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NS 01 (Chemistry for Engineers)

Hand-out No. 1
S.Y 2020-2021

BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY in the universe. If a sample of matter cannot be broken

Chemistry is the study of matter and energy. Matter down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means,
includes all the material things in the universe. For the sample is an element. An element has a definite set of
convenience, chemistry is often divided into the following five properties. But elements can combine in only two
subdisciplines: fundamentally different ways: by physical changes to
1. Organic chemistry - deals with most compounds of form mixtures or by chemical changes to produce
carbon. compounds.
2. Inorganic chemistry - deals with all the elements and  Chemical changes, also called chemical reactions,
with compounds that are not defined as organic. change the composition (or structure) of a
3. Analytical chemistry - involves finding which elements substance. The burning of charcoal (mostly
or compounds are present in a sample or how much of carbon) in air (or in pure oxygen) to get carbon
each is present. dioxide, a colorless gas, is an example of a chemical
4. Physical chemistry - deals with the properties— reaction. Not only has the form of the material but
especially quantitative (measurable) properties—of also its composition changed. The gas has both
substances. carbon and oxygen in it, but the charcoal had no
5. Biochemistry - deals with the chemistry of living things. oxygen and the oxygen had no carbon.
 Physical changes do not alter the composition.
The importance of science in general and of chemistry in The breaking of glass into small pieces is an
particular in our everyday lives can hardly be overstated. example of a physical change. The glass still has the
Consider the beginning of a typical day-perhaps this one-from same composition and the same properties as
a chemical point of view. Molecules align in the liquid crystal before, but its external form is changed.
display of your clock, electrons flow through its circuitry to  A compound is a chemical combination of elements that
create a noise, and you throw off a thermal insulator of has its own set of properties and a definite composition.
manufactured polymer. You jump in the shower to emulsify For example, pure water obtained from any natural source
fatty substances on your skin and hair with treated water and contains 88.8% oxygen and 11.2% hydrogen by mass.
formulated detergents. Breakfast is a bowl of nutrient- Compounds can be separated into their constituent
enriched, spoilage-retarded cereal and milk, a piece of elements only by chemical reaction.
fertilizer-grown, pesticide-treated fruit, and a cup of a hot  Two or more substances—elements, compounds, or both
aqueous solution of neurally stimulating alkaloid. After —can combine physically to produce a mixture. A
brushing your teeth with artificially flavored, dental-hardening mixture can be separated into its components by
agents dispersed in a colloidal abrasive, you're ready to leave. physical means. Mixtures are physical combinations of
However, today’s and tomorrow’s chemists are still faced substances that have properties related to those of their
with monumental tasks—cleaning up the environment and components but that do not have definite compositions.
providing sufficient food for an ever-growing world population They can be either heterogeneous or homogeneous
to mention just two. mixtures.
 In heterogeneous mixtures, two or more different
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER types of matter can be seen to be present with the
Matter is defined as anything that has mass and naked eye or a good optical microscope.
occupies space. All the materials in the world are composed of  Homogeneous mixtures, also called solutions,
a few more than a hundred elements. look alike throughout, even under a microscope.
 Elements are the simplest form of matter and cannot be  Chemical properties are the characteristic ways a
broken down chemically into simpler, stable substances. substance can react to produce other substances. For
They can be thought of as building blocks for everything in example, water can react with very active metals to
the universe. Clearly the number of different combinations produce hydrogen and another compound. That reactivity
of elements must be huge to get all the varieties of matter is a chemical property of water.

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 Physical properties are the ways a substance can be In the United States, troy weight is used to measure
identified without changing its characteristic gold and silver and avoirdupois weight is used for most other
composition. Water can also freeze to ice at 0°C (equal to things. Given that
32°F) or it can evaporate to water vapor, neither of which 1 troy pound=12 troy ounces
changes it from H2O. These are physical properties of 1 avoirdupois pound=16 avoirdupois ounces
water. and that ounces in the two systems are almost the same
 Some properties of a sample of a substance depend on weight, calculate the number of (a) troy ounces in 2.50 troy
the quantity of the sample. These properties are called pounds. (b) the number of avoirdupois ounces in 2.50
extensive properties. For example, the weight of a solid avoirdupois pounds.
sample depends on how much of the substance is present.
 Other properties, such as color and taste, do not depend A factor can be raised to a power if the units to be
on how much is present. These properties are known as converted require that. Remember that when a ratio in
intensive properties. Intensive properties are much parentheses is raised to a power, all the numbers and all the
more useful for identifying substances. units within the parentheses must be raised to that power.

EXAMPLE
MATTER and ENERGY How many square feet (ft2) are in 12.0 square yards (yd2)?
The mass of an object measures how much matter is
in the object. Mass is directly proportional to weight at any A ratio may be changed to an equivalent ratio with
given place in the universe. If we leave the surface of the different units by applying the factor label method.
Earth, our mass remains the same, but our weight changes.
Energy is the capacity to do work. We cannot hold a EXAMPLE
sound or a beam of light in our hands; they are not forms of Change 75 mph to feet per second.
matter but forms of energy.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be The Metric System
converted from one form to another. This statement is known The metric system and its more modern
as the law of conservation of energy. counterpart SI (for Systeme International d’ Unites) are
systems of units designed to make calculations as easy as
EXAMPLE possible.
What desired energy conversion is exhibited by The meter is the primary unit of length in the metric
 use of a flashlight and system. Its abbreviation is m. The meter is defined in such a
 an automobile consuming gasoline? way that it can be duplicated precisely in any well-equipped
laboratory in the world. It had been defined as the distance
between two marks on a metal bar kept at the Bureau of
Measurements Weights and Measures in Paris.
Every measurement results in a number and a unit. A standard is an agreed upon quantity with which
like quantities can be compared. For example, the meter is the
Factor label method, also called dimensional agreed standard of length, to which other lengths can be
analysis, is a method in which a quantity is multiplied by a compared. In the measurement of most quantities, the primary
factor equal or equivalent to 1. The units included in the unit is also the standard. With mass, however, the standard is
factor are the labels. different from the unit. The gram is the primary unit of mass in
To use the factor label method, first put down the given the metric system. The gram, abbreviated g, is such a small
quantity, then multiply by a conversion factor (a rate or mass that the kilogram has been chosen as the legal standard
ratio) that will change the units given to the units desired for of mass in the United States and as the worldwide standard in
the answer. The factor may be a known constant or a value SI. Mass is measured by comparison with standard masses. The
given in the problem. kilogram (kg) is a mass equivalent to about 2.2 pounds (lb).
To summarize the steps of the factor label method: The cubic meter is the primary unit of volume in SI.
1. Put down the quantity given (or, occasionally, a ratio A smaller unit, the liter, is the primary unit of volume in the
to be converted). metric system. The abbreviation for liter is L.
2. Multiply the quantity by one or more factors - rates
or ratios - which will change the units given to those
required for the answer.
To use the factor label method effectively, we must know the
units of all the quantities involved.

EXAMPLE

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 Density is defined as mass per unit volume:
mass
Density=
volume
In symbols,
m
ρ=
V

The dimensions (combination of units) of density

involve a mass unit divided by a volume unit, such as grams
per milliliter (g/mL) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).
Thus, to get the density of an object, we simply divide the
mass of the object by its volume.
The density to remember is the density of liquid
water, about 1.00 g/mL = 1.00

EXAMPLE
Calculate the mass of 41.0 mL of mercury (density = 13.6
g/mL).

Substances expand when heated, and the resulting

change in volume causes some change in density. Within
reasonable temperature ranges, the density of a substance is
relatively constant.
An object will float if its density is less than the
density of the liquid. For example, the density of liquid water
is 1.00 g/mL and that of a particular kind of wood is 0.831
g/mL. The wood will float in water because it has a lower
Length or Distance density.
The primary unit of length in the metric system is
the meter. The same prefixes are used with the meter as with EXAMPLE
all other metric units. A 7.00 cm× 3.00 cm× 2.50 cm rectangular metal bar has a
mass of 593 g. Will the bar float in water or in mercury
Mass (ρ=13.6 g/mL)?
The primary unit of mass in the metric system is the
gram. Because the gram is so small, however, the standard Temperature Scales
mass in SI and the legal standard in the United States is the  Fahrenheit scale, on which the temperature of
kilogram. freezing water is defined as 32°F, and the
temperature of water boiling under normal
Volume conditions is defined as 212°F.
The metric system unit of volume is the liter (L),  Celsius scale, the metric scale for temperature,
originally defined as the volume occupied by a cube exactly which was formerly called the centigrade scale. On
10 cm on each side. In SI, the cubic meter is the standard. the Celsius scale, the temperature of freezing water
Because the cubic meter is a rather large volume, the liter is is defined as 0°C and the temperature of water
favored by chemists. boiling under normal conditions is defined as 100°C.
3 3
1. 00 L=( 10 cm ) =1000 cm =1000 mL  Kelvin scale for measuring temperatures is
important for work with gases and in other
Thus,
3 advanced work. On the Kelvin scale, the temperature
1.00 cm =1.00 mL of freezing water is 273 K, and the temperature of
3
1.000 m =1000 L water boiling under normal conditions is 373 K. The
degree sign (°) is not used with the Kelvin scale, and
EXAMPLE the units are called kelvins rather than degrees.
A unit cell is a small portion of a crystalline solid that, when To convert from degrees Fahrenheit (tF) to degrees Celsius
repeated very many times, builds up an entire sample. A unit (t), or vice versa, we use the following equations:
cell of a certain solid is cubic, with edge length 2.00 ×10−10 5
t= ( t F−32 ° )
m. How many unit cells does it take to occupy 1.00 cm3? 9
Density

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 9
t F = t +32°
5
To convert from degrees Celsius to kelvins (T), we use the
following equation: SAMPLE PROBLEM. Calculating the Mass of an Element in
a Compound
T =t +273 Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound
THE OBSERVATIONS THAT LED TO AN ATOMIC VIEW OF
of uranium. Analysis shows that 84.2 g of pitchblende
MATTER
contains 71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen as the only other
Mass Conservation
element. How many grams of uranium can be obtained from
The most fundamental chemical observation of the
102 kg of pitchblende?
18th century was the law of mass conservation: the total mass
of substances does not change during a chemical reaction.
THE ATOMIC THEORY TODAY
The number of substances may change and, by definition,
Structure of the Atom
their properties must, but the total amount of matter remains
An atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity
constant. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1 794), the great French
composed of a positively charged central nucleus surrounded
chemist and statesman, had first stated this law on the basis of
by one or more negatively charged electrons. The electrons
experiments in which he reacted mercury with oxygen. He
move rapidly within the available atomic volume, held there by
found the mass of oxygen plus the mass of mercury always
the attraction of the nucleus. The nucleus is incredibly dense: it
equaled the mass of mercuric oxide that formed. Mass
contributes 99.97% of the atom's mass but occupies only about
conservation means that, based on all chemical experience,
1 ten-trillionth of its volume. An atom's diameter (~10-10m) is
matter cannot be created or destroyed.
about 10,000 times the diameter of its nucleus (~10-14 m).
An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
Definite Composition
(the only exception is the simplest hydrogen nucleus, which
Another fundamental chemical observation is
is a single proton). The proton (p+) has a positive charge, and
summarized as the law of definite (or constant) composition:
the neutron (n0) has no charge; thus, the positive charge of the
no matter what its source, a particular compound is
nucleus results from its protons. The magnitude of charge
composed of the same elements in the same parts (fractions)
possessed by a proton is equal to that of an electron (e-), but
by mass. The fraction by mass (mass fraction) is that part of
the signs of the charges are opposite. An atom is neutral
the compound's mass contributed by the element. It is
because the number of protons in the nucleus equals the
obtained by dividing the mass of each element by the total
number of electrons surrounding the nucleus.
mass of compound. The percent by mass (mass percent, mass
%) is the fraction by mass expressed as a percentage.
Atomic Number
Consider calcium carbonate, the major compound in marble. It
The atomic number (Z) of an element equals the
is composed of three elements-calcium, carbon, and oxygen-
number of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms. All
and each is present in a fixed fraction (or percent) by mass. The
atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number,
following results are obtained for the elemental mass
and each element has a different atomic number from that of
composition of 20.0 g of calcium carbonate:
any other element. All carbon atoms (Z = 6) have 6 protons, all
oxygen atoms (Z = 8) have 8 protons, and all uranium atoms (Z
= 92) have 92 protons. There are currently 114 known
elements, of which 90 occur in nature; the remaining 24 have
been synthesized by nuclear scientists.

Mass Number
Because a given element always constitutes the same The total number of protons and neutrons in the
mass fraction of a given compound, we can use that mass nucleus of an atom is its mass number (A). Each proton and
fraction to find the actual mass of the element in any sample each neutron contributes one unit to the mass number. Thus,
of the compound: a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus has
a mass number of 1 2, and a uranium atom with 92 protons
and 1 46 neutrons in its nucleus has a mass number of 238. The
mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons, so the
number of neutrons (N) equals the mass number minus the
atomic number:
Or, more simply, mass analysis tells us the parts by
mass, so we can use that directly with any mass unit and skip
the need to find the mass fraction first: Atomic Symbol
The nuclear mass number and charge are often
written with the atomic symbol (or element symbol). Every
element has a symbol based on its English, Latin, or Greek

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name, such as C for carbon, O for oxygen, S for sulfur, and Na
for sodium (Latin natrium).

Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements

All atoms of an element are identical in atomic
number but not in mass number. Isotopes of an element are
atoms that have different numbers of neutrons and therefore
different mass numbers. For example, all carbon atoms (Z = 6)
have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but only 98.89% of naturally
occurring carbon atoms have 6 neutrons in the nucleus (A=12).
A small percentage (1.11%) have 7 neutrons in the nucleus
(A=13), and even fewer (less than 0.0 1 %) have 8 (A=14).
These are carbon's three naturally occurring isotopes – 12C,
13C, and 14C.
A key point is that the chemical properties of an
element are primarily determined by the number of electrons,
so all isotopes of an element have nearly identical chemical
behavior, even though they have different masses.
The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass
of an atomic standard. The modern atomic mass standard is
the carbon-12 atom. Its mass is defined as exactly 12 atomic
mass units. Thus, the atomic mass unit (amu) is 1/12 the mass
of a carbon-12 atom. Based on this standard,1H atom has a
mass of 1 .008 amu; in other words, a 12C atom has almost 12
times the mass of an 1H atom. We will continue to use the term
atomic mass unit, although the name of the unit has been
changed to the dalton (Da); thus, one 12C atom has a mass of
12 daltons (12 Da, or 12 amu). The atomic mass unit, which is
a unit of relative mass, has an absolute mass of 1.66054x10-24
g.

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