CHAPTER1.

INTRODUCTION

The creation of Uttarakhand Power Corporation Ltd. (UPCL) on December 12,

2001 is the result of power sector reforms and restructuring in UP (India) which is the focal point of the

Power Sector, responsible for planning and managing the sector through its transmission, distribution and

supply of electricity.

UPCL will be professionally managed utility supplying reliable and cost efficient

electricity to every citizen of the state through highly motivated employees and state of art technologies,

providing an economic return to our owners and maintaining leadership in the country. We shall achieve this

being a dynamic, forward looking, reliable, safe and trustworthy organization, sensitive to our customers

interests, profitable and sustainable in the long run, providing uninterrupted supply of quality power, with

transparency and integrity in operation.

1
1.1 ABOUT 33/11KV SUBSTATION PITHORAGARH

Figure 1.1 33/11KV Substation Pithoragarh

The main bus 33KV is connected to grid located at BIN, PITHORAGARH. Now the transmission line first

parallel connected with lightning arrester to diverge surge, followed by CVT connected parallel. CVT

measures voltage and steeps down at

110V. A.C. for control panel, at the location a wave trap is connected to carrier communication at higher

frequencies. A current transformer is connected in series with line which measure current and step down

current at ratio 800:1 for control panel. Switchgear equipment is provided, which is the combination of a

circuit breaker having an isolator at each end. A transformer is connected to main bus though a bus coupler.

The main bus has total capability of 160 MVA for 33 KV, which is subdivided into two transformer capacity

of 80 MVA (40MVA+40MVA) parallel connected for 33KV and other two transformer capacity of 80KV

(40KV+40KV) are parallel connected for substation. At both ends of transformer lightning arrester current

transformer and switchgear equipment provided. Transformer step downs voltage from 220KV to 33KV.

The main bus is provided with switchgear equipment & a current transformer. This gives way to six feeders

transmitting power to RAI, THULIGARH. The main bus is connected to jack bus or transfer bus

2
through a bus coupler & 11KV is provided with switchgear equipment. This gives way to feeders

transmitting power to A.P.S, WADDA. A step down transformer of 11KV/440V is connected to control

panel to provide supply to the equipments of the substation. Capacitor bank is connected to main bus of

11KV. It is provided to improve power factor & voltage profile.

3
CHAPTER 2. TRANSFORMER

Fig:-2.1 Transformer

Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of alternating current at same frequency. It

means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage & high voltage to low voltage at same

frequency. It works on the principle of static induction principle. When the energy is transformed into a

higher voltage, the transformer is called step up transformer but in case of other is known as step down

transformer.

2.1 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

2.1.1 Power transformer

2.1.2 Instrument transformer

2.1.3 Auto transformer

2.1.4 On the basis of working

2.1.5 On the basis of structure

4
2.1.1 POWER TRANSFORMER:

Fig:- 2.2 Power Transformer

Types of power transformer:

2.1.1.1 Single phase transformer

2.1.1.2 Three phase transformer

2.1.2 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER:

Fig:-2.3 Instrument Transformer

a) Current transformer

b) Potential transformer

5
2.1.3 AUTO TRANSFORMER:

Fig:- 2.4 Auto Transformer

Types of power transformer:

2.1.1.1 Single phase transformer

2.1.1.2 Three phase transformer

2.1.4 ON THE BASIS OF WORKING

2.1.4.1 Step down: Converts high voltage into low voltage.

2.1.4.2 Step up: Converts low voltage into high voltage.

6
2.1.4 ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE

Figure 2.5 core type Figure 2.6 Shell type

7
CHAPTER 3. SPECIFICATION OF C.T. USED IN 33/11 KV SUB STATION, BIN,

PITHORAGARH

Figure 3.1 Current transformer

3.1 Standard: IS-2785

3.2 Highest System Voltage: 145 KV

3.3 Frequency: 50Hz

3.4 C.T. Current: 25 KA/1 Sec.

3.5 Rated primary current: 800 Ampere

The resistance of the instrument’s current coil with which the CT’s secondary winding is connected is small.

The CT’s transformer operates under a state close to the short circuit under normal condition.

The primary winding is installed in series in the current. Current transformers are used for protections,

measurement and control in high-voltage electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers

may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current

transformers are used.

8
CHAPTER 4. SUBSTATIONS

The present day electrical power system is A.C.i.e. electrical power is generated,transmitted & distributed in

the form of the alternating current. The electric power is produced at power plant stations which are located

at favorable places generally quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large

network of transmission 7 distribution.At many places in the power system, it may be desirable and

necessary to change some characteristics e.g. voltage, ac to dc, frequency, power factor etc. of electric

supply. This accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation. For example; generation voltage (11 KV

or 33 KV) at the power station is set up to high voltage (say 220 KV or 132 KV) for transmission of electric

power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose in the substation. Similarly

near the consumer’s localities, the voltage may have to be step down to utilization level. This job is again

accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation. The assembly of apparatus to change some

characteristic of electric power supply is called substation. The two most ways to classify substation are:-

4.1 TYPES OF SUBSTATION

4.1.1 According to the service requirement:

4.1.1.1 Transformer substation

4.1.1.2 Switch substation

4.1.1.3 Power factor correction substation

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4.1.1.4 Frequency change substation

4.1.1.5 Converting substation

4.1.1.6 Industrial substation

4.1.2 According to the constructional features:

4.1.2.1 Indoor substation

4.1.2.3 Outdoor substation

4.1.2.4 Underground substation

4.1.2.5 Pole mounted substation

4.1.1.1 TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION

They are known as transformer substations as because transformer is the main component employed to

change the voltage level, depending upon the purposed served transformer substations may be classified

into:

4.1.1.1.1 STEP UP SUBSTATION

The generation voltage is steeped up to high voltage to affect economy in transmission of electric power.

These are generally located in the power houses and are of outdoor type

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4.1.1.1.2 PRIMARY GRID SUBSTATION

Here, electric power is received by primary substation which reduces the voltage level to 11KV for

secondary transmission. The primary grid substation is generally of outdoor type.

4.1.1.1.3 SECONDARY SUBSTATIONS

At a secondary substation, the voltage is further steeped down to 11KV. The 11KV lines runs along the

important road of the city. The secondary substations are also of outdoor type.

4.1.1.1.3 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

These substations are located near the consumer’s localities and step down to 400V, 3-phase, 4-wire for

supplying to the consumers. The voltage between any two phases is 400V & between any phase and neutral

it is 230V.

4.2 SUBSTATION CHARACTERISTICS:

4.2.1 Each circuit is protected by its own circuit breaker and hence plant outage does not necessarily result in

loss of supply.

4.2.2 A fault on the feeder or transformer circuit breaker causes loss of the transformer and feeder circuit,

one of which may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.

4.2.3 A fault on the bus section circuit breaker causes complete shutdown of the substation. All circuits may

be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.

4.2.4 Maintenance of a feeder or transformer circuit breaker involves loss of the circuit.

4.2.5 Introduction of bypass isolators between bus bar and circuit isolator allows circuit breaker maintenance

facilities without loss of that circuit.

4.3 STEPS IN DESIGNING SUBSTATION:

4.3.1 Earthing and Bonding:

The function of an earthing and bonding system is to provide an earthing system connection to which

transformer neutrals or earthing impedances may be connected in order to pass the maximum fault current.

The earthing system also ensures that no thermal or mechanical

damage occurs on the equipment within the substation, thereby resulting in safety to operation and

maintenance personnel. The earthing system also guarantees equipotent bonding such that there are no

dangerous potential gradients developed in the substation.

In designing the substation, three voltage have to be considered these are:

4.3.1.1 Touch Voltage:

This is the difference in potential between the surface potential and the potential at earthed equipment whilst

a man is standing and touching the earthed structure.

4.3.1.2 Step Voltage:

This is the potential difference developed when a man bridges a distance of 1m with his feet while not

touching any other earthed equipment.

4.3.1.3 Mesh Voltage:

This is the maximum touch voltage that is developed in the mesh of the earthing grid.

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4.3.2 Substation Earthing Calculation Methodology

Calculations for earth impedances, touch and step potentials are based on site measurements of ground

resistivity and system fault levels. A grid layout with particular conductors is then analyzed to determine the

effective substation earthing resistance, from which the earthing voltage is calculated.

In practice, it is normal to take the highest fault level for substation earth grid calculation purposes.

Additionally, it is necessary to ensure a sufficient margin such that expansion of the system is catered for.

To determine the earth resistivity, probe tests are carried out on the site. These tests are best performed in

dry weather such that conservative resistivity readings are obtained.

4.3.3 Earthing Materials

4.3.3.4 Conductors:

Bare copper conductor is usually used for the substation earthing grid. The copper bars themselves usually

have a cross-sectional area of 95 square millimeters, and they are laid at a shallow depth of 0.25-0.5m, in 3-

7m squares. In addition to the buried potential earth grid, a

separate above ground earthing ring is usually provided, to which all metallic substation plant is bonded.

4.3.3.4 Connections:

Connections to the grid and other earthing joints should not be soldered because the heat generated during

fault conditions could cause a soldered joint to fail. Joints are usually bolted.

4.3.3.5 Earthing Rods:

The earthing grid must be supplemented by earthing rods to assist in the dissipation of earth fault currents

and further reduce the overall substation earthing resistance. These rods are usually made of solid copper, or

copper clad steel.

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4.3.4 Switchyard Fence Earthing:

The switchyard fence earthing practices are possible and are used by different utilities. These are:

4.3.4.1 Extend the substation earth grid 0.5m-1.5m beyond the fence perimeter. The fence is then bonded to

the grid at regular intervals.

4.3.4.2 Place the fence beyond the perimeter of the switchyard earthing grid and bond the fence to its own

earthing rod system. This earthing rod system is not coupled to the main substation earthing grid.

4.4 CONDUCTORS USED IN SUBSTATION DESIGN:

An ideal conductor should fulfills the following requirements:

4.4.1 Should be capable of carrying the specified load currents and short time currents.

4.4.2 Should be able to withstand forces on it due to its situation. These forces comprise self weight, and

weight of other conductors and equipment, short circuit forces and atmospheric forces such as wind and ice

loading.

4.4.3 Should be corona free at rated voltage.

4.4.4 Should have the minimum number of joints.

4.4.5 Should need the minimum number of supporting insulators.

4.4.6 Should be economical.

The most suitable material for the conductor system is copper or aluminums. Steel may be used but has

limitations of poor conductivity and high susceptibility to corrosion.

In an effort to make the conductor ideal, three different types have been utilized, and these include: Flat

surfaced Conductors, Stranded Conductors, and Tubular Conductors

4.5 Overhead Line Terminations

Two methods are used to terminate overhead lines at a substation.

4.5.1 Tensioning conductors to substation structures or buildings

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4.5.2 Tensioning conductors to ground winches.

The choice is influenced by the height of towers and the proximity to the substation. The following

clearances should be observed:

VOLTAGE LEVEL MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE

less than 11kV 6.1m

11kV - 20kV 6.4m

20kV - 30kV 6.7m

greater than 30kV 7.0m

15
CHAPTER 5. CHRONOLOGICAL TRAINING DIARY (based on study &

observation at different Departments and Sections

5.1 POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION

Reliable & fast communication is necessary for safe efficient & economical power supply. To reduce the

power failure in extent & time, to maintain the interconnected grid system in optimum working condition; to

coordinate the operation of various generating unit communication network is indispensable for state

electricity board. In state electricity boards, the generating & distribution stations are generally located at a

far distance from cities. Where P & T communication provided through long overhead lines in neither

reliable nor quick.

As we have available very reliable physical paths viz. the power lines, which interconnected, hence power

line carrier communication is found to be most economical and reliable for electricity boards.

5.1.1 APPLICATIONS:

The PLCC can be used for the following facilities:

5.1.1.1 Telephony

5.1.1.2 Tele protection

5.1.1.3 Remote control or indication

5.1.1.5 Teleprinting

5.2 PRINCIPLE OF PLCC:

The principle of PLCC is the simple one:

All type of information is modulated on carried wave at frequency 50Hz to 500 KHz. The modulated HF

carrier fed into the power line conductor at the sending end and filtered out again at the respective stations.

Long earlier system double side band amplitude modulation was more common but the present amplitude

modulated system. Since high voltage power lines are designed to carry large quantities of energy on the

high voltage and the communication system at low voltage, they cannot be directly connected to high

voltage lines. Suitably designed coupling equipments have therefore to be employed which will permit the

injection of high frequency carrier signal without undue loss and with absolute protection of communication

equipments or operating personal from high voltage hazard. Therefore, the coupling equipment essentially

comprises the following:

5.2.1 Wave trap or line trap:

Wave trap is connected in series with power line between the point of connection of coupling capacitor and

S/S. Wave trap offers negligible impedance to HF carrier. Wave trap stands electromechanically and

thermally for short circuit current in the event of fault on the line. On the basis of blocking frequency bank,

the wave trap can be following type:

5.2.1.1 ALL WAVE

5.2.1.2 SINGAL FREQUENCY

5.2.1.3 DOUBLE FREQUENCY

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5.2.1.4 BROAD BAND

5.2.2 Coupling capacitor:

The modulated carrier is let into power line through coupling capacitor specially designed to with stand line

voltage under all weather condition. The upper end of the coupling capacitor is connected directly to the line

and the lower end is connected to the ground through a carrier frequency chock coil or drain coil. Thus

coupling capacitor forms the link between the PLCC equipment and power line. The coupling capacitor used

in UPSEB is 2200pf capacitance. The coupling capacitor are designed for outdoor use and hence to

withstand normal atmospheric phenomenon such as temperature & humidity changes, rain, snow, anticipated

wind load, nominal wire tension etc. at full rated voltage. In some case capacitive voltage transformers

(CVT) used as a source of line voltage for metering and protection as also used coupling capacitor for

PLCC.

5.2.3 Protective Device of Coarse Voltage Arrester:

This is connected across the primary of the coupling filter i.e. one end is connected to the bottom of the

coupling capacitor and other end is earthed. This is provided to protect the coupling filter against line surges.

An air gap is provided, where voltage of the order of 1.8 to 2KV as observed across due to lighting etc. on

line.

5.2.4 Coupling of Filter:

The coupling filter is inserted between the low voltage terminal of the coupling capacitor and the carrier

frequency connection of the carrier terminal. Some time an earth switch is also

provided with this unit. This unit mainly performs two functions; firstly it isolates the connection of

equipment from the power line. Secondly it serves to match characteristic impedance of the power line to

that of the H.F. cable to connection equipments.

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5.2.5 H.F. Cable:

H.F. cable normally used to connect the coupling filter to another coupling terminal. The cable is insulated

to withstand the test voltage of 4KV. The impedance of this H.F. cable is so as to match with the output of

the PLCC terminal and secondary impedance of coupling filter.

5.2.5.1 TYPES OF COUPLING:

The following three types of coupling are being used in UPSEB depending on the requirement:

5.2.5.1.1 Phase to ground coupling

5.2.5.1.2 Phase to phase coupling

5.2.5.1.3 Internal coupling

5.2.5.2 COUPLING LOSSES:

5.2.5.2.1 Composite loss

5.2.5.2.2 Tapping loss

5.2.5.2.3 H.F. cable loss

5.2.5.2.4 Additional loss

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CHAPTER 6. BUSBARS

When numbers of generators or feeders operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected

electrically, bus bar is used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are made up of copper rods

operate at constant voltage. The following are the important bus bars

arrangements used at substations:

6.1 Single bus bar system

6.2 Single bus bar system with section aviation.

6.3 Duplicate bus bar system

In large stations it is important that break downs and maintenance should interfere as little as possible with

continuity of supply to achieve this, duplicate bus bar system is used. Such a system consists of two bus

bars, a main bus bar and a spare bus bar with the help of bus coupler, which consist of the circuit breaker and

isolator.

In substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance and repairs. An

isolating switch or isolator accomplishes this. Isolator operates under no load condition. It does not have any

specified current breaking capacity or current making capacity. In some cases isolators are used to breaking

charging currents or transmission lines. While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first then

isolator while closing a circuit the isolator is closed first, then circuit breakers. Isolators are necessary on

supply side of circuit breakers, in order to ensure isolation of the circuit breaker from live parts for the

purpose of maintenance. A transfer isolator is used to transfer main supply from main bus to transfer bus by

using bus coupler (combination of a circuit breaker with two isolators), if repairing or maintenance of any

section is required.

20
CHAPTER 7. INSULATORS

The insulator serves two purposes. They support the conductors (bus bar) and confine the current to the

conductors. The most common used material for the manufacture of insulator is porcelain. There are several

types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension type, post insulator etc.) and their use in substation will depend

upon the service requirement. For example, post insulator is used for bus bars. A post insulator consists of a

porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that bus bars can

be directly bolted to the cap.

Fig:-7.1 Insulator used in substation

With the advantage of power system, the lines and other equipment operate at very high voltage and carry

high current. The arrangements of switching along with switches cannot serve the desired function of

switchgear in such high capacity circuits. This necessitates employing a more dependable means of control

such as is obtain by the use of the circuit breakers. A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either

manually or automatically under all condition as no load, full load and short circuit condition. A circuit

breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts can be opened manually or by

remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of breaker get

energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit. When

contacts of a circuit breaker are separated, an arc is struck; the current is thus able to continue. The

production of arcs are not only delays the current interruption, but is also generates the heat. Therefore, the

21
main problem is to distinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that it may not reach a dangerous

value. The general way of classification is on the basis of the medium used for arc extinction.

Fig:-7.2 Circuit breaker arrangements

7.1. Circuit breakers

They can be classified into:

7.1.1 Oil circuit breaker

7.1.2 Air-blast circuit breaker

7.1.3 Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker (SF6)

7.1.4 Vacuum circuit breakers

Note: SF6 and Vacuum circuit breaker are being used in 33KV distribution substation.

7.2 Oil Circuit Breaker

22
Fig:-7.3 Oil circuit breaker

A high-voltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to dissipate the heat and extinguish the arc;

the intense heat of the arc decomposes the oil, generating a gas whose high pressure produces a flow of fresh

fluid through the arc that furnishes the necessary insulation to prevent a restrike of the arc.

The arc is then extinguished, both because of its elongation upon parting of contacts and because of

intensive cooling by the gases and oil vapor.

7.3 Air blast circuit breaker

Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto reclosure, unit type multi break constructions, simple

assembly, modest maintenance are some of the main features of air blast circuit breakers. A compressors

plant necessary to maintain high air pressure in the air receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are especially

suitable for railways and arc furnaces, where the breaker operates repeatedly. Air blast circuit breakers is

used for interconnected lines and important lines where rapid operation is desired.

Fig:-7.4 Air blast circuit breaker

High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg/ cm2 stored in the air reservoir. Air is taken from the

compressed air system. Three hollow insulator columns are mounted on the reservoir with valves at their

basis. The double arc extinguished chambers are mounted on the top of the hollow insulator chambers. The

current carrying parts connect the three arc extinction chambers to each other in series and the pole to the

23
neighbouring equipment. Since there exists a very high voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir,

the entire arc extinction chambers assembly is mounted on insulators.

7.4 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

In such circuit breaker, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching

medium. The SF6 is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The SF6

circuit breaker have been found to a very effective for high power and high voltage service. SF6 circuit

breakers have been developed for voltage 115 KV to 230 KV, power rating 10 MVA. It consists of fixed and

moving contacts. It has chamber, contains SF6 gas. When the contacts are opened, the mechanism permits a

high pressure SF6 gas from reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber. The moving contact

permits the SF6 gas to let through these holes.

7.5 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

Fig:-7.6 Vacuum circuit breaker

Vacuum circuit breakers are circuit breakers which are used to protect medium and high voltage circuits

from dangerous electrical situations. Like other types of circuit breakers, vacuum circuit breakers literally

break the circuit so that energy cannot continue flowing through it, thereby preventing fires, power surges,

and other problems which may emerge. These devices have been utilized since the 1920s, and several

companies have introduced refinements to make them even safer and more effective.

7.2.1 Rating of 132 KV SF6 circuit breaker:

7.2.1.1 Breaking current: 50A

7.2.1.2 Making capacity: 80KA

7.2.1.4 Rated short circuit breaking current:

7.2.1.4.1 Symmetrical: 31.5 KA

7.2.1.4.2 Asymmetrical: 36.86 KA

7.2.1.5 Rated duration of short circuit current: 3sec

7.2.1.6 Rated nominal current: 1250 A

7.2.1.7 Rated voltage: 145 KV

7.2.1.8 Rated SF6 gas pressure: 6 KG

25
CHAPTER 8. METERING AND INDICATION

EQUIPMENT

8.1 RELAY

Fig:-8.1 Typical view of relay

In a power system it is inevitable that immediately or later some failure does occur

somewhere in the system. When a failure occurs on any part of the system, it must be quickly detected and

disconnected from the system. Rapid disconnection of faulted apparatus limits the amount of damage to it

and prevents the effects of fault from spreading into the system. For high voltage circuits relays are

employed to serve the desired function of automatic protective gear. The relays detect the fault and supply

the information to the circuit breaker. The electrical quantities which may change under fault condition are

voltage, frequency, current, phase angle. When a short circuit occurs at any point on the transmission line the

current flowing in the line increases to the enormous value. This result in a heavy current flow through the

relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the

breaker making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this

way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from the damage and normal working of the

healthy portion of the system. Basically relay work on the following two main operating principles:

8.1.1 Electromagnetic attraction relay

8.1.2 Electromagnetic induction relay

8.2 Relays used in control panel of the substation;

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8.1.3 DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:

Fig:-8.2 Differential Relay

A differential relay is one that operates when vector difference of the two or more

electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. If this differential quantity is equal or greater than the

pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.

8.1.4 OVER CURRENT RELAY:

Fig:-8.3 Overcurrent relay

This type of relay works when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value. The actuating source is

the current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer. These relay are used on A.C.

circuit only and can operate for fault flow in the either direction. This relay operates when phase to phase

fault occurs.

27
8.1.5 DIRECTIONAL RELAY:

Fig:-8.4 Directional Relay

This relay operates during earth faults. If one phase touch the earth due to any fault. A directional power

relay is so designed that it obtains its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic field derived from both

voltage and current source of the circuit it protects. The direction of torque depends upon the current relative

to voltage.

8.1.6 TRIPPING RELAY:

Fig:-8.5 Tripping Relay

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This type of relay is in the conjunction with main relay. When main relay sense any fault in the system, it

immediately operates the trip relay to disconnect the faulty section from the section.

8.1.7 AUXILIARY RELAY:

An auxiliary relay is used to indicate the fault by glowing bulb alert the employee.

29
CHAPTER 9. MISCELLANOUS EQUIPMENT

9.1 CAPACITOR BANK:

Fig:-9.1 Capacitor Bank

The load on the power system is varying being high during morning and evening which increases the

magnetization current. This result in the decreased power factor. The low power factor is mainly due to the

fact most of the power loads are inductive and therefore take lagging currents. The low power factor is

highly undesirable as it causes increases in current, resulting in additional losses. So in order to ensure most

favorable conditions for a supply system from engineering and economical stand point it is important to have

power factor as close to unity as possible. In order to improve the power factor come device taking leading

power should be connected in parallel with the load. One of the such device can be capacitor bank. The

capacitor

draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralize the lagging reactive component of load current.

Capacitor bank accomplishes following operations:

9.1.1 Supply reactive power

9.1.2 Increases terminal voltage

9.1.3 Improve power factor

30
9.2 FUSE:

Fig:-9.4 Fuse

A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current through it for sufficient time.

It is inserted in series with the circuit under normal operating conditions; the fuse element is at a nature

below its melting point. Therefore it carries the normal load current overheating. It is worthwhile to note that

a fuse performs both detection and interruption functions.

9.3 BUS COUPLER:

Fig:-9.5 Bus Coupler

The bus coupler consists of circuit breaker and isolator. Each generator and feeder may be connected to

either main bus bar or spar bus bar with the help of bus coupler. Repairing, maintenance and testing of

feeder circuit or other section can be done by putting them on spar bus bar, thus keeping the main bus bar

undisturbed.

31
CHAPTER 10. PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION:

10.1 Transformer protection:

Transformers are totally enclosed static devices and generally oil immersed. Therefore chances of fault

occurring on them are very easy rare, however the consequences of even a rare fault may be very serious

unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the system. This provides adequate automatic protection

for transformers against possible faults.

10.2 Conservator and Breather:

When the oil expands or contacts by the change in the temperature, the oil level goes either up or down in

main tank. A conservator is used to maintain the oil level up to predetermined value in the transformer main

tank by placing it above the level of the top of the tank. Breather is connected to conservator tank for the

purpose of extracting moisture as it spoils the insulating properties of the oil. During the contraction and

expansion of oil air is drawn in or out through breather silica gel crystals impregnated with cobalt chloride.

Silica gel is checked regularly and dried and replaced when necessary.

10.3 Marshalling box:

It has two meter which indicate the temperature of the oil and winding of main tank. If

temperature of oil or winding exceeds than specified value, relay operates to sound an alarm. If there is

further increase in temperature then relay completes the trip circuit to open the circuit breaker controlling the

transformer.

10.4 Transformer cooling:

When the transformer is in operation heat is generated due to iron losses the removal of heat is called

cooling.

There are several types of cooling methods, they are as follows:

10.4.1 Air natural cooling:

In a dry type of self cooled transformers, the natural circulation of surrounding air is used for its cooling.

This type of cooling is satisfactory for low voltage small transformers.

32
10.4.2 Air blast cooling:

It is similar to that of dry type self cooled transformers with to addition that continuous blast of filtered cool

air is forced through the core and winding for better cooling. A fan produces the blast.

10.4.3 Oil natural cooling:

Medium and large rating have their winding and core immersed in oil, which act both as a cooling medium

and an insulating medium. The heat produce in the cores and winding is passed to the oil becomes lighter

and rises to the top and place is taken by cool oil from the bottom of the cooling tank.

10.4.4 Oil blast cooling:

In this type of cooling, forced air is directed over cooling elements of transformers

immersed in oil.

10.4.5 Forced oil and forced air flow (OFB) cooling:

Oil is circulated from the top of the transformers tank to a cooling tank to a cooling plant. Oil is then

returned to the bottom of the tank.

10.4.6 Forced oil and water (OWF) cooling:

In this type of cooling oil flow with water cooling of the oil in external water heat

exchanger takes place. The water is circulated in cooling tubes in the heat exchanger.

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CHAPTER 11. CONCLUSION

Now from this report we can conclude that electricity plays an important role in our life. We are made aware

of how the transmission of electricity is done. We too came to know about the various parts of the Substation

system. The Uttarakhand Cooperation Limited has got radio communication in microwave range in order

to transmit and receive data with various Substations in Uttarakhand to get reliable transmission and

distribution of electricity.

Fig:-9.6 Distribution

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Bibliography and References

1. A.Canelhas,”High Voltage Direct Current”,22 September 2010.[Online].

Available:

http://www.alstom.com/Global/Group/Resources/Documents/Investors%20Documents/Investor%20

events/analysts%presentation/Analyst%20Day%20-%HDVC%20technology.pdf.

2. Wärtsilä Brochure, Power Plants Solutions, 2013

3. eia, U.S. Energy Information Administration -, "Updated Cost Estimates for Utility Scale Electricity

Generating Plants," US Department of Energy, Washington DC, April 2013

4. P. Konstantin, "Engineering Economics," in Power and Energy Systems - Engineering Economics, epubli,

Germany, 2015. [52] M. Milton Gussow, Theory and Problems of Basic Electricity, McGrawHill. [53]

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