2  𝑥2 =  𝑎22 = =
𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑒 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑥1 Proof
𝒂𝟏𝟐 (i=1, j=2) 𝑎12 = where 𝑓2 = 1 [𝑎]−1 =
adj[𝑎]
; adj 𝑎 = [𝐶]𝑇 ; [𝐶]: co-factors
𝑓2 det[𝑎]
From Fig 3.2(f), 𝑥1 is due to the stretching of 𝑘1 . 𝑘1 +𝑘2
−
1
𝑓 1 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 1 𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
 𝑥1 = 2  𝑎12 = adj 𝑎 = 1 1 =
𝑘1 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑘1 𝑘1 −
1 1 𝑘1 𝑘1
𝑘1 𝑘1 1 𝑘1 +𝑘2 1 2 𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2 1
Therefore, the flexibility matrix is: 𝑎 = det[𝑎] = − = =
1 𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘2

𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
 𝑘 = [𝑎]−1 =
−𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑘1 +𝑘2 −𝑘2
Hence, stiffness matrix 𝑘 = [𝑎]−1 =
−𝑘2 𝑘2
16