BIOLOGY PROJECT

Topic : Stem Cell Technology

Submitted By :

J ABISATHYA

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this is a Bonafide Record of Biology Project

Work done by J ABISATHYA, of Class 12 and Section B2 during the
year 2022-23 in Velammal Vidhyalaya , Anuppanadi , Madurai.

___________________ ___________________

Teacher Incharge Principal

___________________ ___________________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Date:________

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I wholeheartedly thank the Almighty who blessed

me with very supportive people around me.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my

Biology Teacher Mrs. Uma Maheswari for their guidance and
support to complete this project on time after this lockdown.

I would like to extend my gratitude to the Principal sir

Mr. Balamurugan for providing timely support and required
facilities.

I thank our Chairman and Vice-Chairman of Velammal Bodhi

Campus, Anuppanadi, Madurai for providing us ample facilities to
learn many things while doing this investigatory project and to
complete it on time.

Finally, I would like to thank my Elder Brother who helped me

to finalise the topic of this project and my Parents who extended
their helping hands to finish and finalise this project.

3
 TABLE OF CONTENT
S.no TOPIC Page
No.
1 Stem Cells 5

2 Potential Uses Of Stem Cells 6

3 Types Of Stem Cells 6

4 Why Don’t All Cells Reproduce Forever ? 12

5 How Do Stem Cells Help ? 13

6 A Brief History of Stem Cell Research 14

7 How Are Stem Cells Used in Medicine ? 15

8 What Diseases Can Stem Cells Possible Help Treat ? 16

9 How Do Physicians Harvest Stem Cells ? 16

10 How Do Scientists Force Stem Cell Development Along 18

Certain Lines ?

11 What Are the Risks Associated with Stem Cell Therapy ? 18

12 Some Examples Of Stem Cell Research 19

13 Somatic cell nuclear transfer 20

14 Conclusion 23

15 Bibliography 23

4
 Stem Cells :-

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the capacity to both
differentiate and multiply into the 200 cells types that form a
human being. Other cells in the body can only replicate a limited
number of times before they begin to break down. When a stem cell
divides, it can either remain a stem cell or turn into a differentiated
cell, such as a muscle cell or a red blood cell. This means they’re
capable of developing into cells that serve numerous functions in
different parts of the body. In total, the human body is composed of
an estimated 30 trillion cells, making stem cells extremely important
to human development. The use of stem cells to treat human disease
is being investigated within scientific research, as well as thousands
of clinical trials worldwide. Stem cells are also found in plants and
animal.

5
 Potential Uses Of Stem Cells :-

Since stem cells have the ability to turn into various other types of
cells, scientists believe that they can be useful for treating and
understanding diseases. Stem cells can be used to:

 Grow new cells in a laboratory to replace damaged organs or

tissues.
 Correct parts of organs that don’t work properly.
 Research causes of genetic defects in cells.
 Research how diseases occur or why certain cells develop into
cancer cells.
 Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness.

Types Of Stem Cells :-

Embryonic Stem Cells :

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are

pluripotent stem cells derived
from the inner cell mass of a
blastocyst-stage embryo. They can
form any of the more than 200 cell
types present in the human body.
Quickly, embryonic stem cells start
to specialize and lose their ability
to turn into any type of cell.

6
 Adult Stem Cells :

Adult stem cells are present in the human body after birth, during
childhood, and throughout the adult lifespan. They exist in a number
of places, including within the teeth, liver, brain, skeletal muscle, gut,
ovarian epithelium, testis, heart, and a few other places. However,
the most common places from which to harvest those cells today
include the bone marrow, adipose tissue (fat cells), and peripheral
blood.

Types of Adult Stem Cells :

 Hematopoietic Stem Cells (Blood Stem Cells)
 Mesenchymal Stem Cells
 Neural Stem Cells
 Epithelial Stem Cells
 Skin Stem Cells

7
 Totipotent Stem Cells :

Totipotent stem cells are the most versatile stem cell type,
because they are formed shortly after fertilization of an egg cell by a
sperm cell. They can become all of the cells of the human body, as
well as the cells of the embryo and developing fetus.

At about four days into development, these totipotent cells

specialize slightly, becoming pluripotent stem cells.

8
 Pluripotent Stem Cells :

Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to all of the cell types that
form the human body, but are not as versatile as totipotent cells.
These are found only in the earliest stages of embryonic
development.

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are an example of pluripotent stem

cells, as are a type of “lab made” stem cell called an induced
pluripotent stem cell (iPS cell).

Both types of pluripotent stem cells can give rise to nearly all of
the tissues that form the human body.

 Embryonic stem cells : Embryonic stem cells are

controversial, because they are collected from early-stage
embryos. Even though the embryo only consists of 100–200
cells at this stage, this limits their use.
 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (iPS Cell) : iPS cells
are not
controversial,
because they are
made from adult
cells. iPS cells are
differentiated cells
scientists have
coaxed back to an
earlier stage of
pluripotency, which
is the ability to turn
into any cell within

9
 the human body. They are usually created from skin or blood
cells.

Tissue-Specific (Multipotent) Stem Cells :

Adult stem cells are tissue-specific, meaning that they can

become a limited number of cell types. An example of tissue-specific
stem cells includes the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which can
develop into many of the cells associated with the skeletal system,
such as bone cells, cartilage cells, muscle cells, and fat cells. Similarly,
hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) can give rise to a wide range of
blood cells, including white blood cells, platelets, red blood cells and
more. Tissue-specific stem cells are multipotent stem cells, because
they can turn into many different, but not all, types of cells.

10
 Oligopotent Stem Cells :
Oligopotent cells, are similar to the multipotent stem cells, but
they become further restricted in their capacity to differentiate.
While these cells can self-renew and differentiate into only a few
cells , they can only do so to a limited extent. They can only do so
into closely related cell types.

For example , Hematopoietic

stem cell (HSCs) are cells derived
from mesoderm that can
differentiate into other blood cells.
Specifically, HSCs are oligopotent
stem cells that can differentiate
into both myeloid and lymphoid
cells.

Myeloid cells include basophils,

dendritic cells, eosinophils,
erythrocytes, macrophages, megakaryocytes, monocytes,
neutrophils, and platelets, while lymphoid cells include B cells, T
cells, and natural kills cells.

Unipotent Stem Cells :

Unipotent stem cells are the least potent , produce only one cell
type but have the property of self renewal that distinguishes them
from non-stem cells. Examples of a unipotent stem cell are a germ
line stem cell (producing sperm) and an epidermal stem cell
(producing skin).

11
 While muscle stem cells can self-renew and differentiate, they can
only do so into a single cell type. They are unidirectional in their
differentiation capacity.

Why Don’t All Cells Reproduce Forever ?

Some parts of the body do produce more stem cells on their own.
For instance, bone marrow is capable of producing stem cells that
differentiate into various types of blood cells. For that reason, most
people do not need to worry about their blood becoming
compromised over time, except in cases where the cells themselves
are defective (ex. sickle-cell anemia), or cases where the bone
marrow itself suffers damage (ex. leukemia). Normally, though, if you
have blood drawn, or even if you lose a lot of it to injury, you can
make more.

Other parts of the body are not so lucky. Other cell types can
proliferate, but to a limited extent. When damage occurs to the
heart or brain, if it is severe enough, there is usually no saving the
victim.

The same is true for cartilage cells. Degenerative conditions such

as osteoarthritis, in which cartilage in the joints breaks down over
time, eventually result in a painful grinding of bone on bone. In some
cases, surgery or medicine can help , steroid injections may provide
relief. But, few approaches can help the cartilage to grow back.

After a certain number of divisions, the cells can start to have

problems. That’s because the ends of each chromosome start to
unravel. These sites (called telomeres) degrade over time, resulting
in worse and worse copies of your genetic information. These

12
 “senescent cells” just aren’t good anymore. So , cells can’t replace
themselves as effectively. People die.

How Do Stem Cells Help ?

Stem cells solve this problem of finite cell division, as well as the
problem of traumatic injury to parts of the body that cannot repair
themselves.

Unlike regular cells, which have a dedicated role, stem cells can
turn into many types of cell. So, for instance, a muscle cell could
never fill in for a blood cell or heart cell. That’s not what it’s made
for. However, a stem cell could see a need in the body, head to that
location (called “honing”) and become the necessary cell type
through a guided transformation involving chemicals, growth factors
and other complex determinants.

In addition, stem cells are the foundation of development in

complex plants and animals. The embryo, or extremely early life
stage, contains stem cells. As development progresses, these stem
cells turn into the different cell types needed to create a fully
functioning human, cow, or tree. They turn into the tissue-specific
cells discussed above.

Some types of stem cells are only present in the earliest stages of
development, while other types remain throughout the remainder of
fetal development. Still, others remain present in the body
throughout an adult’s lifetime.

13
 A Brief History of Stem Cell Research :

Researchers have known since the early 1900s that some cells had
the ability to generate blood cells in the body. In the late 70s,
scientists discovered stem cells in human umbilical cord blood, and
created the first successful in vitro stem cells. Further includes
successful stem cell lines created from a hamster in 1988, primate
stem cells in 1995, a cloned lamb in 1997, and embryonic stem cell
lines in 1998.

This kicked off a serious disagreement between those who believe

it is wrong to use human embryos for scientific research and those
who think embryos are a critical tool in the development of scientific
research. For years, stem cell research got mired at this impasse,
research put even further behind with George W. Bush’s executive
order banning stem cell experimentation in 2001.

Five years later, according to research reported in The New York

Times, Japanese scientists of Kyoto University discovered a means of
reversing cell development, turning adult cells back into pluripotent
stem cells. By obviating the need to obtain stem cells from embryos,
these researchers revitalized the field.

The first successful stem cell transplant occurred in 1969, using

donor cells from a healthy person to treat severe combined
immunodeficiency in two sibling patients. Since then, stem cell
transplants and stem cell therapy have proven viable in a huge range
of cases.

14
 How Are Stem Cells Used in Medicine ?

Stem cells are used in a variety of ways in medicine. For instance,

when a person has a blood or bone marrow disorder, they may
receive a stem cell transplant. If they have lost the ability to
manufacture their own new marrow or blood cells, then replenishing
their stem cells will renew that function.

Stem cells also offer an opportunity to restore damaged nerves

and heart cells. Formerly, physicians were only able to manage
conditions associated with such damage. That historically meant that
heart disease, Alzheimer’s, brain damage and other catastrophic
conditions were permanent. While the patient might still have years
of life ahead of them, they typically couldn’t expect to regain any lost
function.

However, scientists might have the opportunity to treat such

conditions by injecting stem cells at the site of the problem. Along
with growth factors and other compounds, the stem cells have the
potential to react to their conditions in several different ways. Some
types of stem cell, such as MSCs, can exert therapeutic effects by
reducing inflammation, reducing fibrosis (scarring), and positively
impacting the regulation of the human immune system. Other types
of stem cells, such as iPSCs, may be able to repair tissue by replacing
damaged cells.

It’s also possible that researchers could use stem cells to grow
new organs. In the future, someone who needs a heart transplant
may be able to receive a new, fully grown heart. Scientists haven’t
developed this technology yet, many researchers are exploring the
role of stem cells within these types of tissue engineering

15
 applications. By using a patient’s own stem cells to create it, it would
also eliminate the risk of organ rejection or a dangerous immune
response by the patient.

What Diseases Can Stem Cells Possible

Help Treat ?

These are just a few examples of the types of issues researchers

are working to solve with stem cells. Theoretically, other potential
breakthroughs that stem cells could facilitate in the near (or far)
future include:

 Treating neurological diseases throughout the body and brain

 Replacing organs damaged or lost to disease or traumatic impact
 Responding to autoimmune diseases that attack the body
 Helping people who have trouble manufacturing new cells do so
 Treating degenerative diseases, such as back problems
 Managing all types of arthritis
 Treating cancer patients and replacing diseased areas of the
body

How Do Physicians Harvest Stem Cells ?

Typically, researchers harvest stem cells from peripheral blood,
bone marrow, or fat tissue. Adult stem cells are present in other
parts of the body, but they can be harder to access or require
collection at a certain point in human development (for example,
dental pulp stem cells). However, peripheral blood, bone marrow,
and fat stores are ready sources of stem cells.

16
 Depending on whose stem cells the patient is using, the
harvesting process looks different :

 Using Your Own Stem Cells :

When a patient uses their own cells, those cells get
harvested and isolated using a centrifuge or other device. Sometimes
they get augmented in a lab over time to increase their number,
after which they get injected back into the patient. Researchers refer
to this as an autologous transplant, and essentially means that the
procedure uses the patient’s own cells from start to finish.

 Donor Cells :
An allogeneic transplant, is when a patient receives donor
cells. This may occur because the patient’s cells are too
compromised. For instance, they might have cancer, and using their
own stem cells runs the risk of reintroducing that cancer to the
system they’re trying to save. In that case, healthy donor cells from
someone else are the best.

Donor cells may come from:

 A family member who offers blood, bone or fat samples.

 Banked cord blood, found inside the umbilical cord of a
newborn infant, donated by parents.
 Banked stem cells from anonymous donors

While it is wonderful that people are willing to donate their stem

cells, the chances of a match between two unknown parties are
relatively small.

There is a third option for patients, who store umbilical cord blood
stem cell from their newborn children. Those who banks healthy

17
 stem cells at birth will later have these cells available for use in the
case of disease or injury. If used by the child from whom they were
collected, the cells will be a perfect match and will prevent an
immune response if used later in life.

How Do Scientists Force Stem Cell

Development Along Certain Lines ?

It’s not enough simply to stick some pluripotent stem cells into a
damaged heart, however. Scientists must offer many other tools to
the stem cell to ensure that it is able to differentiate and proliferate
appropriately. These tools include growth factors (the chemicals that
tell stem cells how to grow) and morphogenic factors (chemicals that
instruct stem cells about which types of tissue to become).

Stem cells also need structural support, which is where

“scaffolding materials” come in. These are materials, sometimes
organic and sometimes manufactured in a lab, onto which stem cells
can grow to create new bodily tissues.

What Are the Risks Associated with Stem

Cell Therapy ?

In allogeneic stem cell transplant (one that uses donor cells

instead of the patient’s own cells) , the donor cells may, upon
entering the host body, initiate an immune response against the
host. They attack host cells as though they were a foreign invader in
the donor’s own body. This can cause diarrhea, rash, eye irritation,
and, if it continues long enough, even death.

18
 It’s also possible that the host will reject the transplant as well,
which can also cause sickness and if the transplant doesn’t take,
death.

Infection is always a hazard. While antibiotics usually take care of

the bacterial infections that might develop at the site of incision,
there’s no guarantee that infection won’t develop anyway. Similarly,
it is possible for a patient to die under anesthesia no matter the
procedure, especially if they are older or in delicate health.

One of the biggest risks of stem cell transplant is the potential that
cells may grow uncontrollably. Uncontrolled cells are basically the
definition of cancer, which is a serious problem. Scientists need more
research to determine what will reduce or eliminate these risks to
the greatest degree possible.

Some Examples Of Stem Cell Research

The process of cell differentiation :

A primary goal of research on embryonic stem cells is to learn

how undifferentiated stem cells turn into differentiated stem cells
that form specific tissues and organs. Researchers are also interested
in figuring out how to control this process of differentiation.

Over the years, scientists have developed methods to manipulate

the stem cell process to create a particular cell type. This process is
called directed differentiation. A recent study also discovered the
first steps in how stem cells transform into brain cells and other
types of cells. More research on this topic is ongoing.

19
 Cell-based therapies :

If researchers can find a reliable way to direct the differentiation

of embryonic stem cells, they may be able to use the cells to treat
certain diseases. For example, by directing the embryonic stem cells
to turn into insulin-producing cells, they may be able to transplant
the cells into people with type 1 diabetes.

Other medical conditions that may potentially be treated with

embryonic stem cells include :

 traumatic spinal cord injury

 stroke
 severe burns
 rheumatoid arthritis
 heart disease
 hearing loss
 retinal disease
 Huntington’s disease
 Parkinson’s disease

Using stem cells to test new drugs :

Researchers are also using differentiated stem cells to test the
safety and effectiveness of new medications. Testing drugs on
human stem cells eliminates the need to test them on animals.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), technique in which the

nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred to the cytoplasm of an
enucleated egg (an egg that has had its own nucleus removed). Once
inside the egg, the somatic nucleus is reprogrammed by egg

20
 cytoplasmic factors to become a zygote (fertilized egg) nucleus. The
egg is allowed to develop to the blastocyst stage, at which point a
culture of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can be created from the inner
cell mass of the blastocyst. Mouse, monkey, and human ESCs have
been made using SCNT; human ESCs have potential applications in
both medicine and research.

The most practical application of SCNT is in the reproductive

cloning of farm animals that have exceptional qualities, such as the
ability to produce large quantities of milk. Reproductive cloning is
accomplished by implanting an SCNT-derived blastocyst into the
uterus of a surrogate mother, in which the embryo develops into a
foetus carried to term. Dolly the sheep, born in 1996, was the first
mammal cloned using SCNT. The technique also could be used to
resurrect extinct species; for example, cells collected from a frozen
woolly mammoth could be used as nuclear donors for enucleated
elephant eggs. Proof of principle for such “resurrection” was
provided by an experiment in which mice were cloned using somatic
cell nuclei derived from a mouse that was frozen for more than 15
years.

21
 HSCT activity in India(N=10381) in total 52
different centres
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000 HSCT activity in India(N=10381) in
total 52 different centres
1000
0

Yearwise growth of overall hematopoetic stem cell transplant

activity in India

7000

6000

5000

4000
Allogeneic

3000 Autologous

2000

1000

0
1985-90(17/0) 1991-2000(492/216) 2001-10(7028/1497) 2011-15(7706/2425)

Yearwise growth in autologus and allogenic stem cell

transplant activity in India.

22
 Conclusion
Stem cell research has the potential to have a significant impact
on human health. However, there is some controversy around the
development, usage, and destruction of human embryos. Scientists
may be able to ease these concerns by using a new method that can
turn adult stem cells into pluripotent stem cells, which can change
into any cell type. This would eliminate the need for embryonic stem
cells in research. Such breakthroughs show that much progress has
been made in stem cell research. Despite these advancements,
there’s still a lot more to be done before scientists can create
successful treatments through stem cell therapy.

Bibliography
https://bioinformant.com/do-you-know-the-5-types-of-stem-cells-
by-differentiation-potential/

https://www.healthline.com/health/stem-cell-research

https://bioinformant.com/stem-cells/

https://www.unmc.edu/stemcells/educational-resources/types.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1129084/

23